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 1

UNIT – 1
Introduction to Design
Unit-01/Lecture-01
What is Design?
Design is the strategic (Lateral thinking, Think like a beginner) approach for someone to achieve a
unique expectation. It defines the specifications(Fast, accurate, high-performing,Light, Small,
portable, Easy to use, Safe,Stylish), plans, parameters, costs, activities, processes and how and what to
do within legal (patent agreement,Safety,,Designed protection against reasonable abuse) Codes and
regulations, political, social, Aesthetics (Colour, shape, form, texture, finish,) environmental,
safety(What safety requirements are permission by government Professional society's codes and

m
standards,Need for warning labels Likely degrees of abuse or misunderstanding of operating

o
procedures.) And economic constraints (Economic Environmental Ethical and Legal Health and

.c
Safety Manufacturability Political and Social, language, Sustainability) in achieving that objective.
Or

a
Design is the ability that sparks the ideas into real world. This makes things better for people. design is

m
to create something that has never been Design could be viewed as an activities that translate idea into
reality for something useful whether it is a car, building etc.Design is where customer requirement ,
a
business needs, technical considerations all come together in formulation of product or system

n Or

y
Design is the creation of a plan for the construction of an object or a system ,Designing often necessitates

d
considering the aesthetics, functional, economic and socio-political dimensions of both the design object

u
and design process. It may involve considerable research, thought, modelling, interactive adjustment, and

t
re-design. Meanwhile, diverse kinds of objects may be designed, including clothing, graphical user

S
interface, skyscrapers, corporate, business processes and even methods of designing. The person
designing is called a designer.
Or
Design is achieving goals within constraints that turn concept into something that desirable ,visible,
commercially successful, and add value to people’s lives
Basic requirement of design :
1 Who are the users
2 What are the needs
3 Where do alternatives come from
4 How do you choose alternatives
 2

Difference between Design & Discovery :

Design should not be confused with discovery. Discovery is getting the first sight of, or the first
knowledge of something, as when Columbus discovered America or Jack Kilby made the first
microprocessor. We can discover what has already existed but has not been known before, but a design is
the product of planning and work.

m
o
.c
a
m
a
n
y
d
Misconception about Design : misconcepection about design is fashion or style, while the design is best

u
employed at the end of product development process

t
S
Engineering Design : Engineering design is the decision making process in which the basic science,
mathematics, and engineering science to convert resources optimally to meet a started objective

Or

Engineering design is the systematic, intelligent generation and evaluation of specifications for artefact
(manufactured product) whose form and function achieve stated objectives and satisfy specified
constraints(Restriction, limitation).
Or
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 3

Engineering design is the organized, thoughtful development and testing of characteristics of new objects
that have a particular configuration or perform some desired function that meets our aims without
violating any specified limitations
APPROCHES TO DESIGN :
Some popular approaches include:

1) Keep it Simple Stupid: which strives (struggle) to eliminate unnecessary complications.

2) There is more than one way to do it: a philosophy (thinking) to allow multiple methods of doing
the same thing.
3) Use-centred design: This focuses on the goals and tasks associated with the use of the artefact
(manufactured product), rather than focusing on the end user.
4) User-centered design: This focuses on the needs, wants, and limitations of the end user of the
designed artefact. m
o
5) Critical design: uses designed artefacts (manufactured product) as an alive analysis or explanation

.c
on existing values, morals, and practices in a culture.

a
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The Four C’s of Design

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 4

Creativity
● Requires creation of something that has not exist before or has not existed in the designer’s mind
before
Complexity (complication)
● Requires decisions on many variables and parameters
Choice
● Requires making choices between many possible solutions at all levels, from basic concepts to the
smallest detail of shape
Compromise
● Requires balancing multiple and sometimes contradictory(differ, clashing) requirements

m
o
.c
Keywords :
1) Constraints : Restriction
2) Aesthetics: Concerned with beauty
a
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3) Accessible: Approachable, reachable, easy to understand
4) Artefacts: manufactured products
a
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Unit-01/Lecture-02
 5

IMPORTANCE OF DESIGN
What are the importances of design?

1) DESIGN IN ENGINEERING: "The application of scientific and mathematical principles to

practical ends such as the design, manufacture, and operation of efficient and economical
structures, machines, processes, and systems.
2) DESIGN IN PRODUCTION: A designer does not usually produce the goods/services which
immediately satisfy consumers’ needs. Rather he produces the prototype (sample, model) which
is used as a sample for reproducing the particular goods or services as many times as required. If
customer is satisfied then mass production of goods may be taken up by a production department.
In the course of production an error made by the production in manufacturing an item may be

m
lead to its rejection, but an error in design, which will be repeated in all products, may lead to
economic failure. The designer’s responsibilities are serious.
o
.c
Or

The relationship between design and production is one of planning and carry out. In theory, the

a
plan should anticipate (expect) and compensate (balance, give back) for potential problems in

m
the execution (implementation, finishing) process. Design involves problem-solving

a
and creativity. In contrast (compare), production involves a routine or pre-planned process. In

n
some cases, it may be unnecessary and/or impractical to expect a designer with a

y
broad multidisciplinary knowledge required for such designs to also have a
detailed specialized knowledge of how to produce the product. Design and production are
d
knotted in many creative professional careers, meaning problem-solving is part of execution and
u
t
the reverse. As the cost of rearrangement increases, the need for separating design from

S
production increases as well.

This is not to say that production never involves problem-solving or creativity, nor that
design always involves creativity. Designs are rarely perfect and are sometimes repetitive. The
imperfection of a design may task a production position (e.g. production, construction worker)
with utilizing creativity or problem-solving skills to compensate(pay cost) for what was
overlooked(ignored) in the design process. Likewise, a design may be a simple repetition
(copy) of a known pre-existing solution, requiring minimal (negligible, small, least), if any,
creativity or problem-solving skills from the designer.

3)DESIGN FOR USER: Good design always begin with the needs of user so finding out what
 6

the customer want is the first stage of what designer’s do .the designer then builds on the result
with a mixture of creativity and commercially insight(within reach). Design should be easily
grip by user otherwise dotcom business failed. There are more scientific ways of making sure
that design hit the mark. Different designers use different methods combining market research,
user testing, and prototyping and trend analysis. Any product launch is ultimately a
gamble(risk), but these methods help to decrease the risk of failure, a facts that comes to surprise
the clients

4) DESIGN FOR PUBLIC SERVICES : Design can help public services in a no. of countless
ways ,from making sure products and services that meet the needs of users to increasing

m
innovation within organisation and bringing new view to issues such as Procurement(buy
something goods)
o
.c
a
5) Design FOR Business: Designer have to ask themselves a question such as
a) Is the product they are creating really wanted?
m
a
b) How it is different from everything else on the market?

c) Do it fulfil a need?
n
d) Will it cost too much to manufacture? y
d
u
e) Is it safe?

t
Recent industries development have had to consider the facts that Issue of “

S
what we have to produce” is gaining more importance as compare to “ how to produce it”
Emphasis(stress, importance) on the customer makes design a alarming weapon for any
buisness.putting an stress on design brings creativity into an organisation and increase chance of
producing market leading as the sophistication (cleverness, quality of refinement, wisdom
,displaying good taste) of the consumers and global completion increases ,it becomes more and
more valuable
 7

6) DESIGN IN INDUSTRIES: Industrial design is a process deals with uniting factors as

technology, marketing, sales, recycling, and disposal to create the balance between the
commercial, Immaterial and aesthetic value of product .the word industrial design relates to an
industrial production technology. Industrial design is a creative process which integrates the
physical qualities of a product with aesthetic (Concerned with beauty) considerations. Design
is both the result as end product and the process which creates the result

Keywords

1) Immaterial : unimportant under the circumstances, rather than physical

2) Emphasis : Specially important value

m
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3) Sophistication : quality of refinement, wisdom ,displaying good taste,

.c
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Unit-01/Lecture-03
TYPES OF DESIGN
 8

What are the different types of Engineering design?

Engineering design can be undertaken for many different reasons, and it may take different forms.
1) Original design, also called innovative design: This form of design is at the top of the ladder. It
employs an original, innovative concept to achieve a need. Sometimes, but rarely, the need itself may be
original. A truly original design involves invention. Successful original designs occur rarely, but when
they do occur they usually interrupt existing markets because they have in them the seeds of new
technology Of far-reaching consequences.
Example: The design of the microprocessor was one such original design.

2) Adaptive design: This form of design occurs when the design team adapts a known solution to satisfy a
different need to produce a novel (new, original) application.

m
For example: Adapting the ink-jet printing concept to spray binder to hold particles in place in a Rapid

o
prototyping machine. Adaptive designs involve synthesis and are relatively Common in design.

.c
3) Redesign: Much more frequently, engineering design is employed to improve an existing design. The
a
task may be to redesign a component in a product that is failing in service, or to redesign a component so

m
as to reduce its cost of manufacture. Often redesign is accomplished without any change in the working

a
principle or concept of the original design.

n
For example: the shape may be changed to reduce stress concentration, or a new material substituted to

y
reduce weight or cost. When redesign is achieved by changing some of the design parameters, it is often

d
called variant design.

u
t
4) Selection design: Most designs employ standard components such as bearings, small motors, or pumps

S
that are supplied by vendors concentrate in their manufacture and sale. Therefore, in this case the design
task consists of selecting the components with the needed performance, quality, and cost from the catalogs
of potential vendors.
5) Industrial design: This form of design deals with improving the request of a product to the human
senses, especially its visual appeal. While this type of design is more creative than engineering, it is a vital
phase of many kinds of design. Also include by industrial design is a consideration of how the human user
can best interface with the product.

Original
Adaptive
Design
Design
 9

Redesign

Types of Design
Interface
Selection
Design
Design

Industrial
Product Design
Design

m
o
6) PRODUCT DESIGN :

.c
Product design deals with the conversion of ideas into reality and in other forms of human activities, aims
at fulfilling human needs A designer does not usually produce the goods/services which immediately

a
satisfy consumers needs. Rather he produces the prototype (sample, model) which is used as a sample for

m
reproducing the particular goods or services as many times as required. If customer is satisfied then mass
production of goods may be taken up by a production department. In the course of production an error
a
made by the production in manufacturing an item may be lead to its rejection, but an error in design, which

n
will be repeated in all products, may lead to economic disaster. The designer’s responsibilities are serious.

y
Essential factors of Product Design:

d
i) Need: A design must be in response to individual or social needs, which can be satisfied by

u
technological status of times when the design is to be prepared.

t
Specifications of Customer Needs

S
 Affordable as a birthday present
 Fully assembled
 It is safe
 Looks good
 Last a long time

ii) Physical Reliability: A good design should be convertible into material goods i.e. it may be physical
reliable. Process of making many decisions that converts a theoretical concept into a hardware reality.
 10

Concept Product
iii) Economic Worthiness :The goods or services described by a design must have a utility to the
consumer which equal or exceeds the sum of total costs of making it available for him

m
o
.c
a
m
a
n
y
iv) Financial Feasibility: The operation of designing, producing and distributing the goods must be

d
financially supportable i.e. a design product should be capable for being funded by suitable agencies or

u
people. The method for review of financial feasibility could be “net present value “which state that the

t
present value of cash flows in the project when added up by during the useful life of the product should

S
be greater than initial investment for the project.
v) optimality : The choice of design concept must be most favourable against the under constraints for
mechanical strength , minimum cost , minimum weight, are usually taken up as criterion for optimisation
vi) Design criterion: Which represent the designer’s compromise among possibly conflict (arguement,
clash) value judgement which include those of the consumer, producer and distributor and his own.
vii) Design Process: The iterative nature of design is owing to feedback from existing design and
improvement with further information in the form of technological, financial, and creativity input.
vii) Sub problems: During the process of solution of design problem ,a sub layer of sub problems appears,
the solution of original problem is dependent on the solution of sub problems
vii) Reduction of certainty: Design is derived after processing of information that results in a transition
 11

from uncertainty, about the success or failure of a design towards certainty.

viii) Economic worth of evidence: Information gathering and processing have a cost that must be
balanced by the worth of evidence (proof, verification), which offers the success or failure of design.
Authentic(genuine, real) information should be gathered to make the design
project a success today information is regarded as a resource which is valuable as a money, manpower &
material
ix) Bases for decision : A design project is terminated when it is clear that it failure calls for its discarded
x) Minimum commitment: In the solution of a design problem at any stage of a process commitment
which will fix further decision must be made beyond what is necessary to carry out the immediate solution.
xi) Communication: A design is explanation of an object and instruction for its production. It will exist to
the extent .it is expressed in the available modes of communication .the best way to communicate a design
is through drawings, which is a universal language of designers.
m
o
Example: In the present day CAD (Computer aided design) and DRAFTING has resulted in very

.c
effective communication between designer and sponsor. Communicate the designer’s final solution
through media such as PowerPoint, poster session, technical report, Market the Product, Distribute.

a
7) Interface Design: The goal of interface design is to translate the theoretical functionality conveyed by

m
the product designer and clear how the user actually experience and manager to understand that

a
functionality in the product, on a step by step basis.

n
The interface design is most responsible for making the product as

y
naturally usable as possible so that the highest % of user derive the value promised by it . A good interface

d
designer understand the constraints and opportunity offered by their medium and plays the very concerned

u
role of envision, study how the people of all targeted background will learn how to use the product.

t
8) Visual Design: The goal of visual design is to ensure that the product conveys a sense of quality and

S
obtain the proper emotional response from its users. Visual design is the most aesthetic and subjective
design type, but it's also the most immediately recognizable one. While visual designers take their signal
from product and interface designers, they are responsible for technique and delivering a philosophy for
the product. They spend most of their time making interface elements both attractive and properly toned so
as to support the purpose and value of the product for users, and a good visual designer knows how to
make a product satisfying without making resources that are overly striking. A visual designer spends the
most time on detail, since they sit closest to the user's actual experience. And they deliver high-resolution
images, animations or other user-ready elements that can be incorporated directly into the product.

Unit 01/Lecture 04
 12

Engineering Design Process

Explain Engineering Design Process
The engineering design process is a series of steps that engineers follow when they are trying to solve a
problem and design a solution for something; it is a logical approach to problem solving. There is no single
universally accepted design process. It seems as though most engineers have their own twist for how the
process works. The process generally starts with a problem and ends with a solution, but the middle steps
can vary.
Or
A design process is a systematic problem-solving strategy, with criteria and constraints, used to develop
many possible solutions to solve or satisfy human needs or wants and to narrow down the possible
solutions to one final choice.
or
m
o
Design process is a collection of procedures and habits that help teams design better products

.c
Designing is the process of making many decisions that converts an abstract concept into a hardware

a
reality
• The design process is a purposeful method of planning practical solutions to problems.
•
m
The design process is never final; there are always multiple solutions to a problem.
•
a
The design process is influenced by requirements called criteria and constraints.

n
y
USING THE ENGINEERING DESIGN PROCESS:

d
As discussed above, there is no single engineering design process. Throughout this course we will
use an 11-step design process as they conceptualize, design, and create

u
t
Step 1 – UNDERSTAND – Define the Problem

S
Step 2 – EXPLORE – Do Background Research

Step 3 – DEFINE – Determine Solution Specifications

Step 4 – IDEATE – Generate Concept Solutions

Step 5 – PROTOTYPE – Learn How Your Concepts Work

Step 6 – CHOOSE – Determine a Final Concept

Step 7 – REFINE – Do Detailed Design

Step 8 – PRESENT – Get Feedback & Approval

Step 9 – IMPLEMENT – Implement the Detailed Solution

 13

Step 10 – TEST – Does the Solution Work?

Step 11 – ITERATE

m
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a
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d
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STEP 1: UNDERSTAND

In this step engineers will define the problem they are trying to solve. This is the single most
important step in the design process. Without fully understanding the problem how can an engineer
solve it successfully? This step is frequently done incorrectly or incompletely and results in a failure
of the design. It is important to define the true problem one is solving Defining the problem is like
conducting detective work. You must examine the evidence and form some conclusions
 14

Identifies requirements design must satisfy for success

1. Marketing requirements
 Customer needs
2. Engineering requirements
 Applies to technical aspects
 Performance requirements

Receive a problem to solve from customer, gather information.

m
o
.c
a
m
a
n
Example:
y
d
1) Design a vehicle that can communicate with other vehicles to prevent accidents.

u
2) Design an athletic shoe that decreases the amount of sprained ankles when worn on hardwood gym

t
floors ,milege,safety devices for kit

S
STEP 2: EXPLORE

In this step engineers will do background research on the problem their solving. They will investigate the
ways others have attempt similar problems. Engineers will also gather details on the environment they’re
dealing with, the situations their solution will be used in, and the ways it will be used. Research may
require going to the library, using computer databases, writing letters, performing experiments, and asking
questions

Conduct interviews with those affected by the problem.

 15

• What information has been published about the problem?

• Is there a solution to the problem that already may be available?
• Research solutions that may already exist; identify shortcomings and reasons why they aren’t
appropriate to a given situation.
• If the answer to the above is yes, who is producing it?
• What are the advantages of their solution?
• What are the disadvantages to their solution?
• Compile ideas and report findings to the team.
• What is the cost?
• Is cost significant issue?
• What is the ratio of time compared to overall cost?
• Are there legal issues to consider?
m
• Are there environmental concerns which must be considered?
o
Examples:
.c
 Read books and magazines
 View films or videos
a
 Search the Internet m
 Ask questions of the “experts” a
 Create and analyze a survey n
 Libraries y
d
 Professional Society

u
 Journal, publications and newsletter

t
 Newspapers and magazines

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 Market assessment surveys
 Government publications
 Patent searches and listings
 Technical salespersons and their references catalogs
 Professional experts including researchers, professors and other scientists
 The competition’s product (how they designed it? Disassemble their product and study it

STEP 3: DEFINE

In this step engineers will specify WHAT the solution will accomplish, without describing HOW it will do
it. They do this through the use of specifications.
 16

What are specifications?

A specification is defined as a clear set of requirements to be satisfied by a material, product, or service.
In this case, specifications are requirements for the solution of the problem defined in Step 1 of the design
process.
Specifications typically come from two places:
1. Design Constraints
2. Functional Requirements

What are constraints?

A constraint can be defined as a condition that a solution to a problem must satisfy. Constraints, in short,
are restrictions.

What are functional requirements?

m
o
Functional requirements describe how well the finished solution must perform.

.c
Again, specifications outline WHAT the solution will do and how WELL it will do it, not HOW it will do

a
it.
• Identify what the solution should do and the degree to which the solution will be chase.
•
m
Identify constraints (i.e., budget and time are typical considerations).
• Draft the Design Brief
a
n
STEP 4: IDEATE:
y
d
Develop multiple ideas that will solve the problem and meet the requirements. The alternatives may all be
quite different
u
Criteria:
t
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 How will the solution actually work?
 What materials should I use?
 What should the product look like so that people will buy it?

Constraints:

 Will it be completed by the deadline?

 What size should it be?
 17

m
o
.c
Ideate means to plan, imagine, or envision of an idea. Now that the engineer knows WHAT the solution
will do; he or she must determine HOW it will do it. Everyone does the same thing when faced with a
a
problem or a decision to make: they think of alternative courses of action, even if they do this unthinking.

m
Formally documenting this sensitive action may help when solving complex engineering problems.

a
n
y
d
u
This is a step that requires some creativity. Some of the questions most commonly asked of engineers are,

t
“How did you come up with that?” and “Where do you get your ideas?” Ideas come from

S
everywhere! Inspiration can come from anywhere!

The keywords here are: “imagination” and “think.” This is where the designer needs to brainstorm
multiple ways to fulfill the specifications. It is important to remember to look for inspiration everywhere.
A common mantra is, “steal from the best, then invent the rest.” Good designers will look in the world
around them and try to find solutions to adapt to their problem and build off . Innovation is also important
early in the design process (don’t wait to innovate, always put innovation first); there is a good balance
to be found between “thinking outside the box” and “using pre-made designs.”

Often combining two ideas or compromising between two different suggestions may yield a good concept.
Again, improvements and innovations early in the process will yield better results later in the process.
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 18

Brainstorming – Group Creativity Technique, Brainstorming involves bringing a group of people together
to generate many different ideas, All ideas are considered – none are criticize!

• A group problem-solving process in which each person in the group presents ideas in an open
forum.
• Generate and record ideas.
• Keep the mind alert through rapidly paced sessions.
• Develop preliminary ideas.

This stage in the engineering design process requires great creativity and the generation of a number of
options for the problem’s solution. To accomplish this, one must use an engineering tool known as
BRAINSTORMING. Brainstorming is an exercise in which groups of individuals work together to
generate large numbers of ideas. m
o
.c
a
m
a
n
y
d
u
t
S
Some important rules for brainstorming:

1. When brainstorming, teams focus on the quantity of ideas generated, not the quality. The premise is
that from lots of ideas will come a few great ones!

2. Reserve judgment. There are no bad ideas during the brainstorming session, because even the most
outlandish concept could inspire someone else to come up with something great. Crazy ideas may also be
improved and developed during the collaborative process and become feasible ideas.

3. Record everything. Student designers should document all the ideas generated during brainstorming in
 19

their engineering notebooks.

STEP 5: PROTOTYPE:

Model building is used to gather additional information and test design ideas. In this stage of the process
engineers takes some of their concepts from the previous step and make mock-up versions of them. The
goal of this stage is to learn how each concept solution will function in “real life” and how it interacts with
the real environment. This is also where a designer will start to determine which design concept will work
the best. These prototypes are designed to be crude, but functional enough to be educational to the
designer. The keyword here is “LEARN.” Designers don’t need to prototype everything, just the things
they want to work!

m
o
.c
a
m
a
n
y
Examples:
d
u
t
Realistic drawings or renderings help you visualize what the solution will look like in real life.

S
Scale models or mock-ups are small, accurate representations of the final product.

3D CAD (computer aided designs) can show objects in action.

A prototype is a working model; it looks and functions just like the finished product

STEP 6: CHOOSE:

Decide on an idea that best meets the criteria, fits within the constraints, and has the least amount of
negative characteristics; List the strengths and weaknesses of each alternative.
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 20

Optimization – Making improvements to the design idea for better performance or increased safety

Trade-off – Giving up one desirable quality for another (i.e., giving up on using a certain material so that
the object is more affordable)

m
o
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a
m
a
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At this point in the process the designer or design group has several different potential solutions for the
problem. This step is where the designers will use the lessons learned from their prototyping to determine
which concept is best and go forward with it. This is not always an easy decision. Sometimes the “right”
solution just exposes itself. Other times it is difficult to even define “best.” Teams can compare how each
concept fulfills the specifications from step three in the process and see if one is significantly better than
the others. Designers should look for the simple and elegant (graceful, neat) solution.

When choosing concepts as a design group, it is appealing to rely on a vote. However, a vote is nothing but
 21

an unjustified opinion, and an unjustified opinion isn’t worth much in an engineering discussion. When it
comes to design decisions it is better to talk through things and make a logical decision by building
agreement. As discussed previously, it is important to be as quantitative as possible; one shouldn’t just say
something is “better”.

In some cases the decision-making is not made by the whole design group, but by a smaller leadership
group or even by a single leader. In this situation the leadership is responsible for impartially comparing
each of the alternatives and then choosing the course of action. This method does not always work well,
especially if the rest of the design group does not recognize the authority of the leadership and questions
the final decision.

m
•
o
Review brainstormed information and answer any lingering questions.

.c
• Narrow ideas down through a voting process, or by use of a decision matrix.
• Decide on final idea, usually through group agreement

STEP 7: REFINE:
a
m
a
After studying all test data and evaluating design solutions, you may need to make changes.

n
Now is the time to improve a design – before production begins.

y
During the improve design phase, you may consider new ideas.

d
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S

This is the stage of the design process where engineers take their chosen concept and make it into
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 22

something more “real.” This stage is all about the details. At the end of this stage design teams should
have everything necessary so that the full design can be constructed or implemented. Some of the pieces
that may be generated during this step are CAD Models, Assembly Drawings, Manufacturing Plans,
Bill of Materials, Maintenance Guides, User Manuals, Design Presentations, Proposals and more.

