UNIT-1

COMMON ERRORS IN
PARTS OF SPEECH
PARTS OF SPEECH
 NOUNS
-A noun is a word that names something: either a person, place, or
thing. In a sentence, nouns can play the role of subject, direct object,
indirect object, subject complement, object complement, appositive,
or adjective.
-A proper noun is a specific name of a person, place, or thing, and is
always capitalized. For example:
• Does Tina have much homework to do this evening?
-A common noun is the generic name of an item in a class or group and
is not capitalized unless appearing at the beginning of a sentence or in
a title. For example:
• The girl crossed the river.
 ERRORS IN THE USE OF NOUNS
(A)Singular Nouns: Some nouns commonly used in English are always
singular. Such nouns are used alone without indefinite article.
• Wrong(W)-Anita’s mother gave her an advice.
• Right(R)-Anita’s mother gave her some advice.

(B)Plural Nouns: Several nouns are always plural. Archives, braces,

glasses, goods, trousers are examples of such nouns.
• (W)-Her scissor is blunt.
• (R)-Her scissors are blunt.
• Incorrect: Bring me some blotting.
• Correct: Bring me some blotting paper.
• Incorrect: The boy is in the boarding.
• Correct: The boy is in the boarding house.
• Incorrect: Please put your sign here.
• Correct: Please put your signature here.
• Incorrect: She is my cousin sister.
• Correct: She is my cousin.
• Expressions like cousin sister and cousin brother are wrong.
• Incorrect: She has bought two dozens apples.
• Correct: She has bought two dozen apples.
• Incorrect: I saw many deers in the jungle.
• Correct: I saw many deer in the jungle.
• The nouns sheep and deer have identical singular and plural forms.
• Incorrect: I told these news to my father.
• Correct