• Explore the idea in greater detail with understand sketches.

• Make critical decisions such as material types and manufacturing methods.
• Generate through computer models detailed sketches to further refine the idea.
• Produce working drawings so the idea can be built.
• Make design changes; modify or rebuild the prototype.
• Make refinements until accuracy and repeatability of the prototype’s performance results are

m
consistent.
•
o
Update documentation to reflect changes.

.c
STEP 8: PRESENT

a
The detailed design must often go through some sort of design review or approval process before it can be

m
implemented. A design review can come in many forms. Some reviews occur as a simple conversation
between two of the designers. Some reviews are done as a meeting of the Design Group where they recap
a
and check the work that has been completed and try to find any errors.

n
y
Common questions from a Design Review:


d
Why was it done this way?

u
Did you think of doing it a different way?

t
Why did you rule out other alternatives?



S
Does it fulfil our requirements and specs?
How can we make it function better?
 How can we make it weight less?
 How can we make it faster?
 How can we make it more robust (Tough, strong)?
 How can we make it smaller?
 How can we make it simpler?
 How can we make it more efficient?
 How can we make this cheaper?
 How can we make this easier to construct?
 23

Cost-Benefit Analysis

When reviewing a design it is sometimes important to perform a cost-benefit analysis. When

performing this kind of analysis, a designer will look at an aspect of the design to see two things:
what it costs, and how much benefit it provides. “Cost” does not always refer to money. A feature’s
cost refers to the resources that must be diverted to it; these could be time, personnel, money,

m
STEP 9: IMPLEMENT

o
Once the design has been completed and approved, it needs to be implemented. Depending on the nature

.c
of the problem being solved, the solutions to the problem could vary wildly. Depending on the type of

a
solution, the implementation could also vary. The implementation could consist of using a new process
that was designed, or it could consist of following a manufacturing plan and producing some physical

m
object. For instance, in the example of the elevator riddle discussed previously, there are a number of

a
solutions proposed and these solutions all took different forms.

n
y
If an engineer is trying to solve how to tie shoes faster, they are designing a process for tying shoes. Their
implementation would be to tell people about their new shoe-tying procedure. If an engineer is trying to
d
design a better shoe, their implementation would the manufacture and sale of the new shoes.
u
Implementations can take many forms.
t
S
STEP 10: TEST:

Models of design solutions must be tested and important questions must be answered during the
evaluation. In this stage engineers will test their implemented solution to see how well it works. The
implementation must be reviewed to see what worked, what didn’t, and what should be improved.
The testing procedures and results should be well documented. The main thing that should be determined
during this stage in the process is whether or not the final implementation performs as expected and fulfills
the specifications.

So what happens if the design is not found to be acceptable? The design group must find a way to make it
acceptable! The design group needs to come up with a plan of improvement to get the solution up to
 24

execute (complete, finish). Their plan may include starting over and going back to the drawing board to
create a new plan entirely.

• Design experiments and test the prototype in controlled and working environments.
• Gather performance data; analyze and check results against established criteria.
• Conduct a formal evaluation to flesh out areas of concerns, identify shortcomings, and establish
any need for redesign work
• Is it safe for people and the environment?
• Is it comfortable?
• Is it affordable?
• Is it aesthetically pleasing (does it look good)?
•
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Will it last as long as it needs to?
•
o
Does it meet the criteria and constraints?
•

.c
Does it work?

a
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STEP 11: ITERATE

There were several mentions steps during the design process of repeating certain steps multiple times until
an acceptable result is achieved. This act of repetition is known as “iteration.” This iteration results in a
better end result and is one of the most important parts of design; this is why it is said that design is an
iterative process! One important thing designers should note is that iteration does not just take place at the
end of the process, it will happen during EVERY stage in the process..

The greater the number of iterations a design goes through, the better the final result will be, so why would
a designer ever stop iterating? At first each repeat will result in large improvements to the design, but the
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 25

longer the process goes on, the fewer problems there will be to fix and the smaller the improvements. This
is known as the law of diminishing returns. Improvements to the design will get smaller with each
successive improvement. Eventually a designer may decide that the next improvement is too small to be
worth the effort, and the design is good enough. Some designers take longer to call a design”finished” than
others because they strive for perfection. Unfortunately, in the real world it is not always possible to
achieve perfection. In the real world, if an engineering contractor misses a deadline, they may not get
another chance, and they may have trouble finding other contracting jobs!

Unit-01/Lecture 05
Simplified Iteration model
What is simplified iteration model? m
o
ITERATION: There were several mentions steps during the design process and repeating certain steps

.c
multiple times until an acceptable result is achieved. This act of repetition is known as “iteration.” This

a
iteration results in a better end result and is one of the most important parts of design; this is why it is said
that design is an iterative process. One important thing designers should note is that iteration does not just

m
take place at the end of the process, it will happen during every stage in the process.

a
The design process is NOT a linear thing; it is common to jump from step to step.

n
Sometimes a design team may jump back and forth between steps one and two several times before ever

y
moving onto step three. Design teams should NOT be afraid of going backward in the process. At any

d
step in the process, a design team may find themselves skipping backwards to any other step. The ultimate

u
goal is to create the best design possible by improving it over and over again. Repeat parts of the process

t
to improve the final result.

S The greater the number of iterations a design goes through, the better the final result
will be, so why would a designer ever stop iterating? At first each repeat will result in large improvements
to the design, but the longer the process goes on, the fewer problems there will be to fix and the smaller the
improvements. This is known as the law of diminishing returns. Improvements to the design will get
smaller with each successive improvement. Eventually a designer may decide that the next improvement
is too small to be worth the effort, and the design is good enough.
Some designers take longer to call a design”finished” than others because they strive
(Struggle) for perfection. Unfortunately, in the real world it is not always possible to achieve perfection.

General
Information
 26

Design Outcome
Operation

No yes

EvaluationNext step

Feedback loop

When to use iterative model:

 When the project is big.
 Major requirements must be defined; however, some details can evolve (Change) with time.
 Requirements of the complete system are clearly defined and understood. m
o
Need of Iteration: .c
a
Determining the need to iterate is important to improve the design process on cost, time, and

m
quality, but currently there is no categorization of iterations conducive (helpful, favorable,

a
beneficial) to this goal. After exploring the possible causes and attempts to address them, we

n
propose to classify iterations as rework, design, or behavioral. This framework suggests that

y
design teams should try to eliminate rework iterations, perform design iterations without skipping

d
abstraction (Idea, concept, thought) levels, and do behavioral iterations in parallel.

u Or

t
S
Iteration model: The basic idea behind this method is to develop a system through repeated cycles
(iterative) and in smaller portions at a time (incremental), to take advantage of what was learned during
development of earlier parts or versions of the system. Learning comes from both the development and
use of the system, where possible key steps in the process start with a simple implementation of a subset
and iteratively enhance the evolving versions until the full system is implemented. At each iteration design
modifications are made and new functional capabilities are added.

The procedure itself consists of the initialization step, the iteration step, and
the Project Control List. The initialization step creates a base version of the system. The goal for this initial
implementation is to create a product to which the user can react. It should offer a sampling of the key
aspects of the problem and provide a solution that is simple enough to understand and implement easily. To
 27

guide the iteration process, a project control list is created that contains a record of all tasks that need to be
performed. It includes such items as new features to be implemented and areas of redesign of the existing
solution. The control list is constantly being revised as a result of the analysis phase

The iteration involves the redesign and implementation of iteration is to be

simple, straightforward, and modular, supporting redesign at that stage or as a task added to the project
control list. The level of design detail is not dictated by the iterative approach. In a light-weight iterative
project the code may represent the major source of documentation of the system; however, in a critical
iterative project a formal Document may be used. The analysis of iteration is based upon user feedback,
and the program analysis facilities available. It involves analysis of the structure, modularity, usability,
reliability, efficiency, & achievement of goals. The project control list is modified in light of the analysis

m
results.

o
Incremental development slices the system functionality into increments (portions). In

.c
each increment, a slice of functionality is delivered through cross-discipline work, from the requirements
to the deployment. The Unified Process groups increments/iterations into phases: inception, elaboration,
construction, and transition.
a
m
Each of the phases may be divided into 1 or more iterations, which are usually time-boxed rather than
feature-boxed. Architects and analysts work one iteration ahead of developers and testers to keep their
work-product backlog full. a
n
y
d
u
t
S
Simplified Iteration model:
An iterative life cycle model does not attempt to start with a full specification of requirements. Instead,
development begins by specifying and implementing just part of the software, which is then reviewed in
order to identify further requirements. This process is then repeated, producing a new version of the
software at the end of each iteration of the model.
Iterative Model design
Iterative process starts with a simple implementation of a subset of the software requirements and
iteratively enhances the evolving versions until the full system is implemented. At each iteration, design
 28

modifications are made and new functional capabilities are added. The basic idea behind this method is to
develop a system through repeated cycles (iterative) and in smaller portions at a time (incremental).

Iterative and Incremental development is a combination of both iterative design or iterative method and
incremental build model for development. "During design, more than one iteration of the development
m
cycle may be in progress at the same time." and "This process may be described as an "evolutionary
acquisition" or "incremental build" approach." o
.c
In incremental model the whole requirement is divided into various builds. During each iteration, the

a
development module goes through the requirements, design, implementation and testing phases. Each
subsequent release of the module adds function to the previous release. The process continues till the
m
complete system is ready as per the requirement. The key to successful use of an iterative development

a
lifecycle is rigorous validation of requirements, and verification & testing of each version of the software

n
against those requirements within each cycle of the model. As the design evolves through successive

y
cycles, tests have to be repeated and extended to verify each version of the design.

d
Advantages of Iterative model:

u
In iterative model we can only create a high-level design of the application before we actually

t
begin to build the product and define the design solution for the entire product. Later on we can

S
design and built a skeleton version of that, and then evolved the design based on what had been
built.
 In iterative model we are building and improving the product step by step. Hence we can track the
defects at early stages. This avoids the downward flow of the defects.
 In iterative model we can get the reliable user feedback. When presenting sketches and blueprints
of the product to users for their feedback, we are effectively asking them to imagine how the
product will work.
 In iterative model less time is spent on documenting and more time is given for designing.
Disadvantages of Iterative model:
 Each phase of an iteration is rigid (severe, strict) with no overlaps
 29

entire lifecycle
Unit 01/ lecture-6
Various ways to think about design like visualization, photography
What is visualization?
The word is problematic, and there have been very few definitions that try to define this field we are
working in. More importantly: what is not visualization? It is easy to argue that anything visual is
visualization in some way – but does that mean anything? Here is a definition of visualization and a few
examples to illustrate the different criteria
The following are three minimal criteria that any visualization has to fulfil to be considered pragmatic
(practical, realistic, sensible) visualization. A good visualization certainly has to do more, but these

m
criteria are useful to draw the line between a lot of things that are often called visualization and what we

o
consider visualization in this field.

.c
 Based on (non-visual) data: visualization’s purpose is the communication of data. That means

a
that the data must come from something that is abstract or at least not immediately visible (like the
inside of the human body). These rules out photography and image processing. Visualization
transforms from the invisible to the visible.
m

a
Produce an image: It may seem obvious that visualization has to produce an image, but that is not

n
always so clear. Also, the visual must be the primary means of communication; other modalities

y
can only provide additional information. If the image is only a small part of the process, it is not
visualization.
d
u
t
The result must be readable and recognizable (identifiable). The most important criteria are that the

S
visualization must provide a way to learn something about the data. Any transformation of non-trivial data
into an image will leave out information, but there must be at least some relevant aspects of the data that
can be read. The visualization must also be recognizable as one and not pretend to be something else
Classifications of visualization are often based on technical criteria, and leave out artistic ways of
visualizing information. Understanding the differences between information visualization and other forms
of visual communication provides important insights into the way the field works, though, and also shows
the path to new approaches. We propose a classification of several types of information visualization based
on aesthetic criteria. The notions of artistic and pragmatic visualization are introduced, and their properties
discussed. Finally, the idea of visualization criticism is proposed, and its rules are laid out. Visualization
criticism bridges the gap between design, art, and technical/pragmatic information visualization. It guides
the view away from implementation details and single mouse clicks to the meaning of visualization. A
 30

good part of the confusion about visualization comes from the fact that there is no clear or generally
accepted definition of visualization. Such a definition would clearly vary between fields, but at least within
one field (like computer science, design, illustration, etc.), it needs to be consistent. Also, by understanding
the differences between definitions in different fields, we can identify elements that help in building the
bridge between them. These are not just the similarities though, but also the differences that require
investigation.

Examples for visualization are: architectural visualization, terrain(land,ground,territory) visualization,

3D medical/volume visualization, 2D or 3D flow visualization, flow topology visualization, presentation
graphics, abstract data visualization, information dashboards, music visualization, photomontage or

m
collage, traffic signs, traffic signals, sign language, icons, visualizing oneself in a different job/situation,
visualization of concepts, drawing fractals, etc.
o
.c
These are clearly very different types of visual communication, and many of them are not generally

a
considered visualization; others are, but only by specific groups. Why is that? And how can we

m
differentiate between them in a way that is not adhoc( unplanned, informal)? We consider the following

a
criteria to be a minimal set of requirements for any visualization. The remainder of this discussion will

n
concentrate on information visualization, but these criteria apply equally to scientific visualization. It is

y
based on (non-visual) data. The data to be visualized must come from outside the program, and the

d
program must be able (at least in principle) to work on different data sets. Also, visualization is not image

u
processing or photography; if the source data is an image and is used as an image in the result, it is not

t
being visualized. It produces an image. Clearly, each visualization has the goal of producing one or more

S
images from the data, and the visual must be the primary means of communicating the data. Other media
can be part of visualization, but the visualization must be able to stand on its own.

The result is readable and recognizable. There are many ways to transform
data into images, most of which do not allow the viewer to understand the underlying data. Visualization
must produce images that are readable by a viewer, even if that requires training and practice.
Visualization images must also be recognizable as such, and not appear to be something else. The use of
additional elements (or even “eye candy”) is certainly possible, but must not take precedence (priority,
preference) over the communication goals of the visualization. Visualizations also have other properties
like interaction, visual efficiency, etc. And while these are certainly important, the above criteria appear to
be sufficient to precisely define information visualization the way it is generally used in its technical sense.
 31

Pragmatic Visualization
Pragmatic visualization is what we term the technical application of visualization techniques to analyze
data. The goal of pragmatic visualization is to explore (investigate, discover, look at, survey), analyze, or
present information in a way that allows the user to thoroughly understand the data. Card et al. describe
this process as knowledge crystallization, and the recent initiatives in visual analytics have used the
slogan “Detecting the Expected, Discovering the Unexpected” .Visual efficiency is of course a key
criterion for work in visualization. The goal is to produce images that convey the data as quickly and

m
effortlessly as possible. User studies are conducted to measure the speed and accuracy of users, and to
compare different methods and tasks
o
Artistic (creative, imaginative) Visualization: .c
a
The goal of artistic visualization is usually to communicate a concern (worry, fear unease), rather than to

m
show data. The data is used as the basis, the raw material. It also provides a proof that the concern in

a
question is, in fact, real. This is perhaps why artists call this visualization: the underlying problem may not

n
be visible, but is made visible through the piece. Visual efficiency does not play a role in artistic

y
visualization, quite the contrary. The goal is not to enable (allow) the user to read the data, but to

d
understand the basic concern. In many ways, this step is the opposite of pragmatic visualization: rather

u
than making the data easily readable, it is transformed into something that is visible and interesting, but

t
that must still be readily understood. In other words, artistic visualization has a sublime quality that

S
pragmatic visualization does not have. Data collection is often an integral part of a visualization art piece.
The fact that the data exists at all can be used to create awareness, and data flowing in real time can make
the piece “live”.

Unit -01/Lecture 08
 32

DESIGN VERSUS SCIENTIFIC METHOD

The Scientific Method – What is it?

The Scientific Method is a process used to validate observations while minimizing observer bias
(partiality).Its goal is for research to be conducted in a fair, unbiased (impartial) and repeatable manner.

The Scientific Method – What it’s Not.

The Scientific Method is a process for explaining the world we see. It is:
• Not a formula
• Not Magic

There are many scientific disciplines that address topics from medicine and astrophysics to agriculture and

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zoology. In each discipline, modern scientists use a process called the "Scientific Method" to advance their

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knowledge and understanding. This methods describes the scientists use to conduct research, describe and

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explain nature, ultimately trying prove or disprove theories. Scientists all over the world conduct research
using the Scientific Method
The scientific research
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efforts, analyses, and subsequent (

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following,successive,later) information distributed by Cooperative department are driven by careful

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review and combination of significant scientific research

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DEFINITIONS:

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It is important to understand three important terms before describing the Scientific Method.

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a) Hypothesis – This is a statement made by a researcher that is a working assumption to be tested

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and proven. It is something "considered true for the purpose of investigation"
Example: “The earth is round.”
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b) Theory – general principles drawn from facts that explain observations and can be used to predict
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Example: Newton’s theory of gravitation or Einstein’s theory of relativity.
c) Falsifiable/ Null Hypothesis – To prove to be false, The hypothesis that is generated must be
able to be tested, and either accepted or rejected. Scientists make hypotheses that they want to
disprove in order that they may prove the working assumption describing the observed phenomena.
This is done by declaring the statement or hypothesis as falsifiable. So, we would state the above
hypothesis as “the earth is not round,” or “the earth is square” making it a working statement to be
disproved.

2 Process
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The Scientific Method is not a formula, but rather a process with a number of sequential steps designed to
create an explainable outcome that increases our knowledge base. This process is as follows:

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STEP 1. Make an OBSERVATION - gather and understand information about an event, phenomenon,

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process, or an exception to a previous observation, etc.
STEP 2. Define the PROBLEM – ask questions about the observation that is relevant (significant,

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important) and testable. Define the null hypothesis to provide fair results.

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STEP 3: Form the HYPOTHESIS – create an explanation, for the observation that is testable and
falsifiable.
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STEP 4: Conduct the EXPERIMENT – set up and perform an experiment to test the hypothesis.

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STEP 5: Derive a THEORY – create a statement based in the outcome of the experiment that explains the

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observation and predicts the likelihood of future observations.

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What do we need to consider when using the Scientific Method?

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The Scientific Method requires that we ask questions and perform experiments to prove or disprove
questions in ways that will lead to unbiased (impartial, balanced) answers. Experiments must be well
designed to provide accurate and repeatable (precise) results. If we test hypotheses correctly, then we can
prove the cause of a phenomenon and determine the likelihood (probability) of the events to happen
again. This provides predictive power. The Scientific Method enables us to test a hypothesis and
distinguish between the correlation of two or more things happening in association with each other and the
actual cause of the phenomenon we observe.
In summary, the Scientific Method produces answers to questions posed in the form
of a working hypothesis that enables us to derive theories about what we observe in the world around us.
Its power lies in its ability to be repeated, providing unbiased answers to questions to derive theories. This
information is powerful and offers opportunity to predict future events and phenomena.

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A Comparison of the Scientific Method and the Design Process:

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Most projects will be experimental in nature using the scientific method and will fall into the experimental
category. However, if the objective of your project is to invent a new device, procedure, then your project
may fall into the design category.
Scientific Method Design Process
Identify and write a testable question Define a need or real world problem
Perform background research Perform background research
Formulate a hypothesis and identify variables Establish design criteria
Design an experiment, establish procedure Prepare preliminary(beginning,
introduction), design
Test the hypothesis by conducting the experiment Build and test a prototype
Analyze the results and draw a conclusion Test and redesign as necessary
Present results Present results m
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1. IDENTIFY AND WRITE A TESTABLE
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1. DEFINE A NEED

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QUESTION

Decide what question you want to answer or what Instead of stating a question, state a need.
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Problem you want to solve. A testable hypothesis is Can you describe in detail a problem that

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answered through observations or experiments that Your design will solve? Does your research

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provide evidence. Be sure to have adequate technical Relate to a real world need?

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and financial resources available to Conduct our

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research. State your objective clearly in writing.

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2. PERFORM BACKGROUND
2. PERFORM BACKGROUND RESEARCH RESEARCH

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Before you begin your project, you must become as
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For a design project, the background research
Knowledgeable as you can about your topic and about may include:
other research that has been done on that topic. You A complete description of your target
may use books, scientific literature, the Internet, or User
interviews with scientists or other knowledgeable
Information about the science behind your
people. This research not only helps you get ready to
design area
conduct your experiment
Answers to research questions about user
needs
Information about products that meet
similar needs
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Research about design criteria

What existing solutions are out there already,
and how well do they solve the problem?

You may use books, scientific literature, the

Internet, or interviews with scientists or other
Knowledgeable people. This research not
only helps you get ready to conduct your
experiment

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3. FORMULATE A HYPOTHESIS AND
3. ESTABLISH DESIGN CRITERIA
IDENTIFY VARIABLES

Based on the background research, write a statement

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Engineering Projects: Decide what features

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that predicts the outcome of the experiment. Many
Our design must have, for example: size,
hypotheses are stated in an “If... then” statement where
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the “If” statement pertains to the independent variable,
weight, cost, performance, power, etc. Perhaps

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include a table showing how each
and the “then” statement pertains to the dependent

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Design criterion will be addressed by the
variable. For example: ‘If plants are grown under

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features of the product being designed.
various colors of light, then the plants grown under the

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blue and red lights will show the greatest increase in
Biomass.’
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4. DESIGN AN EXPERIMENT, ESTABLISH A
PROCEDURE 4. PREPARE A PRELIMINARY DESIGN

Decide what data you need to meet your research

Engineering projects should have a materials
objective and how you will collect it. Be sure to
list, programming and mathematical projects
consider possible hazards (danger) in your
Do not need a materials list. Projects should
experimental approach and decide how you can
include a block diagram, flowchart or sketch
conduct your research safely. In addition, there are
of the design that shows all of the parts or
special rules concerning the use of human and non-
Subsystems of the design. Describe how all
human error in your research. Be sure to consult these
Of the parts of the design will work together.
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rules before finalizing your experimental design.

In order to obtain valid experimental results,
consider the following items when designing the
experiment:
Make sure the quantity and quality of data you
Collect provides a reasonable assurance that your
research objectives will be met.
Identify all significant variables that could affect
your results.
To the best of your ability, control any significant
variables not manipulated in your experiment.
Include a control or comparison group in your
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experimental design.
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Be sure to establish deadlines for completing the

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Different phases of your research. These phases
might include building equipment, collecting data,
analyzing the results, writing the report and
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Construction your display board.
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5. BUILD AND TEST A PROTOTYPE
5. CONDUCT THE EXPERIMENT

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Follow your experimental design to collect data and
(Programs, algorithms, and mathematical

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models may be considered prototypes) When
make observations. Be sure to keep a log as you

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conduct the experiment to record your data, any
others are conducting their experiment,

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problems you encounter, how you addressed them, and
how these problems might have affected your data.
investigators doing an engineering, computer
programming, or mathematics project should
be constructing and testing a prototype of their
This log will be used when you write your report.
best design.
Keep these points in mind when conducting your
For example: you may involve targeted users
experiment:
in your testing to get feedback on your
If you get results that seem wrong or inconsistent, do
design; or some projects may analyze data
not just throw them out. Try to figure out what
Sets.
happened. Maybe the data is correct and your
hypothesis is imperfect. Try to explain these “outliers”
in your Data, Analysis, and Discussion section.
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Don’t get discouraged when you encounter problems.

Scientists regularly have to repeat experiments to get
good, reproducible results. Sometimes you can learn
more from a failure than you can from a success.

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6. REDESIGN AND RETEST

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6. ANALIZE THE RESULTS AND DRAW
CONCLUSIONS
Evidence that changes in design were made
Make sufficient calculations, comparisons and/or
ato better meet the performance criteria

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graphs to ensure the reliability and repeatability of Established at the beginning of the project.

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Your experiment. In what way does this analysis prove Test results may be included in tables, if
or disprove your hypothesis. What conclusion can you Applicable. Data analysis/validation may
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Also be a part of this step.

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7. REPORT THE RESULTS u
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Your report should provide all the information

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Your report should provide all the information necessary for someone who is unfamiliar with
necessary for someone who is unfamiliar with your your project to understand what you were
Project to understand what you were trying to carry trying to accomplish, how you did it, and
out, how you did it, and whether you succeeded. It whether you succeeded. The report should not
should be detailed enough to allow Someone else to only talk about your successful design
duplicate your experiment exactly. Be sure to include attempts, but also the problems you
charts and graphs to summarize your data. The report encountered and how you solved them. Be
should not only talk about your successful sure to explain what new knowledge has been
experimental attempts, but also the problems you gained and how it leads to further questions.
encountered and how you solved Them. Be sure to
explain what new knowledge has been gained and how
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it leads to further questions.

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Unit-01/Lecture 10
PROBLEM SOLVING METHODOLOGY

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Problem solving methodology:

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Introduction:
Designing can be approached as a problem to be solved. A problem-solving methodology that is useful in
design consists of the following steps.
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● Definition of the problem
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● Gathering of information
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● Generation of alternative solutions

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● Evaluation of alternatives and decision making

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● Communication of the results

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EXAMPLE: it is a mental process in psychology and a computerized process in science. It consists of

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using generic methods, in an orderly manner, for finding solutions to problems. Some of the problem-
solving techniques developed and used in artificial intelligence, computer science, engineering,
mathematics, medicine, etc. are related to mental problem-solving techniques studied in psychology
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Design is a methodology for systematically creating solutions to information problems. As applied in this
study design the methodology comprises four stages: analysis, design, development and evaluation.
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1) Analysis involves: y
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Determining the solution requirements.

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i) What information does the solution have to provide?

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ii) What data is needed to produce the information?
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iii) What functions does the solution have to provide?
iv) These requirements can be classified as being functional, namely what the solution is
required to do, and non-functional
v) Which describes the quality the solution should possess, such as user-friendliness,
reliability, portability, robustness, maintainability?
vi) Tools to assist in determining the solution requirements include context diagrams, data
flow diagrams and use cases.
b) Identifying the constraints on the solution.
i) What conditions need to be considered when designing a solution?
ii) Typical constraints include cost, speed of processing, requirements of users, legal
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requirements, security, and compatibility, level of expertise, capacity, and availability of

equipment.
c) Determining the scope of the solution.
i) What can the solution do?
ii) What can't the solution do?
iii) What are the benefits of the solution to the user?
iv) The scope states the boundaries or parameters of the solution. Benefits can be stated in
terms of their efficiency and effectiveness.

Analysis typically answers the 'what questions' - what will solve a problem, given particular
circumstances? What benefits will the solution bring to the user?

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a) Planning how the solution will function:
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The solution design typically involves identifying what specific data is required and how

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the data will be named, structured, validated and manipulated.
ii)
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Typical design tools for this purpose include data dictionaries and data structure diagrams,

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flowcharts, pseudo code, object descriptions.

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iii)
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Solution design also involves, where suitable, showing how the various components of a

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solution relate to one another, for example web pages, style sheets, scripts; queries, forms,

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reports; modules, procedures, functions.
iv)
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relationship diagrams, data flow diagrams, structure charts, ladder charts, context diagrams,
use cases.
v) This typically involves identifying the position of text, images and graphics, font sizes,
colours and text enhancements. Design tools used for this purpose include layout diagrams,
annotated diagrams/mocks up.

b) Determining the evaluation criteria.

i) What measures will be used to judge whether or not the solution requirements have been
met? These criteria should relate to the solution requirements identified in the analysis
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stage.

3) Development involves:
a) Manipulating: data to 'build' or create the solution following initial designs. Where suitable,
internal documentation is also written, which documents the functioning of the solution.
b) Validation: to check for the reasonableness of data being input. Validation can be both manual and
electronic. Proof reading is a manual technique and it occurs when data is entered directly into the
solution and remains fixed.When the validation process has been built into the solution (electronic
technique), then its effectiveness is determined through the testing activity.
c) Testing: whether the solution does what it was intended to do. This activity typically involves:

 establishing what tests will be conducted

 determining what test data, if any, will be used m
 determining expected results
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 conducting the test

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 recording the actual results
 Correcting any identified errors.

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d) Writing documentation to support the use of the solution.

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4) Evaluation involves:

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i) Determining a strategy: for finding out the amount to which the solution meets the required
needs. Typically this would include specifying a timeline, outlining what data will be collected
and by what methods and techniques, and how the data relates to the criteria, which were
developed in the designing stage.
ii) Reporting: on the amount to which the solution meets the requirements of the user. It usually takes
place after the solution has been used by the user/client and is based on the criteria developed in
the designing stage.

The following techniques are usually called problem-solving strategies

a) Abstraction: solving the problem in a model of the system before applying it to the real system
b) Analogy: using a solution that solves an analogous problem
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c) Brainstorming: (especially among groups of people) suggesting a large number of solutions or

ideas and combining and developing them until an optimum solution is found
d) Divide and conquer: breaking down a large, complex problem into smaller, solvable problems
e) Hypothesis testing: assuming a possible explanation to the problem and trying to prove (or, in
some contexts, disprove) the assumption
f) Lateral thinking: approaching solutions indirectly and creatively
g) Means-ends analysis: choosing an action at each step to move closer to the goal
h) Method of focal objects: manufacture apparently non-matching characteristics of different objects
into something new
i) Morphological analysis: calculate the output and interactions of an entire system
j) Proof: try to prove that the problem cannot be solved. The point where the proof fails will be the
starting point for solving it
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k) Reduction: transforming the problem into another problem for which solutions exist

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l) Research: employing existing ideas or adapting existing solutions to similar problems
m) Root cause analysis: identifying the cause of a problem

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n) Trial-and-error: testing possible solutions until the right one is found

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UNIT – 2

CONSIDERATIONS OF A GOOD DESIGN

Unit-02/Lecture-01

Objectives of Design Considerations: Design may strive (struggle) to include:

 Throughout rate
 Process yield (Surrender, give up)
 Product purity

Constraints of Design considerations: In every design attempt, there will be limitations or

constraints or some form of hindrance (obstruction) some projects may be constrained by physical
space or budget. Some limited by the choice of materials or colours. And most with a time constraint.

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To draft your Design Considerations and Constraints, you may begin with asking the following

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question out loud in our mind:

‘To what must I consider? a

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‘To what are some of the constraints? The constraints are....'

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 Capital cost
 Available space
 Safety concerns
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 Environmental impact and projected effluents and emissions
 Waste production

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Operating and maintenance costs

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Other factors that designers may include are:
 Reliability
 Redundancy (unemployment, dismissal)
 Flexibility

Consideration of good design:

Design is an adaptable process. To gain a broader understanding of engineering design, we group
various considerations of good design into three categories
(1) achievement of performance requirements
(2) life-cycle issues
(3) social and regulatory issues
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Careful planning of development activities can greatly reduce the time and effort you spend developing
a Product. The design considerations phase is where we make a list of factors that need to be
considered in broad terms. The type and number of factors we have a unique for each project. That
means everyone will have their own set of design considerations specific to their design brief. A good
set of design considerations accurately addresses the unique areas of concerns of your proposal as
written in your design brief.

The design considerations and constraints will sound like, "If we want to find what are the areas we
must consider and what are the areas of constraints (or limitations)".
suggest you include a healthy list of

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i) Performance requirements :

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It is clear that to be realistic the design must demonstrate the required performance.

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Performance measures both the function and the behavior of the design, that is, how well the device
does what it is designed to do. Performance requirements can be divided into primary performance

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requirements and complementary performance requirements. A major element of a design is its

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function. The function of a design is how it is expected to behave.

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Example: Consider an ordinary ball bearing. It consists of an outer ring, inner ring, 10 or more balls

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depending on size, and a retainer to keep the balls from rubbing together. A ball bearing is often called
a component, even though it consists of a number of parts. Closely related to the function of a
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component in a design is its form. Form is what the component looks like, and covers its shape, size,

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and surface finish. These, in turn, depend upon the material it is made from and the manufacturing

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processes that are used to make it. A variety of analysis techniques must be employed in arriving at the
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features of a component in the design. By feature we mean specific physical characteristic, such as the
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fine details of geometry, dimensions, and tolerances on the dimensions. 9 Typical geometrical features
would be fillets, holes, walls, and ribs.
The computer has had a major impact in this area by providing powerful analytical tools based on
finite- element analysis. Calculations of stress, temperature, and other field-dependent variables can be
made rather handily for complex geometry and loading conditions. When these analytical methods are
coupled with interactive computer graphics, we have the exciting capability known as computer-aided
engineering (CAE).Note that with this improved capability for analysis comes greater responsibility for
providing better understanding of product performance at early stages of the design process.
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Functional Performance Requirements: They address capacity measures such as forces, strength,
energy, material flows, power, deflection, and efficiency of design, its accuracy, sensitivity etc.

Complementary Performance requirements: They are concerned with the useful life of design, its
robustness (toughness, strength) to factors in the service environment, its reliability, and ease,
economy, and safety of maintenance. Issues such as built-in safety features, noise level in operation, all
legal requirements, and design codes must be considered

PERFORMANCE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT

REQUIREMENT REQUIREMENT REQUIREMENT

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DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS

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ASTHETHICS MANUFACTURING COST
REQUIREMENT TECHNOLOGY

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ii) Physical Requirements: These pertain to such issues as size, weight, shape, and surface finish.

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iii) Environmental Requirements: There are two separate features. The first concerns the service
conditions under which the product must operate. The extremes of temperature, humidity, corrosive
conditions, dirt, vibration, noise, etc., must be predicted and allowed for in the design. The second
feature of environmental requirements pertains to how the product will behave with regard to
maintaining a safe and clean environment, i.e., green design. Among these issues is the disposal of the
product when it reaches its useful life
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iv) Aesthetic Requirements: Aesthetic requirements refer to “the sense of the beautiful.” They are
concerned with how the product is perceived by a customer because of its shape, color, surface texture,
and also such factors as balance, unity, and interest. This aspect of design usually is the responsibility
of the industrial designer, as opposed to the engineering designer. The industrial designer is an applied
artist. Decisions about the appearance of the product should be an integral part of the initial design
concept. An important design consideration is adequate attention to human factors engineering, which
uses the sciences of biomechanics, ergonomics, and engineering psychology to assure that the design
can be operated efficiently by humans. It applies physiological and anthropometric data to such design
features as visual and auditory display of instruments and control systems. It is also concerned with
human muscle power and response times. The industrial designer often is responsible for considering
the human factors.

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v) Manufacturing Technology: This must be intimately (familiarly) connected with product design.

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There may be restrictions on the manufacturing processes that can be used, because of either selection
of material or availability of equipment within the company.

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vi) Cost: The final major design requirement is cost. Every design has requirements of an economic
nature. These include such issues as product development cost, initial product cost, life cycle product
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cost, tooling cost, and return on investment. In many cases cost is the most important design

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requirement. If preliminary estimates of product cost look unfavorable, the design project may never be

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initiated. Cost enters into every aspect of the design process.

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Unit-02/Lecture-02
TOTAL LIFE CYCLE
TOTAL LIFE CYCLE:
INTRODUCTION: The total life cycle of a part starts with the conception of a need and ends with the
retirement and disposal of the product. Material selection is a key element in shaping the total life
cycle .In selecting materials for a given application; the first step is evaluation of the service conditions.
Next, the properties of materials that relate most directly to the service requirements Must be
determined. Except in almost trivial (unimportant, insignificant) conditions, there is never a simple
Relation between service performance and material properties. The design may start with the
consideration of static yield strength, but properties that are more difficult to evaluate, such as fatigue,
creep, toughness, ductility, and corrosion resistance may have To be considered. We need to know
whether the material is stable under the environmental Conditions. Does the microstructure change with
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temperature and therefore change The properties? Does the material corrode slowly or wear at an

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unacceptable rate? Material selection cannot be separated from manufacturability There is a close

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connection between design and material selection and the manufacturing Processes.

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OBJECTIVE: The main objective in this area is a trade-off between the opposing factors Of minimum

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cost and maximum durability. Durability is the amount of use one Gets from a product before it is no

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longer useable. Current societal issues of energy conservation, material conservation, and protection of

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the environment result in new pressures in the selection of materials and manufacturing processes.

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Energy costs, once nearly ignored in design, are now among the most prominent design considerations.

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Design for materials recycling also is becoming an important consideration. The life cycle of

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production and consumption that is characteristic of all products is demonstrate by the materials cycle

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Example: This starts with the mining of mineral or the drilling for oil or the harvesting of an
agricultural fiber such as cotton. These raw materials must be processed to extract or refine a bulk
material (e.g., an aluminum ingot) that is further processed into a finished engineering material (e.g.,
an aluminum sheet). At this stage an engineer designs a product that is manufactured from the material,
and the part is put into service. Eventually the part wears out or becomes obsolete because a better
product comes on the market. At this stage, one option is to junk the part and dispose of it in some way
that eventually returns the material to the earth. However, society is becoming increasingly concerned
with the depletion of natural resources and the haphazard disposal of solid materials. Thus, we look for
economical ways to recycle waste materials (e.g., aluminum beverage cans).
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A new product progresses through a sequence of stages from introduction to growth, maturity
(development), and decline (Turn down). This sequence is known as the Total life cycle and is
associated with changes in the marketing situation, thus impacting the marketing strategy.

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1) Introduction Stage
The goal of any new product is to meet consumers' needs with a quality product at the lowest possible
cost in order to return the highest level of profit. This stage of the cycle could be the most expensive for
a company launching a new product. The size of the market for the product is small, which means sales
are low, although they will be increasing. On the other hand, the cost of things like research and
development, consumer testing, and the MARKETING needed to launch the product can be very high,
especially if it’s a competitive sector.

a) Product: Branding, Quality level and intellectual (logical) property and protections are
obtained to stimulate (motivate) consumers for the entire product category. Product is under
more consideration, as first impression is the last impression.
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Pricing: may be low penetration pricing to build market share rapidly, or high skim (fly, glide)
pricing to recover development costs. o
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Distribution: is selective until consumers show acceptance of the product.
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Promotion: At introductory stage, promotion is done with intention to build brand awareness.
Samples/trials are provided that is fruitful in attracting early adopters and potential customers.
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Promotional programs are more essential in this phase. It is as much important as to produce the

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product because it positions the product.

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2) Growth Stage
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The growth stage is typically characterized by a strong growth in sales and profits, and because the

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company can start to benefit from economies of scale in production, the profit margins, as well as the

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overall amount of profit, will increase. This makes it possible for businesses to invest more money in

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the promotional activity to maximize the potential of this growth stage.

a) Product: quality is maintained and additional features and support services may be added.
b) Pricing: Price is maintained or may increase as company gets high demand at low competition
or it may be reduced to grasp more customers
c) Distribution: Distribution becomes more significant with the increase demand and
acceptability of product. More channels are added for intensive distribution in order to meet
increasing demand. On the other hand resellers start getting interested in the product, so trade
discounts are also minimum.
d) Promotion: At growth stage, promotion is increased. When acceptability of product increases,
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more efforts are made for brand preference and loyalty.

3)Maturity Stage

During the maturity stage, the product is established and the aim for the manufacturer is now to
maintain the market share they have built up. This is probably the most competitive time for most
products and businesses need to invest wisely in any marketing they undertake. They also need to
consider any product modifications or improvements to the production process which might give them
a competitive advantage.

At maturity, the strong growth in sales reduces. Competition may appear with similar products. The
primary objective at this point is to defend market share while maximizing profit.

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Product: At maturity stage, companies add features and modify the product in order to compete

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in MARKET and differentiate the product from competition. At this stage, it is best way to get

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dominance over competitors and increase market share.
b) Pricing: Because of intense competition, at maturity stage, price is reduced in order to compete.

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It attracts the price conscious (alert, aware) segment and retain (maintain, save) the
customers
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c) Distribution: becomes more intensive (serious) and incentive (reason) may be offered to

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encourage preference over competing products.

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d) Promotion: emphasize (call attention to) product differentiation.

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4) Decline Stage: Decline in sales, change in trends and an unfavourable economic condition explain

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decline stage. At this stage market becomes saturated so sales declines. It may also be due technical

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obsolescence or customer taste has been changed.

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Eventually, the market for a product will start to shrink, and this is what’s known as the decline stage.
This shrinkage could be due to the market becoming saturated (i.e. all the customers who will buy
the product have already purchased it), or because the consumers are switching to a different type of
product. While this decline may be inevitable (Predictable), it may still be possible for companies to
make some profit by switching to less-expensive production methods and cheaper markets Maintain the
product; possibly refresh it by adding new features and finding new uses.
a) Harvest the product - reduce costs and continue to offer it, possibly to a loyal function segment.
b) Discontinue the product; settle remaining inventory or selling it to another firm that is willing to
continue the product.
 9

For example: The goal of managing a product's life cycle is to maximize its value and profitability at
each stage & the product may be changed if it is being re-energized, or left unchanged if it is being
harvested or liquidated. The price may be maintained if the product is harvested, or reduced drastically

m
o
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a
m
a
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d
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t
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Limitations of Product Life Cycle :
Product life cycle is disapproved of that it has no experimental support and it is not fruitful in special
cases. Different products have different properties so their life cycles also vary. It shows that product
life cycle is not best tool to predict the sales. Sometimes managerial decisions affect the life of products
in this case Product Life Cycle is not playing any role. Product life cycle is very fruitful for larger
firms and corporations but it is not hundred percent accurate tools to predict the life cycle and sales of
products in all the situations
 10

Unit-02/Lecture-03
REGULATORY AND SOCIAL ISSUES IN INDIAN CONTEXT

Regulatory and social issues in Indian context: Regulation refers to “controlling human or societal
behaviour by rules or regulations or alternatively a rule or order issued by an executive authority or
regulatory agency of a government and having the force of law”. Regulation covers all activities of
private or public behaviour that may be detrimental (harmful) to societal or governmental interest but
its scope varies across countries. It can be operationally defined as “taxes and subsidies of all sorts as
well as explicit legislative and administrative controls over rates, entry, and other facets of economic
activity”Engineering is not only applying scientific laws and principles to technical problems. It is
focused on improving the lot of society, and as such, it brings engineers into the mainstream of
business and industry.
The following are examples of where a design engineer might be concerned with
legal and ethical issues:
m
o
 Preparing a contract to secure the services of a product records management firm.

.c
 Reviewing a contract to determine whether a contractor who built an automated

a
Production facility has satisfactorily fulfilled the terms of a contract.
 Deciding whether it is legal and ethical to reverse engineer a product.

m
 Managing a design project to avoid the possibility of a product liability (legal responsibility)
suit.
a
n
 Protecting the intellectual (logical, thinker) property created as part of a new product
development Activity.
y
d
 Deciding whether to take a job with a direct competitor that is bidding on a contract in the area

u
where you are now working.

t
S
The law is a formalized code of conduct describing what society feels is the proper way to behave. In
other words, laws reflect what society values. As society evolves, its attitude toward behavior changes,
and the laws change as well. Also, the evolution of technology creates new ethical issues

Specifications and standards have an important pressure on design practice. The standards produced by
such societies as ASTM and ASME represent controlled agreement among many elements (users and
producers) of industry. As such, they frequently represent minimum standards. When good design
requires more than that, it may be necessary to develop your own company or agency standards. On the
other hand, because of the general nature of most standards, a standard sometimes requires a producer
to meet a requirement that is not essential to the particular function of the design. The codes of ethics of
 11

all professional engineering societies require the engineer.To protect public health and safety.
Increasingly, legislation has been passed to require federal agencies to regulate many aspects of safety
and health. The requirements of the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA), the
Consumer Product Safety Commission (CPSC), the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and
the Department of Homeland Security (DHS) place direct constraints on the designer in the interests
of protecting health, safety, and security. Several aspects of the CPSC regulations have far-reaching
pressure on product design. Although the proposed purpose of a product normally is quite clear, the
unplanned uses of that product are not always clear. Under the CPSC regulations, the designer has the
compulsion to predict as many accidental uses as possible, then develop the design in such a way as to
prevent hazardous use of the product in an unintentional but predictable manner. When unplanned use
cannot be prevented by functional design, clear, complete, clear-cut warnings must be permanently
attached to the product. In addition, the designer must be aware of all advertising material, owner’s

m
manuals, and operating instructions that relate to the product to ensure that the contents of the material

o
are reliable with safe operating measures and do not promise performance characteristics that are

.c
beyond the capability of the design. An important design consideration is enough attention to human
factors engineering, which uses the sciences of biomechanics, ergonomics, and engineering psychology

a
to assure that the design can be operated efficiently and safely by humans. It applies physiological and

m
anthropometric data to such design features as visual and auditory display of instruments and control
systems. It is also concerned with human muscle power and response times.
a While we have frequently talked about design being

n
a creative process, the fact is that much Of design is not very different from what has been done in the

y
past. There are noticeable benefits in cost and time saved if the best practices are captured and made
available for all to use.
d
u
Designing with codes and standards has two chief aspects:

t
(1) it makes the best practice available to everyone, thereby ensuring efficiency and safety, and

S
(2) It promotes interchangeability and compatibility.

A code is a collection of laws and rules that assists a government agency in meeting its compulsion to
protect the general welfare by preventing damage to property or injury or loss of life to persons. A
standard is a generally agreed-upon set of procedures, criteria, dimensions, materials, or parts.
Engineering standards may describe the dimensions and sizes of small parts like screws and bearings,
the minimum properties of materials, or an agreed-upon procedure to measure a property like fracture
toughness. The terms standards and specifications are sometimes used interchangeably. The distinction
is that standards refer to generalized situations, while specifications refer to specialized situations.
Codes tell the engineer what to do and when and under what circumstances to do it. Codes usually are
 12

legal requirements, as in the building code or the fire code. Standards tell the engineer how to do it and
are usually regarded as suggestion that do not have the force of law. Codes regularly incorporate
national standards into them by reference, and in this way standards become legally enforceable.
There are two broad forms of codes: performance codes and prescriptive codes.
Performance codes: are stated in terms of the specific requirement that is expected to be achieved. The
method to achieve the result is not specified.
Prescriptive or specification codes: state the requirements in terms of specific details and leave no
diplomacy to the designer. A form of code is government regulations. These are issued by agencies
(federal or state) to spell out the details for the implementation of softly written laws.
EXAMPLE: OSHA regulations developed by the U.S. Department of Labor to implement the
Occupational Safety and Health Act (OSHA).
Design standards fall into three categories: performance, test methods, and codes of practice. There

m
are published performance standards for many products such as seat belts, lumber, and auto crash

o
safety. Test method standards set forth methods for measuring properties such as yield strength, thermal

.c
conductivity, or electrical resistivity. Most of these are developed for and published by the American
Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). Another important set of testing standards for products

a
are developed by the Underwriters Laboratories (UL). Codes of practice give detailed design

m
methods for repetitive technical problems such as the design of piping, heat exchangers, and pressure
vessels. Many of these are developed by the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME
a
Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code), the American Nuclear Society, and the Society of Automotive

n
Engineers. Standards are often prepared by individual companies for their own proprietary use. They

y
address such things as dimensions, tolerances, forms, manufacturing processes, and finishes. In-house

d
standards are often used by the company purchasing department,when outsourcing. The next level of

u
standard preparation involves groups of companies in the same industry arriving at industry consensus

t
standards. Often these are sponsored through an industry trade association, such as the American

S
Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) or the Door and Hardware Institute. Industry standards of this
type are usually submitted to the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) for a formal review
process, approval, and publication. A similar function is played by the International Organization for
Standardization (ISO) in Geneva, Switzerland. Another important set of standards are government
(federal, state, and local) specification standards. Because the government is such a large purchaser of
goods and services, it is important for the engineer to have access to these standards. Engineers
working in high-tech defense areas must be conversant with MIL standards and handbooks of the
Department of Defense.

We start by making a distinction between morality and professional ethics.

 13

Morality refers to those standards of conduct that apply to all individuals within society rather
Than only to members of a special group. These are the standards that every rational person wants
every other person to follow and include standards such as the following:

 Respect the rights of others.

 Show fairness in your dealings with others.
 Be honest in all actions.
 Keep promises and contracts.
 Consider the welfare of others.
 Show compassion to others.

m
o
Note that each of these standards of conduct is based on the italicized values.

.c
Professional ethics: we mean those standards of conduct that every member of a profession expects

a
every other member to follow. These ethical standards apply to members of that group simply because

m
they are members of that professional group. Like morality, standards of ethical conduct are value-
based. Some values that are pertinent to professional ethics include:
 Honesty and truth a
n
 Honor —showing respect, integrity, and reputation for achievement

y
 Knowledge —gained through education and experience

d
 Efficiency —producing effectively with minimum of unnecessary effort

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 Diligence(carefulness) —persistent(constant) effort

t
 Loyalty —allegiance(commitment, faithfulness) to employer’s goals

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 Confidentiality —dependable in safeguarding information
 Protecting public safety and health
 1

Unit-03/Lecture-01
Description of Design Process
Description of Design Process :
Morris Asimow was along with the first to give a detailed explanation of the complete design
process in what he called the morphology of design. It is defined by the phases and their
constituent steps. Design is succession from the abstract to the concrete. The various activities
that make up the first three phases of design: conceptual design, embodiment design, and
detail design & the remaining four phases belong to production, distribution, consumption &
retirement.

PRIMITIVE NEED

m
PHASE-1 o
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CONCEPTUAL DESIGN

PHASE-2 a
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EMBODIMENT DESIGN

a
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PHASE-3
DETAILED DESIGN

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d PHASE-4
PLANNING FOR
u PRODUCTION

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S PHASE-5
PLANNING FOR
DISTRIBUTION

PHASE-6
PLANNING FOR
CONSUMPTION

PHASE-7
PLANNING FOR
RETIREMENT
 2

Phase-1 : Conceptual Design/ Feasibility study

Conceptual design is the process by which the design is initiated, carried to the point of creating
a number of possible solutions, and narrowed down to a single best concept. It is sometimes
called the feasibility study. A design begins with a feasibility study; the purpose is to achieve
useful solutions to the design problem. Sometimes a design group is assigned a project for which
a design concept has been fixed. Conceptual design is the phase that requires the greatest
creativity, involves the most uncertainty, and requires coordination among many functions in the
business organization. The following are the discrete activities that we consider under conceptual
design

Gather Define Concept Evaluation

Information Problem Generation Of concepts

m
o
Internet Problem Brainstorming Pugh concept
Patents statement Functional Selection

.c
Trade Benchmarking Decomposition Decision
Literature QFD Morphological Matrices

a
PDS Chart
Project planning

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a
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CONCEPTUAL DESIGN
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a) Identification of customer needs: The goal of this activity is to completely understand

u
the customers’ needs and to communicate them to the design team. Engineers and

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business people are seeking answers to such questions as:

S
Who are my customers?
What does the customer want?
How can the product satisfy
The customer while generating a profit?
Information gathered from customers and research on products from market literature and
experimentation contributes to creating a ranked listing of customer needs and wants. These are
the needs that form the end user’s opinion about the quality of a product. As odd as it may seem,
customers may not express all their requirements of a product when they are interviewed. If a
feature has become standard on a product (e.g., a remote control on a TV) it is still a need but
no longer excites the end users, and they may forget to mention it. To understand how that can
 3

happen and how the omissions can be mitigated, it is necessary to reflect on how customers
distinguish “needs.”
Physiological needs: such as thirst, hunger, sleep, shelter, and exercise. These constitute the
basic needs of the body, and until they are satisfied, they remain the prime influence on the
individual’s behavior.
Safety and security needs: which include protection against danger, deprivation (lack), and
threat (hazard)? When the bodily needs are satisfied, the safety and security needs become
dominant.
Social needs: for love and esteem (appreciate) by others. These needs include belonging to
groups, group identity, and social acceptance.
b) Problem definition: The goal of this activity is to create a statement that describes.
What has to be accomplished to satisfy the needs of the customer? This involves analysis

m
of competitive products, the establishment of target specifications, and the listing of

o
constraints and trade-offs. Quality function deployment (QFD) is a valuable tool for

.c
linking customer needs with design requirements. A detailed listing of the product

a
requirements is called a product design specification (PDS). Problem definition, in its
full scope

m
c) Gathering information: The need for information can be crucial at many steps in a

a
design project. We will need to find these bits of information quickly, and validate them
as to their reliability
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y
i) Data, information, knowledge: Data is a set of discrete, objective facts about events. These

d
data may be experimental observations about the testing of a new product, or data on sales that

u
are part Of a marketing study.

t
Information is data that has been treated in some way that it conveys a message. Information is

S
meant to change the way the receiver of the message perceives something, i.e., to have an impact
on his or her judgment and behavior. The word informs originally meant “to give shape to.”
Data becomes information when its creator adds meaning. This can be done in the following
ways.
Contextualized: we know for what purpose the data was gathered.
Categorized: we know the units of analysis or key components of the data.
Calculated: the data have been analyzed mathematically or statistically.
Corrected: errors have been removed from the data.
Condensed: the data have been summarized in a more concise form.
Knowledge is broader, deeper, and richer than data or information. Because of this it is harder to
define. It is a mix of experience, values, contextual information, and expert insight that provides
 4

a framework for evaluating and incorporating new experiences and information. This
transformation occurs through the following processes:
Comparison: how does this situation compare to other situations we have known?
Consequence: what implications does the information have for decisions and
Actions?
Connections: how does this bit of knowledge relate to others?
Conversation: what do other people think about this information?
.
d) Conceptualization: Concept generation involves creating a broad set of concepts that
potentially satisfy the problem statement. Team-based creativity methods, combined with
efficient information gathering, are the key activities.

m
One way to increase the likelihood of positive outcomes is to apply methods found to be useful

o
for others. Following are some positive steps you can take to enhance your creative thinking

.c
a
i) Develop a creative attitude: To be creative it is essential to develop confidence that you can
provide a creative solution to a problem. Although you may not visualize the complete path

m
through to the final solution at the time you first tackle a problem, you must have selfconfi

a
dence; you must believe that a solution will develop before you are finished. Of course, confi

n
dence comes with success, so start small and build your confidence up with small successes.

y
d
ii) Unlock your imagination: You must renew the glowing imagination you had as a child. One

u
way to do so is to begin to question again. Ask “why” and “what if,” even at the risk of

t
displaying a bit of inexperience. Scholars of the creative process have developed thought games

S
that are designed to provide practice in unlocking your imagination and sharpening creative
ability.

iii) Be persistent: We already have dispelled the myth that creativity occurs with a lightning
strike. On the contrary, it often requires hard work. Most problems will not submit to the first
attack. They must be pursued with persistence. After all, Edison tested over 6000 materials
before he discovered the species of bamboo that acted as a successful filament for the
incandescent light bulb. It was also Edison who made the famous comment, “Invention is
95 percent perspiration and 5 percent inspiration.”

iv) Develop an open mind: Having an open mind means being approachable to ideas from any
 5

and all sources. The solutions to problems are not the property of a particular discipline, nor is
there any rule that solutions can come only from persons with college degrees..

v) Suspend your judgment : We have seen that creative ideas develop slowly, but nothing
Slow up the creative process more than critical judgment of an emerging idea. Engineers, by
nature, tend toward critical attitudes, so special patience is required to avoid judgment at an early
stage of conceptual design.

vi) Set problem boundaries : We place great emphasis on proper problem definition as a step
toward problem solution. Establishing the boundaries of the problem is an essential part of
problem definition. Experience shows that setting problem boundaries appropriately, not too
tight or not too open, is critical to achieving a creative solution.

m
e) Concept selection: Evaluation of the design concepts, modifying and evolving into a

o
single preferred concept, are the activities in this step. The process usually requires

.c
several iterations. Theory for decision making is rooted in many different academic
disciplines, including pure mathematics, economics (macro and micro), psychology

a
(cognitive and behavioral), probability, and many others

m
Behavioral aspects of Decision making:
Behavioral psychology provides an understanding of the influence of risk taking in individuals
a
and teams. Making a decision is a stressful situation for most people because there is no way to

n
be certain about the information about the past or the predictions of the future. This

y
psychological stress arises from at least two sources. First, decision makers are concerned about

d
the material and social losses that will result from either course of action that is chosen. Second,

u
they recognize that their reputations and self-esteem as capable decision makers are at stake.

t
i) Unconflicted adherence: Decide to continue with current action and ignore information

S
About risk of losses.
ii) Unconflicted change: Uncritically adopt whichever course of action is most
Strongly recommended.
iii) Defensive avoidance: avoid conflict by delay, shifting responsibility to
Someone else, and remaining careless to corrective information.
iv) Hyper vigilance: Search madly for an immediate problem solution.
v) Vigilance: Search carefully for relevant information that is understand in an
Unbiased manner and evaluate carefully before a decision is made.
 6

f) Refinement of the PDS: The product design specification is revisited after the concept
has been selected. The design team must commit to achieving certain critical values of
design parameters, usually called critical-to-quality (CTQ) parameters, and to living
with trade-offs between cost and performance.

g) Design review: Before committing funds to move to the next design phase, a design
review will be held. The design review will assure that the design is physically realizable
and that it is economically worthwhile. It will also look at a detailed product development
schedule. This is needed to devise a strategy to minimize product cycle time and to
identify the resources in people, equipment, and money needed to complete the project.

m
o
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a
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a
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d
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Unit-03/Lecture-02
EMBODIMENT DESIGN/ preliminary design:
 7

The next phase of the design process is often called embodiment design. It is the phase where the
design concept is invested with physical form, where we “put meat on the bones.” Structured
development of the design concept occurs in this engineering design phase. An embodiment of
all the main functions that must be performed by the product must be undertaken. It is in this
design phase that decisions are made on strength, material selection, size, shape, and spatial
compatibility. Beyond this design phase, major changes become very expensive. This design
phase is sometimes called preliminary design.
Embodiment design is concerned with three major tasks—product architecture,
configuration design, and parametric design.

Product Configuration Parametric

Architecture Design Design
Preliminary
m
Robust design
Arrangement Selection of
o
Set tolerances

.c
of Materials and DFM, DFA, DFE

a
Physical Manufacturing Tolerances
elements Processes

m
a
EMBODIMENT DESIGN

n
y
d
a) Product architecture: Product architecture is concerned with dividing the overall Design

u
system into subsystems or modules. In this step we decide how the physical components of the

t
design are to be arranged and combined to carry out the functional duties of the design.

S The product architecture begins to appear in the conceptual design

phase from such things as diagrams of functions, rough sketches of concepts, and perhaps a
proof-of-concept model. However, it is in the embodiment design phase that the layout and
architecture of the product must be established by defining the basic building blocks of the
product and their interfaces. a product’s architecture is related to its function structure, but it
does not have to match it. The physical building blocks that the product is organized into are
usually called modules. Other terms are subsystem, subassembly, cluster, or chunk. Each
module is made up of a collection of components that carry out functions. The architecture of the
product is given by the relationships among the components in the product and the functions the
product performs. There are two entirely opposite styles of product architecture, modular and
integral.
 8

1) Modular architecture: each module implements only one or a few functions, and the
interactions between modules are well defined. An EXAMPLE would be an
oscilloscope, where different measurement functions are obtained by plugging in
different modules,
2) In an integral architecture: In integral product architectures, components perform
multiple functions. This reduces the number of components, generally decreasing cost
unless the integral architecture is obtained at the expense of extreme part complexity.
Integral product architecture is often adopted when constraints of weight, space, or cost
make
It difficult to achieve required performance. Propose a four-step process for establishing the
product Architecture.
 Create a schematic diagram of the product.
 Cluster the elements of the schematic. m
 Create a rough geometric layout. o
 Identify the interactions between modules.
.c
a
b) Configuration design of parts and components: In configuration design we establish the

m
shape and general dimensions of components. The term component is used in the generic sense

a
to include special-purpose parts, standard parts, and standard assemblies. Configuring a part

n
means to determine what features will be present and how those features are to be arranged in

y
space relative to each other. While modeling and simulation may be performed in this stage to

d
check out function and spatial constraints, only approximate sizes are determined to assure that

u
the part satisfies the PDS. Also, more specificity about materials and manufacturing is given

t
here. The generation of a physical model of the part with rapid prototyping processes may be
appropriate.
S
In starting configuration design we should follow these steps:
 Review the product design specification and any specifications developed for the
particular subassembly to which the component belongs.
 Establish the spatial constraints that relate to the product or the subassembly being
Designed.
 Most of these will have been set by the product architecture .In addition to physical
spatial constraints, consider the constraints of a human working with the product and
constraints that relate to the product’s life cycle, such as the need to provide access for
maintenance or repair or to dismantle it for recycling.
 9

 Create and refine the interfaces or connections between components.

 Again, the product architecture should give much guidance in this respect. Much design
effort occurs at the connections between components, because this is the location where
failure often occurs. Identify and give special attention to the interfaces that transfer the
most critical functions.
 Before spending much time on the design, answer the following questions: Can the part
be eliminated or combined with another part? Studies of design for manufacture (DFM)
show that it is almost always less costly to make and assemble fewer, more complex parts
than it is to design with a higher part count.
 Can a standard part or subassembly be used? While a standard part is generally less
costly than a special-purpose part, two standard parts may not be less costly than one
special-purpose part that replaces them.
Identify the likely ways the part might fail in service. m
o
● Excessive plastic deformation. Size the part so that stresses are below the yield strength.

.c
● Fatigue failure. If there are cyclic loads, size the part so that stresses are below the fatigue

a
limit or fatigue strength for the expected number of cycles in service.
● Stress concentrations. Use generous fillets and radii so that stress raisers are kept low. This is

m
especially important where service conditions are at risk to fatigue or brittle failure.

a
● Buckling. If buckling is possible, configure the part geometry to prevent buckling.

n
● Shock or impact loads. Be alert to this possibility, and configure the part geometry and select

y
the material to minimize shock loading.

d
Identify likely ways that part functionality might be compromised.

u
● Tolerances: Are too many tight tolerances required to make the part work well? Have you

t
checked for tolerance stack-up in assemblies?

S
● Creep: Creep is change of dimensions over time at elevated temperature. Many polymers
exhibit creep above 100°C. Is creep a possibility with this part, and if so, has it been considered
in the design?
● Thermal deformation. Check to determine whether thermal expansion or contraction could
interfere with the functioning of a part or assembly.

Materials and manufacturing issues

● Is the material selected for the part the best one to prevent the likely failure modes in service?
 10

● Can the form and features of the part be readily made on available production machines?
● Will material made to standard quality specifications be adequate for this part?
● Will the chosen material and manufacturing process meet the cost target for the part?

c) Parametric design of parts: Parametric design starts with information on the configuration of
the part and aims to establish its exact dimensions and tolerances. Final decisions on the material
and manufacturing processes are also established if this has not been done previously. An
important aspect of parametric design is to examine the part, assembly, and system for design
robustness. Robustness refers to how consistently a component performs under variable
conditions in its service environment. Robustness means achieving excellent performance under
the wide range of conditions that will be found in service. All products function reasonably well

m
under ideal (laboratory) conditions, but robust designs continue to function well when the
conditions to which they are exposed are far from ideal Dimensions and
o tolerances were set

.c
tentatively, and while analysis was used to “size the parts” it generally was not highly detailed or

a
sophisticated. Now the design moves into parametric design, the latter part of embodiment
design.

m
a
n
A systematic parametric design takes place in five steps

y
d
Step 1. Formulate the parametric design problem:

u
The designer should have a clear understanding of the function or functions that the component

t
to be designed must deliver. This information should be traceable back to the PDS and the

S
product architecture, but the product design specification (PDS) should be the guiding document.
From this information we select the engineering characteristics that measure the predicted
performance of the function. These solution evaluation parameters (SEPs) are often metrics like
Cost, weight, efficiency, safety, and reliability. Next we identify the design variables. The
design variables (DVs) are the parameters under the control of the designer that determine the
performance of the component. Design variables most influence the dimensions, tolerances, or
choice of materials for the component. The design variables should be identified with variable
name, symbol, units, and upper and lower limits for the variable. Also, we make sure we
understand and record the problem definition parameters (PDPs). These are the operational or
environmental conditions under which the component or system must operate. Examples are
loads, flow rate, and temperature increase. Finally, we develop a Plan for Solving the Problem.
 11

This will involve some kind of analysis for stresses, or vibration, or heat transfer. In conceptual
design you used elementary physics and chemistry, and a “gut feel” for whether the concept
would work. In configuration design you used simple models from engineering science courses,
but in parametric design you will most likely use more detailed models, including finite-element
analysis on critical components. The deciding factors for the level of detail in analysis will be the
time, money, and available analysis tools, and whether, given these constraints, the expected
results are likely to have sufficient credibility and usefulness.
Step 2. Generate alternative designs:
Different values for the design variables are chosen to produce different candidate designs.
Remember, the alternative configurations were narrowed down to a single selection in confi
guration design. Now, we are determining the best dimensions or tolerances for the critical-to
quality aspects of that configuration. The values of the DVs come from your or the company’s
experience, or from industry standards or practice. m
Step 3. Analyze the alternative designs:
o
.c
Now we predict the performance of each of the alternative designs using either analytical or

a
experimental methods. Each of the designs is checked to see that it satisfies every performance
constraint and expectation. These designs are identified as feasible designs.
Step 4. Evaluate the results of the analyses.
m
a
All the feasible designs are evaluated to determine which one is best using the solution

n
evaluation parameters. Often, a key performance characteristic is chosen as an objective function,

y
and optimization methods are used to either maximize or minimize this value. Alternatively,

d
design variables are combined in some reasonable way to give a figure of merit, and this value is

u
used for deciding on the best design

t
Step 5. Refine/Optimize.

S
If none of the candidate designs are feasible designs, then it is necessary to determine a new set
of designs. If feasible designs exist, it may be possible to improve their rating by changing the
values of the design variables in an organized way so as to maximize or minimize the objective
function.

Unit-03/Lecture-03

DETAIL DESIGN:
Detailed design is such a fundamental necessity to manufacturers that it exists at the intersection
of many product development processes. And given this broad influence, as well as the impact of
prevailing industry dynamics such as distributed product development, shortening product
 12

development lifecycles and increased product complexity, companies are feeling immense
pressure to improve their detailed design process. Missing information is added on the
arrangement, form, dimensions, and tolerances, surface properties, materials, and manufacturing
processes of each part. This results in a specification for each special-purpose part and for each
standard part to be purchased from suppliers. In the detail design phase the following activities
are completed and documents are prepared:

Detail design
Engineering
Drawings
Finalize PDS

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● Detailed engineering drawings suitable for manufacturing. Routinely these are computer-

a
generated drawings, and they often include three-dimensional CAD models.

m
● Verification testing of prototypes is successfully completed and verification data is submitted.

a
All critical-to-quality parameters are confirmed to be under control. Usually the building and

n
testing of several preproduction versions of the product will be accomplished.
● Assembly drawings and assembly instructions also will be completed. The bill of materials for
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all assemblies will be completed.
● A detailed product specification, updated with all the changes made since the conceptual
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Design phase will be prepared.
● Decisions on whether to make each part internally or to buy from an external supplier will be
made. S
● With the preceding information, a detailed cost estimate for the product will be carried out.
● Finally, detail design concludes with a design review before the decision is made to pass the
design information on to manufacturing.

In many engineering organizations it is no longer correct to say that detail design is the phase of
design where all of the dimensions, tolerances, and details are finalized. However, detail design,
as the name implies, is the phase where all of the details are brought together, all decisions are
Finalized, and a decision is made by management to release the design for production. Poor
detail design can ruin a brilliant design concept and lead to manufacturing defects, high costs,
 13

and poor reliability in service.

ACTIVITIES AND DECISIONS IN DETAIL DESIGN:

1) Make/buy decision: Even before the design of all components is completed and the drawings
finalized, meetings are held on deciding whether to make a component in-house or to buy it from
an external supplier. This decision will be made chiefly on the basis of cost and manufacturing
capacity, with due consideration given to issues of quality and reliability of delivery of
components An important reason for making this decision early is so you can bring the supplier
into the design effort as an extended team member.
2) Complete the selection and sizing of components
While most of the selection and sizing of components occurs in embodiment design, especially
for those components with parameters deemed to be critical-to-quality, some components may

m
not yet have been selected or designed. These may be standard components that will be

o
purchased from external suppliers or routine standard parts like fasteners. Or, there may be a

.c
critical component for which you have been waiting for test data or FEA analysis results.

a
Regardless of the reason, it is necessary to complete these activities before the design can be
complete.

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3) Complete engineering drawings: A major task in the detail design phase is to complete the

a
engineering drawings. As each component, subassembly, and assembly is designed, it is

n
documented completely with drawings. Drawings of individual parts are usually called detail

y
Drawings .These shows the geometric features, dimensions, and tolerances of the parts.

d
4) Revise the product design specification: We need to distinguish between the part

u
specification and the product design specification. For individual parts the drawing and the

t
specification are often the same document. The specification contains information on the

S
technical performance of the part, its dimensions, test requirements, materials requirements,
reliability requirement, design life, packaging requirement, and marking for shipment. The part
Specification should be sufficiently detailed to avoid confusion as to what is expected from the
supplier.
5) Complete verification prototype testing: Once the design is finalized, a beta-prototype is
built and verification tested to ensure that the design meets the PDS and that it is safe and
reliable. that beta-prototypes are made with the same materials and manufacturing processes
as the product but not necessarily from the actual production line. Later, before product launch,
actual products from the production line will be tested. Depending on the complexity of the
product, the verification testing may simply be to run the product during an expected duty cycle
and under overload conditions, or it may be a series of statistically planned tests.
 14

6) Final cost estimate: The detail drawings allow the determination of final cost estimates, since
knowledge of the material, the dimensions, tolerances, and finish of each part are needed to
determine manufacturing cost.
7) Prepare design project report: A design project report usually is written at the conclusion of
a project to describe the tasks undertaken and to discuss the design in detail. Also, a design
project report may be an important document if the product becomes involved in either product
liability or patent litigation.
8) Final design review: Many formal meetings or reviews will have preceded the fi nal design
review. These include an initial product concept meeting to begin the establishment of the PDS
The latter may take the form of detailed partial reviews (meetings) to decide important issues
like design for manufacturing, quality issues, reliability, safety, or preliminary cost estimates
9) Release design to manufacturing: The release of the product design to manufacturing ends

m
the main activity of the design personnel on that product. The increasing use of the concurrent

o
engineering approach to minimize the product development time blurs the boundary between

.c
detail design and manufacturing. It is common to release the design to manufacturing in two
Or three “waves,” with those designs that have the longest lead time for designing and making
tooling being released first. a
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Unit-03/Lecture-04
Planning for Production/ Manufacturing

A Manufacturing Planning and Control system is a methodology designed to manage efficiently

the flow of material, the utilization of people and equipment, and to respond to customer
requirements by utilizing the capacity of our suppliers, that of our internal facilities, and in some
cases that of our customers to meet customer demand. A new battery of skills, those of tool
 15

design and production engineering, come into play.

Producing the design is a critical link in the chain of
events that starts with a creative idea and ends with a successful product in the marketplace. The
term materials processing to refer to the conversion of semi finished products focus on
improving the link between manufacturing and design has increased emphasis on codifying a set
of practices that designers should follow to make their designs easier to manufacture, design for
manufacture (DFM), the level of confidence in the success of product must be very high to
support a positive decision. The decision must be made at the top level of management. Different
types of production methods, such as single item manufacturing, batch production, mass
production, continuous production etc. have their own type of production planning.

Plan the

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Mfg Planning use of
And People
Control System
o Efficient use

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Of our capacity
And that of our

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Suppliers.
Possibly even
Our customers
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Manage
the
a Efficient

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flow of
Materials

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d
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tDriven by customer

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Demand and other
Customer requirements

The process must be selected in such a way that the produced product will be acceptable
to the consumer functionally, economically and appearance-wise.
A great deal of detailed planning must be done to provide for
the production of the design. A method of manufacture must be established for each component
in the system. As a usual first step, a process sheet is created; it contains a sequential list of all
 16

manufacturing operations that must be performed on the component. Also, it specifies the form
and condition of the material and the tooling and production machines that will be used. The
information on the process sheet makes possible the estimation of the production cost of the
component. High costs may indicate the need for a change in material or a basic change in the
design. Close interaction with manufacturing, industrial, materials, and mechanical engineers is
important at this step.
The other important tasks performed in phase IV are the following:
i) Detail process planning: is requiring for every part, subassembly, and final assembly. The
information is usually displayed on process sheets, one for each part of subassembly. The
process sheet contains a sequential list of operations which must be performed to produce a part
.it specifies raw material, clarify special instructions and indicates machines and tools required
.such difficulty can be minimized earlier by timely consultations between product designers and
tool designers. m
ii) Designing specialized tools and fixtures(fittings)
o
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iii) Specifying the production plant that will be used (or designing a new plant) and

a
laying out the production lines
iv)Planning for production control: Planning the work schedules and inventory controls
(production control)
m
v) Planning the quality assurance system
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vi) Planning for production personnel: Establishing the standard time and labor costs for each
operation
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vii) Planning for information flow system: Establishing the system of information flow

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necessary to control the manufacturing Operation. Flow patterns and routines are established

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 17

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Unit-03/Lecture-05
 18

PLANNING FOR DISTRIBUTION:

Effective planning of transportation and distribution networks has become more complex. This is
driven by increasing customer requirements, expansion of global sourcing, security and
regulatory requirements, volatile fuel costs, etc. Important technical and business decisions must
be made to provide for the effective distribution to the consumer of the products that have been
produced. A system of warehouses for distributing the product may have to be designed if none
exists. The economic success of the design often depends on the skill exercised in marketing the
product. If it is a consumer product, the sales effort is concentrated on advertising in print and
video media, but highly technical products may require that the marketing step be a technical
activity supported by specialized sales brochures, performance test data, and technically trained
sales engineers. Over the last few years, the demand placed on the distribution and logistics
departments of manufacturing and marketing organizations has been continuously intensifying

m
due to pressures from increased competition, introduction of new manufacturing methods, and

o
increased expectations from partners and consumers in terms of low price and high service

.c
levels. Corporations are looking to increase their customer service levels, while reducing

a
inventory, working capital requirements and distribution costs.

m
Distribution involves a number of activities centred on a physical flow of goods and

a
information. At one time the term distribution applied only to the outbound side of supply chain

n
management, but it now includes both inbound and outbound.

y
Management of the inbound flow involves these elements:

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
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Material planning and control
 Purchasing
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


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Receiving
Physical management of materials via warehousing and storage
 Materials handling

Management of the outbound flow involves these elements:

 Order processing
 Warehousing and storage
 Finished goods management
 Material handling and packaging
 Shipping
 19

 Transportation

Distribution channels are formed to solve three critical distribution problems: functional
performance, reduced complexity, and specialization. The central focus of distribution is to
increase the efficiency of time, place, and delivery utility.

ROLE OF THE DISTRIBUTION FUNCTION

There are a number of critical functions performed by the channel distributor.

1. Product acquisition (purchasing). This means acquiring products in a finished or semi-

finished state from either a manufacturer or through another distributor that is higher up
in the supply channel. These functions can be performed by independent channel

m
intermediaries or by the distribution facilities of manufacturing companies.

o
2. Product movement: This implies significant effort spent on product movement up or

.c
down the supply channel.
3. Product transaction: Distributors can be characterized as selling products in bulk

a
quantities solely for the purpose of resale or business use. Downstream businesses will

m
then sell these products to other distributors or retailers who will sell them directly to the

a
end customer, or to manufacturers who will consume the material/components in their

n
own production processes.

y
Following are the separate elements contained within the three critical functions of
distribution: d
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
t
Selling and promoting. This function is very important to manufacturers. One strategy

S
involves the use of distribution channels to carry out the responsibilities of product
deployment. In addition to being marketing experts in their industry, distribution firms
usually have direct-selling organizations and a detailed knowledge of their customers and
their expectations. The manufacturer utilizing this distributor can then tap into these
resources. Also, because of the scale of the distributing firm's operations and its
specialized skill in channel management, it can significantly improve the time, place, and
possession utilities by housing inventory closer to the market. These advantages mean
that the manufacturer can reach many small, distant customers at a relatively low cost,
thus allowing the manufacturer to focus its expenditures on product development and its
core production processes.
 20

 Buying and building product assortment (range). This is an extremely important

function for retailers. Most retailers prefer to deal with few suppliers providing a wide
assortment of products that fit their merchandizing strategy rather than many with limited
product lines. This, of course, saves on purchasing, transportation, and merchandizing
costs. Distribution firms have the ability to bring together related products from multiple
manufacturers and assemble the right combination of these products in quantities that
meet the retailer's requirements in a cost-efficient manner.
 Bulk breaking. This is one of the fundamental functions of distribution. Manufacturers
normally produce large quantities of a limited number of products. However, retailers
normally require smaller quantities of multiple products. When the distribution function
handles this requirement it keeps the manufacturer from having to break bulk and
repackage its product to fit individual requirements. Lean manufacturing and JIT

m
techniques are continuously seeking ways to reduce lot sizes, so this function enhances
that goal.
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 Value-added processing. Postponement specifies that products should be kept at the

a
highest possible level in the pipeline in large, generic quantities that can be customized
into their final form as close as possible to the actual final sale. The distributor can

m
facilitate this process by performing sorting, labelling, blending, kitting, packaging, and

a
light final assembly at one or more points within the supply channel. This significantly

n
reduces end-product obsolescence and minimizes the risk inherent with carrying finished
goods inventory.
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
d
Transportation. The movement of goods from the manufacturer to the retailer is a

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critical function of distribution. Delivery encompasses those activities that are necessary

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to ensure that the right product is available to the customer at the right time and right

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place. This frequently means that a structure of central, branch, and field warehouses,
geographically situated in the appropriate locations, are needed to achieve optimum
customer service. Transportation's goal is to ensure that goods are positioned properly in
the channel in a quick, cost-effective, and consistent manner.
 Warehousing. Warehousing exists to provide access to sufficient stock in order to satisfy
anticipated customer requirements, and to act as a buffer against supply and demand
uncertainties. Since demand is often located far from the source (manufacturer),
warehousing can provide a wide range of marketplaces that manufacturers, functioning
independently, could not penetrate.
 Marketing information. The distribution channel also can provide information
 21

regarding product, marketplace issues, and competitors' activities in a relatively short

time.

Distribution Planning systems can address the following operational issues faced by a
supply chain manager

 Product dispatching: When and where should a product be dispatched?

 Product placement: Which product should be held at each location and in what
quantity?
 Transportation loading: What products should be loaded on to a vehicle?
 Transportation choice: Which mode of transportation should be used?
 Transportation planning: How many vehicles of each type would be required on what

m
days in the next one month?

Requirements of a good distribution planning system o

1. Minimize total cost of distribution .c
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2. Increase manager productivity through automated, high-speed planning

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3. Formalize informed decision-making and reduce variability in the Distribution
planning process
a
n
4. Improve information visibility and coordination between Marketing, Distribution and

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Production.

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5. Improve responsiveness by

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a) Allowing planners to quickly adjust production and distribution plans to

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demand/supply variability (for example, changes in demand forecasts, supply
S
delays, etc.)

b) Generating production and distribution requirements for different demand and

supply scenarios, allowing for contingency planning

Unit-03/Lecture-06

PLANNING FOR CONSUMPTION:

 22

Consumption is the sixth phase of morphological design, as a process it occurs naturally after
distribution. Its influence on design is thoughtful because it pass through all phases.therfore it is
for the most important diffused phase concerned with consumer needs and utility,and mingled
and attached to the earlier phases The use of the product by the consumer is all-important, and
considerations of how the consumer will react to the product pervade all steps of the design
process. The following specific topics can be identified as being important user-oriented
concerns in the design process: ease of maintenance, durability, reliability, product safety, and
convenience in use (human factors engineering), aesthetic appeal, and economy of operation.
Obviously, these consumer-oriented issues must be considered in the design process at its very
beginning. They are not issues to be treated as afterthoughts. Phase VI of design is less well
defined than the others, but it is becoming increasingly important with the growing concerns for

m
consumer protection and product Safety. More strict interpretation of product liability laws is

o
having a major impact on design. An important phase VI activity is the acquisition of reliable

.c
data on failures, service lives, and consumer complaints and attitudes to provide a basis for
product improvement in the next design cycle. The purpose of this phase is to incorporate in the

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design ,adequate service features and to provide a rational basis for product improvement and
redesign
m
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Design for consumption must consider the following factors:

i) Design for maintenance

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ii) Design for reliability
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iii)Design for safety
d
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iv)Design for convenience in use

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v)Design for aesthetic features

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vi)Design for operational economy
vii) Design for adequate duration of services

Unit-03/Lecture-07

Planning for Retirement:

 23

The final step in the design process is the disposal of the retired product when it has reached the
end of its useful life. Useful life may be determined by actual deterioration and wear to the point
at which the design can no longer function, or it may be determined by technological
obsolescence, in which a competing design performs the product’s functions either better or
cheaper. In consumer products, it may come about through changes in fashion or taste. In the
past, little attention has been given in the design process to product retirement. This is rapidly
changing, as people the world over are becoming concerned about environmental issues. There is
concern with depletion of mineral and energy resources, and with pollution of the air, water, and
land as a result of manufacturing and technology advancement. This has led to a formal area of
study called industrial ecology. Design for the environment, also called green design, has
become an important consideration in design. As a result, the design of a product should include
a plan for either its disposal in an environmentally safe way or, better, the recycling of its
materials or the remanufacture or reuse of its components. m
o
When determine as to when an economic commodity in use has

.c
reached an age at which it should be retired, the point at which it can no longer render adequate

a
service, then the need for replacement is clear because of either technical obsolescence or
physical deterioration

m
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Designing for retirement of product must consider the following aspects:

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1)designing to reduce the rate of obsolescence
2)design for physical life
d
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3)design for reusable materials and long lived component can be recovered

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4)examine the service terminated products in laboratory to obtain useful design
information
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Example: the destruction of a tall building closely surrounded by buildings on either side.
Sometimes the impact on the new design is more immediate as when an old structure or system
must be replaced by new one with minimum disruption of normal operations
 1

UNIT – 4
Product Design Cycle
Unit-04/Lecture-01

Identification of customer needs and market research essentials:

Information gathered from customers and research on products from market literature and
experimentation contributes to creating a ranked listing of customer needs and wants. These are the
needs that form the end user’s opinion about the quality of a product. As odd as it may seem,
customers may not express all their requirements of a product when they are interviewed. To
understand how that can happen and how the omissions can be mitigated, it is necessary to reflect
on how customers perceive “needs.”

m
From a global viewpoint, we should recognize that there is a hierarchy of human needs that
motivate individuals in general.
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Physiological needs: such as thirst, hunger, sleep, shelter, and exercise. These constitute the basic
needs of the body, and until they are satisfied, they remain the prime influence on the individual’s
behavior. a
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Safety and security needs: which include protection against danger, deprivation, and threat. When

a
the bodily needs are satisfied, the safety and security needs become dominant.

n
Social needs: for love and esteem by others. These needs include belonging to groups, group

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identity, and social acceptance. Psychological needs for self-esteem and self-respect and for

d
accomplishment and recognition.
Self-fulfillment needs for the realization of one’s full potential through self development,
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creativity, and self-expression.

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Different view of customer requirement:
From a design team point of view, the customer requirements fit into a broader picture of the PDP
requirements, which include product performance, time to market, cost, and quality.

Performance deals with what the design should do when it is completed and in operation. Design
teams do not blindly adopt the customer requirements set determined thus far. However, that set is
the foundation used by the design team. Other factors may include requirements by internal
customers (e.g., manufacturing) or large retail distributors.
 2

The time dimension includes all time aspects of the design. Currently, much effort is being given to
reducing the PDP cycle time, also known as the time to market, for new products. For many
consumer products, the first to market with a great product captures the market

Cost pertains to all monetary aspects of the design. It is a paramount consideration of the design
team. When all other customer requirements are roughly equal, cost determines most customers’
buying decisions. From the design team’s point of view, cost is a result of many design decisions
and must often be used to make trade-offs among features and deadlines.

Quality is a complex characteristic with many aspects and definitions. A good definition of quality
for the design team is the totality of features and characteristics of a product or service that bear on
its ability to satisfy stated or implied needs. m
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Garvin identified the eight basic dimensions of quality for a manufactured product. These

a
have become a standard list that design teams use as a guide for completeness of customer
requirement data gathered in the PDP.

m
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Performance: The primary operating characteristics of a product. This dimension of quality can be

n
expressed in measurable quantities, and therefore can be ranked objectively.

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d
Features: Those characteristics that supplement a product’s basic functions. Features are frequently

u
used to customize or personalize a product to the customer’s taste.

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S
Reliability: The probability of a product failing or malfunctioning within a specified time period.

Durability: A measure of the amount of use one gets from a product before it breaks down and
replacement is preferable to continued repair. Durability is a measure of product life. Durability and
reliability are closely related.

Serviceability: Ease and time to repair after breakdown. Other issues are courtesy and competence
of repair personnel and cost and ease of repair.
 3

Conformance: The degree to which a product’s design and operating characteristics meet both
customer expectations and established standards. These standards include industry standards and
safety and environmental standards. The dimensions of performance, features, and conformance are
interrelated. When competing products have essentially the same performance and many of the
same features, customers will tend to expect that all producers of the product will have the same
quality dimensions. In other words, customer expectations set the baseline for the product’s
conformance.

Aesthetics: How a product looks, feels, sounds, tastes, and smells. The customer response in this
dimension is a matter of personal judgment and individual preference. This area of design is chiefly
the domain of the industrial designer, who is more an artist than an engineer. An important

m
technical issue that affects aesthetics is ergonomics, how well the design fits the human user.

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Perceived quality: This dimension generally is associated with reputation. Advertising helps to

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develop this dimension of quality, but it is basically the quality of similar products previously
produced by the manufacturer that influences reputation.

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UNIT 4/LECTURE 2

Concept generation
Concept generation :

The best engineers will use creative thinking methods and design processes that assist in the
synthesis of new concepts not previously imagined. Creative thinking is highly valued across many
fields of endeavor, especially those that deal with problem solving. Creative cognition is the use of
regular cognitive operations to solve problems in novel ways. One way to increase the likelihood of
positive outcomes is to apply methods found to be useful for others.

Following are some positive steps you can take to enhance your creative thinking.
Develop a creative attitude: To be creative it is essential to develop confidence that you can

m
provide a creative solution to a problem. Although you may not visualize the complete path through

o
to the final solution at the time you first tackle a problem, you must have self-confidence; you must

.c
believe that a solution will develop before you are finished. Of course, confidence comes with
success, so start small and build your confidence up with small successes.

a
Unlock your imagination: You must rekindle the vivid imagination you had as a child. One way
to do so is to begin to question again. Ask “why” and “what if,” even at the risk of displaying a bit
m
a
of naïveté. Scholars of the creative process have developed thought games that are designed to
provide practice in unlocking your imagination and sharpening creative ability.
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Be persistent: We already have dispelled the myth that creativity occurs with a lightning strike. On

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the contrary, it often requires hard work. Most problems will not succumb to the first attack. They

d
must be pursued with persistence. After all, Edison tested over 6000 materials before he discovered

u
the species of bamboo that acted as a successful fi lament for the incandescent light bulb. It was

t
also Edison who made the famous comment, “Invention is 95 percent perspiration and 5 percent
Inspiration.” S
Develop an open mind: Having an open mind means being receptive to ideas from any and all
sources. The solutions to problems are not the property of a particular discipline, nor is there any
rule that solutions can come only from persons with college degrees. Ideally, problem solutions
should not be concerned with company politics. Because of the NIH factor (not invented here),
many creative ideas are not picked up and followed through.
Suspend your judgment: We have seen that creative ideas develop slowly, but nothing inhibits the
creative process more than critical judgment of an emerging idea. Engineers, by nature, tend toward
critical attitudes, so special forbearance is required to avoid judgment at an early stage of
conceptual design.
 5

Set problem boundaries: We place great emphasis on proper problem definition as a step toward
problem solution. Establishing the boundaries of the problem is an essential part of problem
definition. Experience shows that setting problem boundaries appropriately, not too tight or not too
open, is critical to achieving a creative solution.

Barriers to create thinking:

Before we look at formal methods of enhancing creativity, it is important for you to understand
how mental blocks interfere with creative thinking. A mental block is a mental wall that prevents
the problem solver from correctly perceiving a problem or conceiving its solution. A mental block
is an event that inhibits the successful use of normal cognitive processes to come to a solution.
There are many different types of mental blocks.
i) Perceptual Blocks

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Perceptual blocks have to do with not properly defining the problem and not recognizing the
information needed to solve it.
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Stereotyping: Thinking conventionally or in a formulaic way about an event, person, or way of
doing something. Not thinking “out of the box.” The brain classifies and stores information in
a
labeled groups. When new information is taken in, it is compared with established categories and

m
assigned to the appropriate group. This leads to stereotyping of ideas since it imposes

a
preconceptions on mental images. As a result, it is difficult to combine apparently unrelated images

n
into an entirely new creative solution for the design.

y
Information overload: You become so overloaded with minute details that you are unable to sort

d
out the critical aspects of the problem. This scenario is termed “not being able to see the forest for

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the trees.” Cognitively this is a situation of engaging all the available short-term memory so that

t
there is no time for related searches in long-term memory.

S
Limiting the problem unnecessarily: Broad statements of the problem help keep the mind open to
a wider range of ideas.
Fixation: People’s thinking can be influenced so greatly by their previous experience or some other
bias that they are not able to sufficiently recognize alternative ideas. Since divergent thinking is
critical to generating broad sets of ideas, fixation must be recognized and dealt with. A kind of fixat
ion called memory blocking is discussed in the section on intellectual blocks.
Priming or provision of cues: If the thinking process is started by giving examples or solution
cues, it is possible for thinking to stay within the realm of solutions suggested by those initial
starting points. This is known as the conformity effect. Some capstone design instructors have
noted this commenting that once students find a relevant patent for solving a design problem, many
 6

of their new concepts follow the same solution principle.

ii) Emotional Blocks
These are obstacles that are concerned with the psychological safety of the individual. They reduce
the freedom with which you can explore and manipulate ideas. They also interfere with your ability
to conceptualize readily.
Fear of risk taking: This is the fear of proposing an idea that is ultimately found to be faulty. This
is inbred in us by the educational process. Truly creative people must be comfortable with taking
risks.
Unease with chaos: People in general, and many engineers in particular, are uncomfortable with
highly unstructured situations.
Unable or unwilling to incubate new ideas : In our busy lives, we often don’t take the time to let
ideas lie dormant so they can incubate properly. It is important to allow enough time for ideas to

m
incubate before evaluation of the ideas takes place. Studies of creative problem-solving strategies

o
suggest that creative solutions usually emerge as a result of a series of small ideas rather than from

.c
a “home run” idea. Motivation: People differ considerably in their motivation to seek creative

a
solutions to challenging problems. Highly creative individuals do this more for personal satisfaction
than personal reward. However, studies show that people are more creative when told to generate

m
many ideas, so it shows that the motivation is not all self-generated.
iii) Cultural Blocks
a
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People acquire a set of thought patterns from living in a culture. Most of us have experienced an

y
educational system that has valued knowledge and suppressed our childhood proclivity to ask

d
“why” and “how.” Certain industries are tradition bound and are reluctant to change, even in the

u
face of decreasing profitability. Often it takes new top management, coming in from a different

t
industry, to get them back on the road to profitability. Countries even differ in their attitudes toward

S
creative problem solutions. This can be traced to differences in political and educational systems,
and business culture.
For example, in many countries it is a shameful disgrace for a business leader to take his company
into bankruptcy, while in others it is a mark of creative entrepreneurship and normal risk-taking.
iv) Intellectual Blocks
Intellectual blocks arise from a poor choice of the problem-solving strategy or having inadequate
background and knowledge.
Poor choice of problem-solving language or problem representation : It is important to make a
conscious decision concerning the “language” for your creative problem solving. Problems can be
solved in either a mathematical, verbal, or a visual mode. Often a problem that is not yielding
 7

readily to solution using, for example, a verbal mode can be readily solved by switching to another
mode such as the visual mode. Changing the representation of a problem from the original one to a
new one (presumably more useful for finding a solution) is recognized as fostering creativity. 16
Memory block: Memory holds strategies and tactics for finding solutions as well as solutions
themselves. Therefore, blocking in memory searches is doubly problematic to creative thinking. A
common form of blocking is maintaining a particular search path through memory because of the
false belief that it will lead to a solution. This belief may arise from a false hint, reliance on
incorrect experience, or any other reason that interrupts or distracts the mind’s regular problem-
solving processes.
Insufficient knowledge base: Generally, ideas are generated from a person’s education and
experience. Thus, an electrical engineer is more likely to suggest an electronics-based idea, when a
cheaper and simpler mechanical design would be better. This is one reason why persons with broad

m
backgrounds tend to be more creative, and it is a strong reason for working in interdisciplinary

o
design teams. However, the search for pertinent information can be carried too far such that you are

.c
exposed to all of the assumptions and biases of previous workers in the field. This could limit your

a
creativity. Perhaps a better approach to gathering information is to do enough to get a good feel for
the problem and then use this knowledge base to try to generate creative concepts. After that it is

m
important to go back and exhaustively develop an information base to use in evaluating the creative
ideas.
a
n
Incorrect information: It is obvious that using incorrect information can lead to poor results. One

y
form of the creative process is the combining of previously unrelated elements or ideas

d
(information); if part of the information is wrong then the result of creative combination will be fl

u
awed. For example, if you are configuring five elements of information to achieve some result, and

t
the ordering of the elements is critical to the quality of the result, you have 120 different orderings.

S
If one of the elements is wrong, all 120 alternative orderings are wrong. If you only need to take
two (2) of the five (5) elements, then there are 20 possible combinations. Of these 20, four will lead
to wrong results because they will contain the incorrect element. The higher the number of elements
that are combined, the more difficult it will be to sort out the correct combinations from those that
are flawed.
Environmental Blocks
These are blocks that are imposed by the immediate physical or social environment.
Physical environment: This is a very personal factor in its effects on creativity. Some people can
work creatively with all kinds of distractions; others require strict quiet and isolation. It is important
for each person to determine their optimum conditions for creative work, and to try to achieve this
 8

in the workplace. Also, many people have a time of day in which they are most creative. Try to
arrange your work schedule to take advantage of this.
Criticism: Non supportive remarks about your ideas can be personally hurtful and harmful to your
creativity. This is especially true if they come from a left-brained boss. It is common for students in
a design class to be hesitant to expose their ideas, even to their team, for fear of criticism. This lack
of confidence comes from the fact that you have no basis of comparison as to whether the idea is
good. As you gain experience you should gain confidence, and be able to subject your ideas to
friendly but critical evaluations. Therefore, it is very important for the team to maintain an
atmosphere of support and trust, especially during the concept design phase.

These same questions can be used to help you approach the problem from different angles.
 Who? Who uses it, wants it, will benefit by it?

m
 What? What happens if X occurs? What resulted in success? What resulted in failure?

o
 When? Can it be speeded up or slowed down? Is sooner better than later?

.c
 Where? Where will X occur? Where else is possible?

a
 Why? Why is this done? Why is that particular rule, action, solution, problem, failure
involved?

m
 How? How could it be done, should it be done, prevented, improved, changed, made?
Five Whys
a
n
The Five Whys technique is used to get to the root of a problem. It is based on the premise

y
that it is not enough to just ask why one time. For example:

d
 Why has the machine stopped? A fuse blew because of fan overload.

u
 Why was there an overload? There was inadequate lubrication for the bearings.

t
 Why wasn’t there enough lubrication? The lube pump wasn’t working.

S
 Why wasn’t the pump working? The pump shaft was vibrating because it had worn due to
abrasion.
 Why was there abrasion? There was no fi lter on the lube pump, allowing debris into the
pump.
 9

Unit-04/Lecture-03

TECHNOLOGY AND MARKET ASSESSMENT(Review):

Many of the products that engineers are developing today are the result of new technology. Much
of the technology explosion started with the invention of the digital computer and transistor in
the 1940s and their subsequent development through the 1950s and 1960s. The transistor evolved
into micro-integrated circuits, which allowed the computer to shrink in size and cost, becoming
the desktop computer we know today. Combining the computer with communications systems
and protocols like optical fiber communications gave us the Internet and cheap, dependable
worldwide communications. At no other time in history have several breakthrough technologies
combined to so substantially change the world we live in. Yet, if the pace of technology
development continues to accelerate, the future will see even greater change Generally,
The advancement of technology occurs in three stages:
m
o
Invention: The creative act whereby an idea is conceived, articulated, and recorded.

.c
Innovation: The process by which an invention or idea is brought into successful practice and is

a
utilized by the economy.
Diffusion: The successive and widespread implementation and adoption of successful
innovations.
m
Identification a
of
Market need
Product
Idea n Development
Pilot
Lot

y
d
u
t
S Commercial
Exploitation Trial
Sales

Without question, innovation is the most critical and most difficult of the three stages.
Developing an idea into a product that people will buy requires hard work and skill at identifying
market needs. Diffusion of technology throughout society is necessary to preserve the pace of
innovation. As technologically advanced products are put into service, the technological
sophistication of consumers’ increases. This ongoing education of the customer base paves the
 10

way for the adoption of even more sophisticated products. A familiar example is the proliferation
of bar codes and bar code scanners. Many studies have shown that the ability to introduce and
manage technological innovation is a major factor in a country’s leadership in world markets and
also a major factor in raising its standard of living. Science-based innovation in the United
States has seed such key industries as jet aircraft, computers, plastics, and wireless
communication. Relative to other nations, however, the importance of the United States’ role in
innovation appears to be decreasing. If the trend continues, it will affect our well-being. The
digital imaging example illustrates how a basic technological development created for one
purpose can have greater potential in another product area. However, its initial market
acceptance is limited by issues of performance and manufacturing cost. Then a new market
develops where the need is so compelling that large development funding is forthcoming to
overcome the technical barriers and the innovation becomes wildly successful in the mass

m
consumer market. In the case of digital imaging, the innovation period from invention to
widespread market acceptance was about thirty-five years.
o
.c
MARKET ASSESSMENT: The marketing department in a company creates and manages the
company’s relationship with its customers. It is the company’s window on the world with its
a
customers. It translates customer needs into requirements for products and influences the

m
creation of services that support the product and the customer. It is about understanding how

a
people make buying decisions and using this information in the design, building, and selling of

n
products. Marketing does not make sales; that is the responsibility of the Sales department. The

y
marketing department can be expected to do a number of tasks. First is a Preliminary marketing

d
assessment, a quick scoping of the potential sales, competition, and market share at the very

u
early stages of the product development. Then they will do a detailed market study. This

t
involves face-to-face interviews with potential customers to determine their needs, wants,

S
preferences, likes, and dislikes. This will be done before detailed product development is
carried out. Often this involves meeting with the end user in the location where the product is
used, usually with the active participation of the design engineer. Another common method for
doing this is the focus group. In this method a group of people with a prescribed knowledge
about a product or service is gathered around a table and asked their feelings and attitudes about
the product under study. If the group is well selected and the leader of the focus group is
experienced, the sponsor can expect to receive a wealth of opinions and attitudes that can be used
to determine important attributes of a potential product. The marketing department also plays a
vital role in assisting with the introduction of the product into the marketplace. They perform
such functions as undertaking customer tests or field trials (beta test) of the product, planning for
test marketing (sales) in restricted regions, advising on product packaging and warning labels,
 11

preparing user instruction manuals and documentation, arranging for user instruction, and
advising on advertising. Marketing may also be responsible for providing for a product support
system of spare parts, service representatives, and a warranty system.Marketing is concerned
with the interaction between the corporation and the customer. Customers are the people or
organizations that purchase products. However, we need to differentiate between the customer
and the user of the product. The market is an economic construct to identify those persons or
organizations that have an interest in purchasing or selling a particular product, and to create a
ground for their transactions. We generally think of the stock market as the perfect market.
A quick review of the evolution of consumer products is a
good way to better understand markets. At the beginning of the Industrial Revolution, markets
were mainly local and consisted of supportive communities of consumers and workers in
manufacturing companies. Because the manufacturing enterprise was locally based, there was

m
A close link between the manufacturers and the users of their product, so direct feedback from

o
customers was easily achieved. With the advent of railroads and telephone communication,

.c
markets expanded across the country and very soon became national markets. This created

a
considerable economy of scale, but it required new ways of making products available to the
customer. Many companies created a national distribution system to sell their products through

m
local stores. Others depended on retailers who offered products from many manufacturers,

a
including direct competitors. Franchising evolved as an alternative way of creating local

n
ownership while retaining a nationally recognized name and product. Strong brand names

y
evolved as a way of building customer recognition and loyalty. As the capability to produce

d
products continued to grow, the markets for those products expanded beyond the borders of one

u
country. Companies then began to think of ways to market their products in other countries.

t
EXAMPLE: The Ford Motor Company was one of the first U.S. companies to expand into

S
overseas markets. Ford took the approach of developing a wholly owned secondary in the other
country that was essentially self contained. The subsidiary designed, developed, manufactured,
and marketed products for the local national market. The consumer in that country barely
recognized that the parent company was based in the United States. This was the beginning of
multinational companies. The chief advantage of this approach was the profits that the company
was able to bring back to the United States. However, the jobs and physical assets remained
overseas. Another approach to multinational business was developed by the Japanese
automakers. These companies designed, developed, and manufactured the product in the home
nation and marketed the product in many locations around the world. This became possible with
a product like automobiles when roll-on / roll-off ships made low-cost transportation a
reality. Such an approach to marketing gives the maximum benefit to the home nation, but with
 12

time a reaction developed because of the lost jobs in the customer countries. Also, developing a
product at a long distance from the market makes it more difficult to satisfy customer needs
when there is a physical separation in cultural backgrounds between the development team and
the customers. More recently, Japanese companies have established design centers and
production facilities in their major overseas markets. It is very clear that we are now dealing with
a world market. Improved manufacturing capabilities in countries such as China and India,
coupled with low-cost transportation using container ships, and instant worldwide
communication with the Internet, have enabled an increasing fraction of consumer products to be
manufactured overseas. Although the customers for a product are called a “market” as though
they were a homogeneous unit, this generally is not the case. In developing a product, it is
important to have a clear understanding of which segments of the total market the product is
intended to serve. There are many ways to segment a market. Typically there is frequent one-on-

m
one interaction between the design team and the customer to make sure the user’s needs are met.

o
For small-batch engineered products, the degree of interaction with the customer depends on the

.c
nature of the product. For a product like railcars the design specification would be the result of
extensive direct negotiation between the user’s engineers and the vendor. For more standard
a
products like a CNC lathe, the product would be considered an “off-the-shelf” item available for

m
sale by regional distributors or direct from catalog sales.

a
n
A marketing plan should contain the follow information:

y
Evaluation of market segments, with clear explanation of reasons for choosing the target
market
d

u
Identify competitive products

t
Identify early product adopters


S
Clear understanding of benefits of product to customers
Estimation of the market size in terms of dollars and units sold, and market share
 Determine the breadth of the product line, and number of product variants
Estimation of product life
 Determine the product volume/price relationships
 Complete financial plan including time to market, ten-year projection of costs and
income
 1

UNIT – 5
Aspects of Design
Unit-05/Lecture-01
Aesthetics Consideration relate to our emotions. Since aesthetic emotions are spontaneous and develop
beneath our level of consciousness, they satisfy one of our basic human needs. Visual aesthetic values can
be considered as a hierarchy of human responses to visual motivation. At the bottom level of the ladder is
order of visual forms, their simplicity, and clarity—our visual neatness. These values are derived from our
need to recognize and understand objects. Aesthetic appeal in product design relate better to symmetric
shapes with closed boundaries. Visual observation is enhanced by the repetition of visual elements related
by similarity of shape, position, or color. Another visual characteristic to enhance Observation is
homogeneity, or the standardization of shapes. For example: we relate much more readily to a square
shape with its equal angles than to a trapezoid. Designing products so that they consist of well-recognized

m
geometric shapes greatly facilitates visual perception. Also, reducing the number of design elements and
bunch them into more compact shapes support recognition
o
.c
a
The highest level of the visual aesthesis ladder deals with the group of aesthetic values derived from the
prevailing fashion, taste, or culture. These are the class of values usually associated with styling. There is

m
a close link between these values and the state of available technology.

a
For example: the advent of steel beams and columns made the high-rise building a possibility, and high-

n
strength steel wire made possible the graceful suspension bridge.

y
A strong driver of prevailing visual taste traditionally has been the influence of people in positions of

d
power and wealth. In today’s society this is most likely to be the influence of media stars. Another strong

u
influence is the human need and search for newness. Engineered systems contain many components, and

t
for each a material must be selected. The automobile is our most familiar engineering system and one that

S
exhibits major changes in the materials used for its construction.
Product Aesthetic Criterion:
a) Unity: A product should appear as a one complete unit, if there are any separate elements, they
should arrange in the most logical way. There should not be anything missing and at the same time
there should not be superfluous or surprise element in the design.
b) Order: all components of the order should be in recognizable pattern and in a repitive manner;
however, care should be taken to prevent monotony in design.
 2

Aesthetic Consideration in Design:

Engineering
Analysis Science
Knowledge
Inventiveness

Decision
Aesthetic Design Consideration
Making

Communication
Skill
Manufacturing
m
Interdisciplinary
Knowledge ability
o
.c
a
1) Inventiveness: ability to think and analyze or discover new sparking ideas or concept for

m
archiving a goal.
2) Engineering Analysis: Ability to analyze a given component, system or process using
a
Engineering or scientific principles in order to quickly solve a meaningful solution

n
3) Engineering Science Knowledge: should have a technical knowledge in a particular discipline

y
4) Interdisciplinary ability: able to deal confidentially with basic problems.

d
5) Decision Making: able to make decisions in the event of disciplinary with full grasp of all the
factors involved.
u
t
6) Manufacturing Knowledge: should have a knowledge of old and new manufacturing process.

S
7) Communication skill: A design is explanation of an object and instruction for its production. It
will exist to the extent .it is expressed in the available modes of communication .the best way to
communicate a design is through drawings, which is a universal language of designer

DESIGN IN INDUSTRIES: Industrial design is a process deals with uniting factors as technology,
marketing, sales, recycling, and disposal to create the balance between the commercial, Immaterial and
aesthetic value of product .the word industrial design relates to an industrial production technology.
Industrial design is a creative process which integrates the physical qualities of a product with aesthetic
(Concerned with beauty) considerations. Design is both the result as end product and the process which
creates the result
 3

Unit-05/Lecture-02

USER CENTRED DESIGN

User Centred Design/ User Friendly Design: The quality of interaction between the person who uses
the product to achieve actual work and the product itself is the primary goal of user-centered design.

User centered design four basic suggestions on how a design should be:
1) Make it easy to determine what actions are possible at any moment.
2) Make things visible, including the conceptual model of the system, the alternative actions, and
the results of actions.
3) Make it easy to evaluate the current state of the system.
4) Follow natural mappings between intentions and the required actions; between actions and the
resulting effect; and between the information that is visible and the interpretation of the system
state m
o
.c
a
m
a
n
y
d
u
t
S
Role of designer: These recommendations place the user at the center of the design. The role of the
designer is to facilitate the task for the user and to make sure that the user is able to make use of the
product as intended and with a minimum effort to learn how to use it. Norman noted that the long
awkward, jumbled manuals that accompany products are not user-centered. He suggests that the
products should be accompanied by a small brochure that can be read very quickly and draws on the
user’s knowledge of the world. Telling designers that products should be intuitive is not enough; some
design principles are needed to guide the design.
 4

Principle of design: Norman (1988) suggested that the following seven principles of design are
essential for facilitating the designer’s task:

m
1. Use both knowledge in the world and knowledge in the head: By building conceptual

o
models, write manuals that are easily understood and that are written before the design is

.c
implemented.
2. Simplify the structure of tasks: Make sure not to overload the short-term memory, or the long

a
term memory of the user. On average the user is able to remember five things at a time. Make

m
sure the task in consistent and provide mental aids for easy recovery of information from long-

a
term memory. Make sure the user has control over the task.

n
3. Make things visible: bridge the gulfs of Execution and Evaluation. The user should be able to

y
figure out the use of an object by seeing the right buttons or devices for executing an operation.

d
4. Get the mappings right: One way to make things understandable is to use graphics.
5. Exploit the power of constraints: both natural and artificial, in order to give the user the feel
u
t
that there is one thing to do.

S
6. Design for error: Plan for any possible error that can be made, this way the user will be
allowed the option of recovery from any possible error made.
7. When all else fails, standardize. Create an international standard if something cannot be
designed without arbitrary mappings
How to Involve Users in Design?
It is necessary to think carefully about who is a user and how to involve users in the design process.
Obviously users are the people who will use the final product or to accomplish a task or goal. But there
are other users as well. The people who manage the users have needs and expectations too. What about
those persons who are affected in some way by the use of the object or use the products and/or services
of the object? Shouldn’t their needs and expectations be taken into consideration in the design process?
 5

Eason (1987) identified three types of users: primary, secondary, and tertiary.

Primary users are those persons who actually use the object
Secondary users are those who will occasionally use the object or those who use it through an
intermediary
Tertiary users are persons who will be affected by the use of the objector make decisions about its
purchase.

The successful design of a product must take into account the wide range of users of the object. Not
everyone who is a stake holder needs to be represented on a design team, but the effect of the object on
them must be considered Once the stakeholders have been identified and a thorough investigation of
their needs has been conducted by performing tasks and needs analyses, designers can develop

m
alternative design solutions to be evaluated by the users. These design solutions can be simple paper

o
and pencil drawings in the beginning phase of the process. Listening to users discuss the alternative

.c
designs can amplify designers understanding of the intended purpose of the object and may provide
information that does not come out of initial interviews, observations, and needs analysis. As the design

a
cycle progresses, prototypes (limited versions of the product/artifact) can be produced and user tested.

m
At this point, designers should pay close attention to the evaluations by the users as they will help
identify measurable usability criteria. Measurable usability criteria address issues related to the
a
effectiveness, efficiency, safety, utility, learn ability and memo ability (how long it takes to

n
remember to perform the most common tasks) of the product/object and users’ subjective

y
satisfaction with it. You can see how difficult it would be for designers to know or imagine all the

d
usability criteria that are important to the users. It is only through feedback collected in an interactive

u
iterative process involving users that products can be refined.

t
Usability Testing
S
Usability testing, according to Dumas & Redish (1993), aims to achieve the following five goals, to:
• improve the product’s usability
• involve real users in the testing
• give the users real tasks to accomplish
• enable testers to observe and record the actions of the participants
• enable testers analyze the data obtained and make changes accordingly

Before product implementation, paper mock-ups of screen displays can be tested in order
To assess the wording and layout. Many techniques are employed in usability testing, including:
 6

• Think aloud techniques in which the user is asked to clear all the steps of his / her actions.
• Videotaping is valuable to review what the participants did, and to show designers where the
problems are in their designs.
• Interviews and user satisfaction questionnaires enable designers to evaluate the user’s likes and
dislikes about the design and to gain a deeper understanding of any problems.

Typically the tests require typical users to perform typical standardized tasks in a typical task
environment so that the following data can be collected:
• Time for users to learn a specific function
• Speed of task performance
• Type and rate of errors by users
• User retention of commands over time
• Subjective user satisfaction
m
o
.c
After the product is released, it is also recommended that evaluation be continued. The most frequent
method of evaluation is interviews and focus groups. Both provide valuable information about user

a
satisfaction and any problems with the functionality that might need rethinking. Data logging may also

m
be performed.

a
Advantages and Disadvantages of User-Centered Design:

n
The major advantage of the user centered design approach is that a deeper understanding of the

y
psychological, organizational, social and ergonomic factors that affect the use of computer technology

d
emerges from the involvement of the users at every stage of the design and evaluation of the product.

u
The involvement of users assures that the product will be suitable for its intended purpose in the

t
environment in which it will be used. This approach leads to the development of products that are more

S
effective, efficient, and safe. It also helps designers manage user’s expectations about a new product.
When users have been involved in the design of a product, they know from an early stage what to
expect from a product and they feel that their ideas and suggestions have been taken into account
during the process. This leads to a sense of ownership for the final product that often results in higher
customer satisfaction and smoother integration of the product into the environment If the design is not
user-centered; it could lead to ill-thought out designs. When users’ expectations are not met, they may
get frustrated or even angry.
The major disadvantage to user centered design is that is can be quite costly. It takes time to gather
data from and about users especially if you seek to understand the environment in which they will be
using the products. The process requires resources, both financial and human. User-centered design
 7

teams generally
Benefit from including persons from different disciplines, particularly psychologists, sociologists and
anthropologists whose job it is to understand users needs and communicate them to the technical
developers in the team. The downside of this approach is that members of the team have to learn to
communicate effectively and to respect each other’s contributions and expertise. This can be time
consuming and hence adds costs to the process. Management may question whether this added value is
worth the cost, particularly if delivery dates are threatened

Advantages Disadvantages
Products are more efficient, effective, and safe It is more costly.
Assists in managing users’ expectations and It takes more time
levels of satisfaction with the product.
Users develop a sense of ownership for the May require the involvement of additional design

m
product team members (i. e. ethnographers, usability
experts) and wide range of stakeholders
Products require less redesign and integrate into
o
May be difficult to translate

.c
the some types of data into design
environment more quickly

a
The collaborative process generated more The product may be too specific for more general
creative use, thus not readily transferable to other clients;

m
design solutions to problems thus more costly

a
n
Key aspects of user-centered design:
* Early focus on users, tasks and environment
* The active involvement of users y
d
* An appropriate allocation of function between user and system

u
* Iterative design whereby a prototype is designed, tested and modified
t
* Multi-disciplinary design teams
S
 8

Unit-05/Lecture-03
MATERIAL SELECTION

Material selection:

These trends in materials selection reflect the great effort that is being made to decrease the fuel
consumption of cars by downsizing the designs and adopting weight-saving materials. Prior to 1975, steel
and cast iron comprised about 78 percent of the weight of a car, with aluminum and plastics each at
Slightly less than 5 percent. Today, ferrous materials comprise about 57 percent of the total weight, with
plastics at about 20 percent and aluminum at about 8 percent. Aluminum is in an ongoing battle with steel
to take over the structural frame and part of the sheet panels. Complex and severe service conditions can be
economically withstood only by combining several materials in a single component. The surface hardening
of gears and other automotive components by carburizing or nitriding 25 is a good example. Here the high

m
hardness, strength, and wear resistance of high-carbon steel is produced in the surface layers of ductile and
tougher low-carbon steel.
o
.c
An excellent example of a complex materials system used in a severe environment is the exhaust valve in

a
an internal-combustion engine. Valve materials must have excellent corrosion- and oxidation-resistance
properties to resist “burning” at the service temperature range of 1350 to 1700°F.

m
They must have
a
n
(1) sufficient high-temperature fatigue strength and creep resistance to resist failure

y
(2) Suitable hot hardness to resist wear and abrasion.

d
u
Materials and the manufacturing processes that convert them into useful parts underlie all of

t
engineering design. There are over 100,000 engineering materials to choose from. The typical design

S
engineer should have ready access to information on 30 to 60 materials, depending on the range of
application deals with it. The recognition of the importance of materials selection in design has increased
in recent years. Concurrent engineering practices have brought materials specialists into the design process
at an earlier stage. The importance given to quality and cost aspects of manufacturing in present-day
product design has emphasized the fact that materials and manufacturing are closely linked in determining
final product performance. Moreover, the pressures of worldwide competition have increased the level of
automation in manufacturing to the point where material costs comprise 60 percent or more of the cost for
most products. Finally, the extensive activity in materials science worldwide has created a variety of new
materials and focused our attention on the competition between
 9

Six broad classes of materials: metals, polymers, elastomers, ceramics, glasses, and composites. Thus,
the range of materials available to the engineer is much broader than ever before. This presents the
opportunity for innovation in design by utilizing these materials to provide greater performance at lower
cost. Achieving these benefits requires a rational process for materials selection An incorrectly chosen
material can lead not only to failure of the part but also to excessive life-cycle cost. Selecting the best
material for a part involves more than choosing both a material that has the properties to provide the
necessary performance in service and the processing methods used to create the finished part. A poorly
chosen material can add to manufacturing cost. Properties of the material can be enhanced or diminished
by processing, and that may affect the service performance of the part. Faced with the large number of
combinations of materials and processes from which to choose, the materials selection task can only be
done effectively by applying simplification and systemization. As design proceeds from concept design, to
configuration and parametric design (embodiment design), and to detail design, the material and process

m
selection becomes more detailed. The task is to determine whether each design concept will be made from

o
metal, plastics, ceramic, composite, or wood, and to narrow it to a group of materials within that material

.c
family. The required precision of property data is rather low. Materials are selected on the basis of four
general criteria: Performance characteristics (properties)

a
Processing (manufacturing) characteristics Environmental profile Business considerations. The material

m
properties required in a part usually are formalized through specifications. Sometimes this is done by
listing the material designation, AISI 4140 steel— for example: on the detail drawing of the part, along
a
with processing instructions, such as the heat treatment temperatures and times. In this case the designer

n
depends on generally accepted specifications established through organizations such as the Society of

y
Automotive Engineers (SAE), ASTM, or ISO to give the requirements on chemical composition,

d
grain size, surface finish, and other material descriptors.Many of the products that engineers are

u
developing today are the result of new technology. Much of the technology explosion started with the

t
invention of the digital computer and transistor in the 1940s and their subsequent development through the

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1950s and 1960s. The transistor evolved into micro-integrated circuits, which allowed the computer to
shrink in size and cost, becoming the desktop computer we know today. Combining the computer with
communications systems and protocols like optical fiber communications gave us the Internet and cheap,
dependable worldwide communications. At no other time in history have several breakthrough
technologies combined to so substantially change the world we live in. Yet, if the pace of technology
development continues to accelerate, the future will see even greater change.
 10

Unit 05/Lecture 04

VISUAL MERCHANDISING

Visual merchandising: Visual Merchandising is termed as the art of displaying merchandise in a manner
that is appealing to the eyes of the customer. It sets the context of the merchandise in an aesthetically
pleasing fashion, presenting them in a way that would convert the window shoppers into prospects and
ultimately buyers of the product.55But it is little different from the real art, the main principle of visual
merchandising is that it is intended to increase sales, which is not the case with a "real" art.Visual
merchandising is the activity and business of developing the floor plans and three-dimensional displays in
order to maximize sales. Both goods and services can be displayed to highlight their features and benefits.
The purpose of such visual merchandising is to attract, engage, and motivate the customer towards making
a purchase

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VISUAL MERCHANDISING ---AESTHETIC APPEAL TO CUSTOMERS.
o
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In an age of globalizations, average consumers today are very demanding when it comes to the layout and
aesthetics of any establishment they visit. They want to be attracted and motivated to enter a shop or stall

a
and in that moment of decision-making rests the difference between a prospect and a sale for retailers.

m
Successful retailing businesses always wish to create a distinct and consistent image in the customers mind.

a
Visual merchandiser can help create that positive customer image that leads to successful sales. Visual

n
merchandising therefore has become a critical aspect of retailing and retailers are increasingly looking

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toward creating a unique environment that is aesthetically pleasing as well as being cost effective. Here,

d
technology comes into play with its capabilities to attract as well as provide information on consumer
behavioral patterns. Also in modern retailing, attaining leadership and building a store image in the
u
customer’s mind requires a great deal of skill and planning. A Store brand has to break through the
t
clutter and make an impression on the customer’s mind to eventually convert the coordinated entity of the
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store that’s in the customer’s mind into a particular image. Image can be described as the overall look of a
store and the series of mental picture and feelings it evokes in the beholder. Image is the foundation of all
retailing efforts. Studies indicate that a retailer has roughly seven seconds to capture the attention of a
passing customer. Visual merchandising makes it possible by grabbing the customers’ attention and
making a positive impression in those precious few seconds as he is aware of the rules of perception. The
researcher would like to clear the Rules of perception
Every potential purchase starts with a first impression.
The initial contact with the customer will determine
i) How long he will stay
ii) His inclination to buy
 11

iii) Created a positive or negative feeling towards the shop/brand.

PRINCIPLES OF VISUAL MERCHANDISING:

There are 5 principles of Visual merchandising
1. Clarity
The company’s image
The structure of store
The offering
Merchandise m
o
.c
2. Authority: To display with authority is to show and tell the customer that the company believes in the
merchandise that is being sold, this is attained by ensuring that the shop floor looks neat, clean, adequately
stocked, well- coordinated.
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3. Discipline: Ensuring presentation norms are being followed for. e.g. Merchandise should not touch the
floor; there is a minimum of 4ft of circulation space for each fixture.
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4. Diversity: The ability of merchandising various products in the same area, for e.g. coordinating top

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wear/ bottom wear/ accessories in focal point/ high point or on a wall and yet the display is harmonious

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5. Flexibility: Mixing merchandise and having different display configurations.

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History of visual merchandising:

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When the huge nineteenth century dry goods establishments like Marshall Field & Co. shifted their

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business from wholesale to retail, the visual display of goods became necessary to attract the general
consumers. The store windows were often used to attractively display the store's merchandise. Over time,
the design aesthetic used in window displays moved indoors and became part of the overall interior store
design, eventually reducing the use of display windows in many suburban malls. In the twentieth century,
well-known artists such as Salvador Dalí and Andy Warhol created window displays. In the beginning of
twenty-first century visual merchandising is forming as a science. Nowadays, Visual Merchandising
became one of the major tools of business promotion which is widely used to attract customers and
increase sales.

Concept of visual merchandising: Visual merchandising is the activity and profession of developing the
 12

floor plans and three-dimensional displays in order to maximise sales. Both goods and services can be
displayed to highlight their features and benefits.

Visual Merchandiser job: Visual merchandisers (also known as window dressers or display assistants)
use their design skills to help promote the image, products and services of retail businesses and other
organisations. They create eye-catching product displays and store layouts and design to attract customers
and encourage them to buy.

Visual image in the marketing: Visual marketing is the discipline studying the relationship between an
object, the context it is placed in and its relevant image. Representing a disciplinary link between economy,
visual perception laws and cognitive psychology, the subject mainly applies to businesses such as fashion
and design.

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Functional of visual merchandiser: The logical aspect of VISUAL MERCHANDISER attends to the
customer’s convenience and understands customer psychology. VISUAL MERCHANDISER is
o
.c
Aesthetic: The visual appeal of a display through the choice of colors, the use of props, the light focus etc.
gives an aesthetic value to the display. However, it’s important to realize that the aesthetic aspect gets a

a
shopper’s attention; it is the functionality of a display will convert a potential buyer into a customer.

m
Functionality of VISUAL MERCHANDISER supports sales as it is easier for the shopper to locate the

a
desired merchandise. It saves the shoppers time and take the stress out of shopping. It also helps in easier
self-selection. Aesthetic aspect increase sales as it guide customers on fashion, new arrivals, and trends. It

n
helps in coordinating and accessorizing and also builds the add-on sales.

y
d
Role of a merchandiser: Retail merchandiser: Job description. Merchandisers are responsible for

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ensuring that products appear in the right store, or on a website, at the appropriate time and in the correct

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quantities. This involves working closely with the buying teams to accurately forecast trends, plan stock

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levels and monitor performance. VISUAL DISPLAY ARTISTS are unsung heroes in the beauty
industry. They take a concept or idea and translate that into an exciting and sometimes breathtaking
in-store experience - one delights and engages consumers of all ages. In today’s scenario where there is
stiff competition according to researcher a person who desire to attract guests to a place of business in
order to sell its merchandise is a visual merchandiser.
There are different names given to Visual Merchandisers some stores call them Display People. Others
are called Sign Makers. But, they do one and the same thing: Make the store attractive for customers. The
presence of his role is felt when one get to see those beautiful windows, or signs announcing a sale in a
store. A Visual Merchandising Department also has a hierarchy, like any other job. The head is usually
called Visual Merchandising Director or Display Director. Sometimes, he or she is called Vice President-
 13

Visual Merchandising, depending on the hierarchy system in the company.

Visual Merchandiser: Display designers and Visual merchandisers use their design skills to promote the
image, products and services of businesses and other organizations.

The work involves:

Researching to get an understanding of what are needed, and coming up with design ideas.
For visual merchandisers, sourcing elements such as lighting, props and accessories.
For some jobs, installing and dismantling displays, making the most of the space available, working
within a budget and meeting deadlines.

Visual merchandisers create imaginative, eye-catching displays of goods in retail stores.

They aim to attract the attention of the customers and encourage them to buy. Their task
can include:
m
o
researching lifestyle and design trends and making sure designs will appeal to the target audience

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working with other members of the design, marketing and buying team to develop themes and color
schemes for displays- e.g. Christmas, Valentine’s Day, sales and special promotions

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sketching design and developing floor plans, making the most of the space available

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taking direction from head office on corporate schemes

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sourcing material, such as props and lighting
installing and dismantling displays
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preparing visual merchandising packs, including plans and photographs, for other stores in the chain, to

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make sure all displays present a consistent image

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Visiting branches to train and brief staff on arranging displays.

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Purpose of a visual merchandiser: Both goods or services can be displayed to highlight their features and
benefits. The purpose of such visual merchandising is to attract, engage, and motivate the customer
towards making a purchase. Visual merchandising commonly occurs in retail spaces such as retail stores
and trade shows.
 14

Benefits of Visual Merchandising

All types of retail stores can benefit from visual merchandising. Some of the key benefits include:

Reflects your brand – A good visual merchandising display stays in-line with the company’s overall
m
brand. For example, a franchise business might want all its franchisees to have the same promotional
displays. It gives a business a sense of identity and brand consistency. o
.c
Engages the shoppers – An attractive and welcoming store creates a positive first impression. It
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encourages people to come into the store, and can help guide them in finding the right product for their

m
needs. Visual merchandising helps create a positive shopping experience for customers so that they will be
more likely to return for future visits.
a
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Grow sales – When done effectively, visual merchandising can increase sales by directing people to the
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products they want or need. It can also help them discover new products and solutions. A nicely dressed

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mannequin can encourage a person to seek out an outfit and accessories that they may not have originally
been looking for. u
t
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Disadvantages of visual merchandising:

Whether you are selling clothes, hardware, electronics, food, or anything else, a professional visual
merchandiser can be an important asset to your team. They can help your retail business get the results you
want.

Maximizing profit is one of the basic goals of business, which prompts many business owners to seek
revenues in areas that may be outside of their primary business models. Merchandising is the creation and
promotion of goods for sale at retail, which is a common way businesses attempt to bring in additional
revenue. While merchandising can produce profit, it can also have some significant drawbacks.
 15

Cost: One of the main disadvantages of merchandising is the cost associated with creating products to sell
at retail and the cost of getting such products on store shelves and promoting them. Small business owners
often do not have extra money to commit toward new projects and programs outside of the main focus of
the business, so merchandising may not be financially feasible for some companies. For example, a small
film production company might not have the resources to produce retail products like action figures of
characters in its films.

Customer Base: One of the most important parts of building a successful small business is to grow a loyal
customer base that demands the products or services that the company offers. If a company does not have a
well-established base of customers, there may not be a significant amount of demand for merchandise
associated with the company.

Risk: Any new project or program a company undertakes carries the inherent risk of failure. If the amount

m
of revenue generated from merchandise sales does not exceed the costs of producing and promoting the

o
merchandise, the merchandising operation will result in losses. A small business may be better served by

.c
committing its funds toward developing its core business concept than attempting to branch out into selling
merchandise.

a
m
Considerations: In some cases, business owners may license the right to produce and sell products

a
associated with its intellectual property to other companies. For example, a small film production company
might allow a larger firm to create and sell action figures of characters in its films. In this case, the

n
company that licenses the rights to sell products may take on costs of production and promotion, but the

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film production company will not receive all of the profits realized from the merchandising campaign.

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Unit-05/Lecture 05
ERGONOMICS
 16

ERGONOMICS: The word “ergonomics’’ is derived from an Ancient Greek word meaning “rules or
study of work”. It is also referred to as human factors (in design). Ergonomics is concerned with
appropriate design for people - the design of systems, processes, equipment and environments so that tasks
and activities required of them are within their limitations but also make the best use of their capabilities.
Therefore the focus of the design is on the person or a group of people. This is often termed “user-centred
design”.
Ergonomics is a science; it is an accurate, user-centred approach to research and design. It is
also a philosophy and a way of thinking. It is applied widely in areas such as aviation and other transport
systems, sport, education, public facilities, the home, recreational equipment and facilities and in the
workplace generally. In fact, the whole community benefits from ergonomics design. Ergonomics
considers the whole work system, and the effects of the system on human and system performance

m
Ergonomics has three domain areas: Physical ergonomics, Cognitive ergonomics and Organisational

o
ergonomics.

History of Ergonomics
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a
Ergonomics in the United Kingdom arose out of World War 2 when scientists were asked to determine the

m
capabilities of the soldier in order to maximise efficiency of the fighting man (Pheasant, 1991). In the
United States, ergonomics arose out of psychology and cognitive function in the aviation industry and was
a
termed “human factors”. Today these terms are used interchangeably. Since the industrial revolution, work

n
has turned away from its agricultural base to city-based work environments. Further changes have occurred

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in recent times with an increase of females in paid employment, an increasing age of workers, an

d
internationalisation of the workforce and an increased trend to contract or outsource work. All of these

u
changes have implications for design of equipment and work systems, and a role for ergonomics.

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Scope of Ergonomics and Systems of Work
Ergonomists and designers take into account a wide range of human factors and consider biological,
physical and psychological characteristics as well as the needs of people - how they see, hear, understand,
make decisions and take action. They also consider individual differences including those that occur due to
age, fitness/health, or disability and how these may alter people’s responses and behaviours. As there are
many factors to be considered in ergonomics, a range of people are involved in its research and application.
Specialist Ergonomists usually have university qualifications in ergonomics and related fields and can
come from a range of disciplines such as physiology, psychology, engineering, physiotherapy, occupational
therapy, medicine, industrial design, architecture, occupational health and safety (OHS), industrial relations
and management. In order to address ergonomics issues at workplaces, Ergonomists interact and consult
 17

with designers, engineers, managers and the end users of any system, the workforce and individual
workers.

Ergonomics
Workforce
Team Leader

Ergonomics Ergonomics MSD

Expert Process Model Management
(Treating health
professionals)

Ergonomics
Designers, m
Product

o
Problem
solving teams researchers, etc

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Aims, Objectives and Benefits of Ergonomics

a
The overall aim of ergonomics is to promote efficiency and productivity and ensure that the capacities of
the human in the system are not exceeded. The word “optimum” is often used in ergonomics and refers to

n
the balancing of the needs of people with real-life limitations such as the availability of solutions, their

y
feasibility and costs. Successful solutions depend on solving the real, rather than the apparent problems.

d
This in turn requires careful observation and analysis. Ergonomics problems and solutions may not transfer

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exactly from one country, region or industry to another – they have a social context. Although the basic

t
human characteristics are the same they take on local differences for a range of reasons – geographical,

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social, economic or historical. It can be described as „the way we do things around here‟ and relate to the
culture of a country, region, industry and/or company. Consequently, ergonomics issues should be
identified and addressed locally because each set of circumstances is different. Importing solutions without
reference to local issues and resources may fail.
In terms of cost benefits the advantage of ergonomics changes is that they will make the job faster, easier,
safer and enhance productivity. It is important to assess the benefits in the short, medium and long term, as
expensive equipment and process changes may take some time to take effect.

When analysing work and how it can be improved from an ergonomics point of view there are five
 18

elements that need to be addressed:

1. The worker: the human element of the workplace. Employees have a range of characteristics that need
to be considered including physical and cognitive capacities; experience and skills; education and training;
age; sex; personality; health; residual disabilities. An individual’s personal needs and aspirations are also
considered.
2. Job/task design: what the employee is required to do and what they actually do. It includes job content;
work demands; restrictions and time requirements such as deadlines; individual’s control over workload
including decision latitude, working with other employees; and responsibilities of the job.
3. Work environment: the buildings, work areas and spaces; lighting, noise, the thermal environment.
4. Equipment design: the hardware of the workplace. It is part of ergonomics that most people recognise
and includes electronic and mobile equipment, protective clothing, furniture and tools.
5. Work organisation: the broader context of the organisation and the work and how this affects

m
individuals. It includes patterns of work; peaks and troughs in workload, shift work; consultation;

o
inefficiencies or organisational difficulties; rest and work breaks; teamwork; how the work is organised and

.c
why; the workplace culture; as well as the broader economic and social influences.

Ergonomics at the Design Stage

a
m
Design of equipment, workplaces and systems of work require design to ergonomic specifications as well
as the production of the output. Ergonomics is about designing for the user population, but also to consider
a
the potential population that may access the workplace. A good example of this is the consideration of

n
wheelchair users when designing door widths and accommodating the needs of the ageing workforce given

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the foreseen increase in older workers in employment into the future. Workplaces, equipment and work

d
environments that are designed for a greater range of people to use provide greater flexibility in terms of

u
who can effectively operate in that environment. In other words, we need to design for the greatest

t
percentage of the population, However, even with the best design process, unforeseen issues may arise. To

S
overcome this, the process of trials, mock-ups or prototypes is undertaken in order to consult with the user
group and make modifications based on the feedback.

ERGONOMICS METHODS & TECHNIQUES

This topic describes methods which can be used to facilitate good ergonomics practice; as well as methods
to identify and investigate poor ergonomics practice and improve the work system and its elements to
promote human comfort and productivity.

WORK DESIGN
 19

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1 Allocation of Functions
When designing an overall system or process, the design team need to decide on the best way to allocate
a
system functions, jobs and tasks to human or automated components. To do this effectively, the design

m
team needs to understand the capabilities of humans and machines and allocate components effectively.

a
This process is known as sociotechnical allocations

n
Ergonomic Principles in the Design of Work Systems

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The 6 phases outlined in the standard are:

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1. Formulation of goals (requirements analysis).

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Identification of relevant ergonomic issues through studies, or statistics, focus groups etc.

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2. Analysis and allocation of functions

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Determining the technical and human capabilities and limitations.
3. Design concept
Carry out a hierarchical task analysis (see next section); conduct simulation, scale model mock-ups, user
trials and interview/discussion.
4. Detailed design
Design of work organisation; jobs; work tasks; work environment; equipment (hardware and software);
and design of workspace/workstation.
5. Realisation, implementation and validation
Planned, documented, staged introduction of new system with adequate and appropriate
consultation/training with the user group; ensure system is „validated‟ – ie that it is working well and does
not cause any ergonomic issues for the users.
 20

6. Evaluation
Review whole process (steps 1-6) to use as a learning experience for the organisation. Evaluation should
include the 3 categories of worker health, safety and performance as outlined in the table below.

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Unit 01/ lecture-6

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EVALUTION IN COMMUNICATION
Communication from Latin commūnicāre, meaning “to share” is the purposeful activity of information
exchange between two or more participants in order to convey or receive the proposed meanings through a
shared system of signs and semiotic rules. The basic steps of communication are the forming of
communicative intent, message composition, message encoding, and transmission of signal, reception of
signal, message decoding and finally explanation of the message by the recipient.

m
o
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a
HISTORY OF COMMUNICATION: The first major model for communication was introduced by

m
Claude Shannon and Warren Weaver for Bell Laboratories in 1949.The original model was designed to

a
mirror the functioning of radio and telephone technologies. Their initial model consisted of three primary

n
parts: sender, channel, and receiver. The sender was the part of a telephone a person spoke into, the channel

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was the telephone itself, and the receiver was the part of the phone where one could hear the other person.

d
Shannon and Weaver also recognized that often there is static that interferes with one listening to a
telephone conversation, which they deemed noise.
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 22

Communication is simply the act of transferring information from one place to another.

Although this is a simple definition, when we think about how we may communicate the subject becomes a
lot more complex. There are various categories of communication and more than one may occur at any
time.

m
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a
m
a
n
The different categories of communication are:

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A)
d
Spoken or Verbal Communication: face-to-face, telephone, radio or television and other media.

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B) Non-Verbal Communication: body language, gestures, how we dress or act - even our scent.
C) Written Communication: letters, e-mails, books, magazines, the Internet or via other media.
 23

Written communication is sending a message by the use of symbols that are understood by both the
sender and receiver of the message. If you are reading the transcript of this lesson, you are engaged
in written communication. While managers spend most of their time communicating with their
subordinates and upper managers in a face-to-face setting, they also spend a good deal of time
writing memos, letters, e-mails and reports. Written communication refers to messages that are
transmitted to receivers in writing.

Advantages of written communication include:

1) Immediacy and economical feasibility - A manager can communicate a message quickly to

individuals despite their geographical location. Email is less expensive than long-distance phone calls and
certainly less than travel expenses, especially when a message needs to be conveyed to a large group.

m
2) Efficiency and accuracy - Written communication allows for reflection, affording a manager the

o
opportunity to refine a message for correctness.

.c
3) Flexibility - A manger can send a message and the receiver can review it at the time that is convenient

a
for them.

D)
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Body language is a form of nonverbal communication that can be used to send a message. You can

a
often tell if your boss is pleased or upset simply by looking at his facial expressions, posture and

n
gestures. For example, a flushed face may mean embarrassment; a clinched fist may indicate anger;

y
and the rolling of one's eyes may signal disbelief or annoyance messages.

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E) Visualizations: graphs and charts, maps, logos and other visualizations can communicate Verbal

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communication is simply sending a message through a spoken language that is understood by both

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the sender and receiver of the message. Examples of verbal communications include face-to-face

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talking, listening to a lecture or seminar, and listening to a television program. In fact, if you are
listening to this lesson, you are engaged in a verbal form of communication.

Below are some possible problem areas that may turn out to be barriers to effective communication:

(a) Status/Role: The sender and receiver of a message may be of equal status within a hierarchy (e.g.
managers in an organization) or they may be at different levels (e.g. manager/employee, lecturer/student,
business owner/clients). This difference in status sometimes affects the effectiveness of the
Communication process.
(b) Cultural Differences
Cultural differences, both within or outside the organization (for example, inter-departmental dealings and
 24

communication with outside organizations or ethnic minorities) may impede the communication process.
Choice of Communication Channels Before you choose your communication channel, you should ask
yourself whether the channel is appropriate for a particular purpose and the person/receiver you have in
mind. Sending messages via inappropriate channels can send out wrong signals and end up creating
confusion.
(d) Length of Communication
The length of the message also affects the communication process. You need to be sure that it serves the
purpose and is appropriate for the receiver. Is the message too long or too brief?
(e) Use of Language
Poor choice of words or weak sentence structure also hampers communication. The same goes for
inappropriate punctuation. The two sentences below illustrate clearly how different placement of
punctuation can change the entire meaning of a sentence:

m
(f) Disabilities

o
Disabilities such as impaired sight, dyslexia and poor mental health can also be barriers to good

.c
communication, and should be taken into consideration when evaluating the effectiveness of the
communication process. You may need to use hearing aids, sign language, magnifying systems, and
symbols to alleviate problems caused by disabilities.
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(g) Known or Unknown Receiver
Whether the receiver is known or unknown to you also plays a major role in determining the effectiveness
a
of your communication. A known receiver may be better able to understand your message despite having

n
insufficient information as both of you probably has common experiences and shared schemata. An

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unknown receiver, on the other hand, may require more information and time to decode the message.

d
(h) Individual Perceptions/Attitudes/Personalities

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Sometimes, the method of communication needs to take into consideration the receivers personality traits,

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age and preferred style. The elderly and children, for example, have different communication needs and

S
preferences when compared to young adults. Is the receiver of your message a visual, auditory,
Or kinesthetic sort of person? How do you think they will react to your message? Can you adapt your
communication style to suit theirs?

COMMUNICATION AND ITS IMPORTANCE:

 25

There are various means of communication. People communicate with each other by writing letters,
sending telegrams, radio, T.V., computer technology, newspapers, magazines and pamphlets; messages can
be sent by telegram, facsimile machine (FAX) and E-mail (Electronic mail) for business trade and other
services. E-mail has emerged as the fastest means of communication and is almost free. It is also important
to know that the choice of a particular means of communication depends on purposes.
Now, let us classify different means of communication into two groups:
1. Means of Personal Communication
2. Means of Mass Communication
1. Means of Personal Communication: We classify means of personal communication into two parts:
(i) Postal Service
(ii) Telephone Service
(i) Postal Service: Postal service is a very old means of communication. Though letter writing is not that

m
popular any longer, it is still important even today. Indian Postal Network is the largest in the world. In
2001, India had 1,55,000 post offices providing different services like – letters, money orders, parcels,
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postal saving schemes, etc.
(ii) Telephone Service: It has emerged as one of the most important and widely used means of

a
communication in today’s world. It is quick and affordable, serving our need seamlessly.

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2. Means of Mass Communication: The means by which information can be communicated to a very
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large number of people are called Media or Mass Communication, such as radio, television, newspaper,

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cinema, books, magazines, traditional folk modes and satellite communication.

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(i) Radio: Radio transmission in India started in 1927 from Mumbai and Kolkata to entertain, educate and

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apprise the people of the country with important information. Today the program of All India Radio (AIR)

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is available to 90% parts of the country to 98.8% of our people.

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(ii) Television: The national television transmission service of India started in 1959 is one of the biggest
ground transmission organizations of the world. Today, 87% of population can watch it. Television
program telecast by National, Regional and local Doordarshan and a large number of private channels are
available for education, information and recreation.

(iii) Computer (Information Technology): Today, computer has become the basis of communication and
economic development as it is used everywhere from homes, offices to shops, hospitals, railways, airports,
banks, educational institutions, etc.
Newer communication Technology
In recent years, there is revolution of new technology that has helped people in much better way such as:
 26

(a) Internet: It provides access to several kinds of information. It connects all types of computers across
the world to obtain information at the click of a button.
(b) Video Conferencing: People sitting at far off places can talk and express their views with the help of
telecommunication and computer.
(c) E-Commerce: Facility available for sale and purchase of goods through internet and fax.
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(d) Internet Telephony: It is software program me who makes a computer to work like telephone. This
facility has reduced the call rates drastically. o
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(e) E-Mail: It is a method of sending letters or information through internet to anyone in the world in the
blink of an eye.
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(f) Tele-Medicine: Using this technology, doctors can advise his patients sitting at a distance of thousands

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of kilometers from them. Thus, scientific advancement and technology has revolutionized the system of

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Communication and brought people very close to each other, to be in touch all the time and making the
world a global village.
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Unit -05/Lecture 08
EVALUTION IN TRANSPORTATION

TRANSPORT AND COMMUNICATION –LIFELINES OF A COUNTRY:

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them? Just imagine if one day you come to know that all the modern means of transport and
communication have been stopped due to unavailability of fuel. Also imagine the problems you are going
to face!

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Meaning of transportation: Transport refers to the activity that facilitates physical movement of goods as
well as individuals from one place to another. In business, it is considered as an auxiliary to trade, that
means, it supports trade and industry in carrying raw materials to the place of production and distributing
finished products for consumption. Individuals or business firms that engage
The Role of Transport and Communication
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consumption. Goods from the areas that have surplus are shifted to those areas which are deficient in those
items. Movement of people from one place to another place in search of job, education and emergency
through transport facility. Communication keeps us informed about the world’s events and trends. It brings
in positive changes in the life of the people and thereby enhancing their economic conditions.
THE MODES OF TRANSPORT
The modes of transport on which the countries depend for connecting people, growth and development are
as under:
Modes of Transport

Land Water Air

A) Land Transport can be broadly divided into two types:
1. Roadways
2. Railways

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1. Roadways: Roads are most commonly used means of transport. Roads play an important role in

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connecting people and also in ensuring socio-economic growth of a country as under:

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 Roads provide door to door service by means of a rickshaw, car, bicycle, bus, scooter or a truck.

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 The construction, repair and maintenance cost is less than other means of transport.
 It is the cheapest and the most convenient mode of transportation for a few people and relatively
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smaller amount of goods over shorter distances.

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 It is through roads that we reach railway stations, airports and seaports.
 Perishable goods like milk, fruits and vegetables are quickly carried from nearby villages to the
cities or metropolis or to other destinations.
 Roads connect rural areas to the urban areas and can be constructed in all types of terrains like hills,
deserts, mountain and plateaus.
Advantages of Road transport
Road transport has the following advantages.
(i) It is a relatively cheaper mode of transport as compared to other modes.
(ii) Perishable goods can be transported at a faster speed by road carriers over a short distance.
(iii) It is a flexible mode of transport as loading and unloading is possible at any destination. It provides
door-to-door service.
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(iv) It helps people to travel and carry goods from one place to another, in places which are not connected
by other means of transport like hilly areas.
Limitations of Road transport
It has the following limitations.
(i) Due to limited carrying capacity road transport is not economical for long distance transportation of
goods.
(ii) Transportation of heavy goods or goods in bulk by road involves high cost.
2. Railways: This is for our convenience and quick movement of passengers and freights. Such an act
causes inconvenience to the passengers, loss of millions of rupees, and affects business. This is the
cheapest transport by which thousands of people can travel together from one corner of the country to
another for the purpose of education, business, site seeing, pilgrimage or visiting friends or relatives.
 People of all income groups can travel by train as it has different types of coaches like General,

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Sleeper and AC chair car.
 It carries country’s largest amount of bulky goods like coal, cement, food grains, fertilizer,
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petroleum, automobiles etc. from mines to industries and from industries to the areas of
consumption.

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 Indian Railways started in 1853 from Bombay to Thane covering a distance of 34 km.

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 At present, Indian Railway network is the largest in Asia and the fourth largest in the world with
the length of more than 64000 kms.
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 It is the largest government undertaking employing 1.6 million people and a separate budget is
presented for it.
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 It has been divided into 16 zones for better administration and management of work.

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Advantages of Rail transport

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(i) It is a convenient mode of transport for travelling long distances.
(ii) It is relatively faster than road transport.
(iii) It is suitable for carrying heavy goods in large quantities over long distances.
(iv) Its operation is less affected by adverse weathers conditions like rain, floods, fog, etc.
Limitations of Railway transport
(i) It is relatively expensive for carrying goods and passengers over short distances.
(ii) It is not available in remote parts of the country.
(iii) It provides service according to fixed time schedule and is not flexible for loading or unloading of
goods at any place.
(iv) It involves heavy losses of life as well as goods in case of accident.
 30

B) Water Transport: Water transport is the process of moving people, goods, etc. by barge, boat, ship
or sailboat over a sea, ocean, lake, canal, river, etc. This category does not include articles on the tranport
of water for the purpose of consuming the water.
Have you ever wondered why people in ancient times settled down near the rivers?
How was trading possible between far off lands? Yes, it was through rivers and seas. From olden days till
now waterways had been an important means of transportation.

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HISTORY OF WATER TRANSPORTATION:

 Historically, societies have always located near water, due partly to the fact that water enables more
efficient travel compared to going over land. Waterways are critically important to the
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transportation of people and goods throughout the world. The complex network of connections
between coastal ports, inland ports, rail, air, and truck routes forms a foundation of material
economic wealth worldwide.
 Within the United States, waterways have been developed and integrated into a world-class
transportation system that has been instrumental in the country's economic development. Today,
there are more than 17,700 kilometers of commercially important navigation channels in the lower
48 states.

Advantages of water transportation:

1. Less Maintenance Cost: Maintenance cost in rail and road transport is quite high but maintenance cost
of water transport is quite less.

2. Cheap: The transport channel is quite cheap as compared rail and road Transport.

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3. Useful for Bulky Goods: Heavy and bulky goods can be transported easily at little cost through water

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transport.

4. Useful during Natural Calamities: During natural calamities like flood and rains, when rail and road
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transport is disrupted, relief operations can be operated through water transport.

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5. Helpful in Defence: Development of shipping is essential for the defence of the country also. It is also
called second line of defence. a
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6. Important for Foreign Trade: Water transport plays important role in foreign trade. India’s foreign

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trade is mainly dependent on water transport.

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Disadvantages:
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1. Slow: Speed of Inland water transport is very slow and therefore this mode of transport is unsuitable
where time is an important factor.

2. Limited Area of Operation: It can be used only in a limited area which is served by deep canals and
rivers.

3. Seasonal Character: Rivers and canals cannot be operated for transportation throughout the year as
water may freeze during winter or water level may go very much down during summer.

4. Unreliable: The inland water transport by rivers is unreliable. Sometimes the river changes its course
which causes dislocation in the normal route of the trade.
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5. Unsuitable for Small Business: Inland water transport by rivers and canals is not suitable for small
traders, as it takes normally a longer time to carry goods from one place to another through this form of
transport.

6. More Risky: Water transport is more risky as compared to other means because there is always danger
of sinking ships or boats.

C) Air Transport: Do you wish to fly like a bird? By airways, you can reach at the destination quickly
and without encounter any cringe traffic. Our modern day airplane was designed by the Wright Brothers in
1903. Air transport in India began in 1911. Today it is one of the important means of transportation like
roadways and railways. India has facilities of both domestic as well as international airways. Let us discuss
its importance in the modern age.

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 Air transport is considering that world is becoming a global village. It is the fastest means of
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transport and one can reach the destination in a few hours covering the distance of hundreds of
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 It is free from surface hindrances such as inaccessible mountains, dense forests, marshy lands or

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flooded areas.

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 It is most important due to its utility in national defence.
 It also connects countries of different continents making earth a global village.
 It is suitable for transporting fruits, vegetables or high value goods like costly drugs and
sophisticated machines in desired time frame.
 It is very useful at the time of natural or any other calamities for saving people or supplying goods
of their basic requirements immediately.
Advantages of Air transport
 It is the fastest mode of transport. (not an advantage)
 It is very useful in transporting goods and passengers to the area, which are not accessible by any
other means.
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 It is the most convenient mode of transport during natural calamities.

 It provides vital support to the national security and defence.
Limitations of air transport
 It is relatively more expensive mode of transport.
 It is not suitable for transporting heavy and bulky goods.
 It is affected by adverse weather conditions.
 It is not suitable for short distance travel.
 In case of accidents, it results in heavy losses of goods, property and life.

TRANSPORT EVALUTE FROM BULLOCK CART TO LEAR JETS:

BULLOCK CART: A bullock cart or ox cart is a two-wheeled or four-wheeled vehicle pulled

by oxen (draught cattle). It is a means of transportation used since ancient times in many parts of

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the world. They are still used today where modern vehicles are too expensive or the
infrastructure does not favour them.
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Used especially for carrying goods, the bullock cart is pulled by one or several oxen (bullocks).

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The cart (also known as a jinker) is attached to a bullock team by a special chain attached
to yokes, but a rope may also be used for one or two animals. The driver and any other

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passengers sit on the front of the cart, while load is placed in the back. Traditionally the cargo
was usually agrarian goods and load.
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BICYCLE: A bicycle, often called a bike or cycle, is a human-powered, pedal-driven, single-track

vehicle, having two wheels attached to a frame, one behind the other. A bicycle rider is called a cyclist, or
bicyclist.
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History of the bicycle: Vehicles for human transport that have two wheels and require balancing by the
rider date back to the early 19th century. The first means of transport making use of two wheels arranged
consecutively, and thus the archetype of the bicycle, was the German draisine dating back to 1817. The
term bicycle was coined in France in the 1860s.

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They are the principal means of transportation in many regions. They also provide a popular form of

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recreation, and have been adapted for use as children's toys, general fitness, military and police
applications, courier services, and bicycle racing. The bicycle's invention has had an enormous effect on

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society, both in terms of culture and of advancing modern industrial methods. Several components that

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eventually played a key role in the development of the automobile were initially invented for use in the

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bicycle, including ball bearings, pneumatic tires, chain-driven sprockets, and tension-spoked wheels

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Advantages of bicycle:

1) It's easier to finance a new bicycle than a new car. Thanks to the recession, auto loans are hard to find
these days — even if you have good credit. But for the price of a single car payment, you can buy a well-
made bicycle that should outlast most cars. Add a few hundred dollars more for rain gear, lights and
accessories, and you have all-weather, anytime transportation.

2) A bicycle has a tiny manufacturing footprint when compared to a car. All manufactured goods have
environmental impact, but bicycles can be produced for a fraction of the materials, energy and shipping
costs of a car.

3) Bicycles produce no meaningful pollution when in operation. Bikes don't have tailpipes belching
poisonous fumes into the atmosphere. They also eliminate the oil, fuel and hydraulic fluids dripped by
automobiles onto the road surface — which means less toxic runoff into local waterways.
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4) Bikes save taxpayers money by reducing road wear. A 20-pound bicycle is a lot less rough on the

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pavement than a two-ton sedan. Every bicycle on the road amounts to money saved patching potholes and

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resurfacing city streets.

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5) Bicycles are an effective alternative to a second car. Perhaps you're not in a position to adopt a

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bicycle as primary transportation. But bikes make great second vehicles. You can literally save thousands

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of dollars a year using a bicycle for workday commuting and weekend errands in households which might

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otherwise be forced to maintain two cars.

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6) Using a bike for transportation can help you lose weight and improve your overall health. The

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health benefits of regular aerobic exercise are well-known. Depending on your riding style and local road

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conditions, you could easily burn 600 calories an hour through brisk cycling. Most bike commuters report

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losing 15 to 20 pounds during their first year in the saddle without changing their eating habits.

7) You can store a dozen bicycles in a single automobile-sized parking place. Parking lots have
enormous environmental and financial impact, particularly in urbanized areas. The more bikes you can get
on the road, the fewer parking spaces you need to build.

8) Bicycles don't burn gasoline. Fuel is cheap compared to last year, and the economic downturn is likely
to keep a lid on petroleum demand for a while. But we're not producing any more oil today than we were
when it was more than $100 a barrel. A healthy bike culture will help ease pressure on supply once demand
returns.
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9) Bicycling may be faster and more efficient than taking a car. We're not talking about the crazy —
and illegal — antics of New York bicycle messengers. But bikes are often faster than cars in urban areas,
especially when city designers have set aside proper bike lanes. There's nothing more satisfying as a
bicycle commuter than breezing past a long line of gridlocked traffic.

10) Bikes cost much less to maintain and operate than automobiles. You'll never throw a rod on a
bicycle, and dropping a transmission on a bike usually means replacing a bent derailleur hanger or worn-
out chain. Bicycles do require service, but you can learn to perform most of it yourself. Even if you have a
shop do things for you, costs will be trivial compared to a car.

11) Bicycles provide mobility for those who may not qualify or afford to drive. Not everyone can get a
driver's license (or wants one), and the cost of purchasing, insuring and maintaining a car is out of reach for
a lot of people. Almost everyone can afford some sort of bike. Other than walking, bicycles are the most
cost-effective transportation on the planet.
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12) Studies show that bicycle commuters are healthier, more productive, and require less time off at
work. This is why most enlightened employers are eager to accommodate commuting cyclists. Healthy

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workers are better workers — and that's good for the bottom line. Bikes are smart business.

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LEAR JETS: Lear jet is an American manufacturer of business jets for civilian and military use. Founded

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in the late 1950s by William Powell Learas Swiss American Aviation Corporation, it has been a

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subsidiary of Bombardier since 1990, which markets it as the "Bombardier Learjet Family".

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History: Late in the day on October 7, 1963, the first Learjet* 23 (N801L) took flight for the first time in
Wichita, Kansas, just before the sun slipped below the prairie horizon. Test pilots Bob Hagan and Hank
Beaird knew instantly that they had a winner. The sleek jet, with an elegant design years ahead of its time,
flew like a dream. Its systems performed flawlessly and it accelerated on takeoff faster than any jet,
civilian or military, they had ever flown. By the time they were ready to land, the skies were nearly dark
but hundreds of headlights sparkled below at the Wichita airport. A local radio station reported that the
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Learjet was making its maiden flight, and people jumped in their cars to see the sight. Many were spouses
and children of Learjet employees, who had worked round the clock for months and were as invested in the
jet’s success as the company’s founder. The crowd cheered. Grown men cried. The jet that couldn’t
be built was everything it was supposed to be and more. The Learjet was on its way to defining a new
category of aircraft, and becoming an enduring icon of business aviation Learjet was one of the first
companies to manufacture a private, luxury aircraft. In the 1940s, with World War II still fresh in the
public's mind, Lear's preliminary design was based upon an experimental American military aircraft known
as the Marvel, substituting fuselage-mounted turbojet engines for ducted fan turbo shaft engines. However,
that preliminary design was abandoned and the final Lear jet design was instead adapted from an abortive
1950s Swiss ground-attack fighter aircraft, the FFA P-16.

The basic structure of the Swiss P-16 aircraft was seen by Bill Lear and his team as a good starting point to
the development of a business jet, and formed the Swiss American Aircraft Corporation, located in

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Altenrhein, Switzerland and staffed with design engineers from Switzerland, Germany and Britain. The

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aircraft was originally intended to be called the SAAC-23. Or at one time the 'Tina Jet'. The wing with its

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distinctive tip fuel tanks and landing gear of the first Learjets were little changed from those used by the
fighter prototypes. Although building the first jet started in Switzerland, the tooling for building the aircraft

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was moved to Wichita, Kansas, in 1962. Bill Jr stated that it took too long to get anything done in

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Switzerland despite the cheaper labour costs. Lear Jet was in a temporary office which opened in

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September 1962 while the plant at Wichita's airport was under construction. On February 7, 1963 assembly

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of the first Learjet began. The next year, the company was renamed the Lear Jet Corporation.

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The original Learjet 23 was a six- to eight-seater and first flew on October 7, 1963, with the first

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production model being delivered in October 1964. Just over a month later, Lear Jet became a publicly

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owned corporation. Several derived models followed, with the Model 24 first flying on February 24, 1966

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and the Model 25 first flying on August 12, 1966. On September 19 of the same year, the company was

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renamed Lear Jet Industries Inc.

Advantages

1) Compression-ignition engines have higher compression ratio which leads to being more efficient.
So the aircraft range improves and on longer flights payload capacity may improve as well. Fuel
consumption is usually about 30% lower.

2) The higher efficiency combined with the fact that Jet-A fuel is cheaper mean they have lower
operating cost. Especially since in Europe the leaded avgas is heavily taxed to discourage its use for
environmental concerns.

3) They should be a bit more reliable. A diesel engine needs high pressure fuel pump, but apparently
 39

4) They are somewhat easier to operate, since they don't have separate throttle and mixture controls.

5) They don't suffer the problems associated with incorrect settings of those controls, namely
knocking/detonation and pre-ignition.

6) Turbo-charging them does not carry the risk of pre-ignition and most of them are turbo-charged, so
the performance does not decline as fast with density altitude.

7) There is lower risk of fire since jet/diesel fuel is less flammable (has higher ignition temperature).

8) Jet-A has much wider availability, especially in the third world, so it's easier to plan for fuel stops
on a flight through say, Latin America or Africa

Disadvantages

1) They are heavier for the same power, because they need to be made from stronger material due to
the higher compression ratio and because they need to have larger cylinder volume because of

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lower maximal rpm. On longer flights the reduction in fuel weight often makes up for the heavier
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2) Turbo-charging comes with specific operating procedures unfamiliar to those used to normally

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aspirated engines and a slight lag in thrust lever (it's not a throttle) response.

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3) As others mentioned, small airports may not have jet fuel yet. This is probably better in Europe

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where the pressure to phase out 100LL avgas is stronger. Some engines also use automobile diesel

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fuel or even either jet or diesel fuel as diesel engines is less picky about what they burn.

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FIGHTER PLANE: A fighter aircraft is a military aircraft designed primarily for air-to-air combat
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against other aircraft, as opposed to bombers and attack aircraft, whose main mission is to attack ground
targets. The hallmarks of a fighter are its speed, manoeuvrability, and small size relative to other combat
aircraft. Many fighters have secondary ground-attack capabilities, and some are designed as dual-purpose
fighter-bombers; often aircraft that do not fulfil the standard definition are called fighters. This may be for
political or national security reasons, for advertising purposes, or other reasons. A fighter's main purpose is
to establish air superiority over a battlefield. Since World War I, achieving and maintaining air superiority
has been considered essential for victory in conventional warfare. The success or failure of a belligerent's
efforts to gain air supremacy hinges on several factors including the skill of its pilots, the tactical
soundness of its doctrine for deploying its fighters, and the numbers and performance of those fighters.
Because of the importance of air superiority, since the dawn of aerial combat armed forces have constantly
competed to develop technologically superior fighters and to deploy these fighters in greater numbers, and
fielding a viable fighter fleet consumes a substantial proportion of the defense budgets of modern armed

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forces.

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What is a fighter plane: A fighter aircraft is a military aircraft designed primarily for air-to-air fight

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against other aircraft, as opposed to bombers and attack aircraft, whose main mission is to attack ground

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targets. The hallmarks of a fighter are its speed, manoeuvrability, and small size relative to other combat
aircraft

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The Birth of the Fighter Plane: 1915. The newly invented airplane entered World War I as an observer of

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enemy activity (see The Beginning of Air Warfare, 1914). The importance of the information gathered by

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this new technological innovation was made evident to all the belligerents in the opening days of the

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conflict.

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When was the airplane first used in war: Powered aircraft were first used in war in 1911, by the Italians

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against the Turks near Tripoli, but it was not until the Great War of 1914–18 that their use became

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widespread. At first, aircraft were unarmed and employed for reconnaissance, serving basically as
extensions of the eyes of the ground commander.
Who made airplane: From 1905 to 1907, the brothers developed their flying machine into the first
practical fixed-wing aircraft. Although not the first to build and fly experimental aircraft, the Wright
brothers were the first to invent aircraft controls that made fixed-wing powered flight possible

Aircraft History: The Evolution of Fighter Jets

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initially used during World War I but were powered by piston engines. Piston engines work by pistons
moving back and forth within cylinders. Fuel entering the cylinders is ignited and the expansion of hot
gases causes the crankshaft to turn, and the propellers to rotate, which thrusts the plane forward. A jet
engine, however, uses direct thrust. Jet engines work by pulling air through a fan at the front. The air is
compressed and combined with fuel which creates a spark. The expanding gases shot from the back of the
engine and thrust the aircraft forward. The first patent for a jet engine was granted in 1932. With piston
engines, advancements and performance reaching a peak, the invention of jet engines would lead the way
for radical changes in fighter jets and military battle strategies.

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Construction: The key physical components, or subsystems, that define the aircraft are the fuselage, the
wings, the horizontal tail, the vertical tail, and the propulsion system.
The fuselage provides working volume for passengers, cargo, and aircraft subsystems that are internal to
the aircraft. The fuselage is important in terms of achieving particular flight missions, but it is not
especially important from a flight performance perspective.
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The two wings are crucial for flight, since their main purpose is to generate lift, since the wings are rigidly
attached to the fuselage. This is in contrast with helicopters or other rotary wing flight vehicles that
generate lift using rotating blades Other important flight subsystems, are the horizontal tail, the
vertical tail, and the engines.
The horizontal and vertical tails are rigidly attached to the fuselage as indicated. The horizontal tail

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provides longitudinal stability and control capability, while the vertical tail provides directional stability
and control capability.
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The engines are crucial flight subsystems, since they generate the thrust force that acts on the aircraft.
Note that gliding flight occurs if the engines are turned off so that they do not generate thrust; gliders have

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no propulsion system. The above descriptions imply that the aircraft can be viewed as a rigid body, and this

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is the perspective that is taken throughout. That is, there is no relative motion between the physical aircraft

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subsystems such as the fuselage, the wings, and the vertical and horizontal tails. Since many forces act on

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these physical subsystems, the rigid body assumption is only a crude approximation. In fact, the aircraft

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physical structures deform under the applied forces that occur during flight. Issues of structural design and

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analysis are important to guarantee that the rigid body assumption is justified. This is the appropriate point

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to mention another important assumption that holds throughout the analysis presented subsequently. The

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complete aircraft, consisting of the fuselage, the wings, the horizontal and vertical tails, and all other flight

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subsystems, has a plane of mass symmetry that exactly bisects the aircraft. This assumption is a
consequence of the design of conventional fixed-wing aircraft where, in particular, engines mounted on the
fuselage or the wings are balanced to satisfy this mass symmetry assumption.

Generation of fighter plane

First generation :
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 Mid 1940s to mid 1950s

 Basic avionic systems with no radars or self-protection countermeasures
 Armed with machine guns or cannons, as well as unguided bombs and rockets
 F-86, MiG-15 and MiG-17

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Second generation:
 1950s to early 1960s
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 introduction of air-to-air radar, infrared and semi-active guided missiles, as well as

radar warning receivers
 supersonic speeds
 F-104, F-5, MiG-19 and MiG-21

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Third Generation:
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 Early 1960s to 1970

 significant enhancements to the avionic suites and weapon systems
 Doppler radar supported a ‘lookdown/shoot-down’ capability
 MiG-23, F-4, and Mirage III

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Fourth generation:
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 1970 to late 1990s

 Ability to both switch and swing roles between air-to-air and air-to-ground
 Fly-by-wire and HUD systems
 MiG-29, Su-27, F/A-18, F-15, F-16, and Mirage-2000

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Fifth generation:
 2005 to date
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 Fifth generation fighter capabilities are largely defined by their software and it will
be the ongoing development of their software that will ensure they maintain their
edge against evolving threats.
 F-22 Raptor, F35-Joint Strike Fighter, the Sukhoi PAK FA

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Sixth generation:
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 A sixth-generation jet fighter is a conceptualized class of fighter aircraft design more
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Kendal revealed that funding for initial sixth generation fighter development
would be requested in the FY 2016 budget.
Next-generation fighter efforts will initially be led by DARPA under the "Air Dominance
Initiative" to develop prototype x-planes
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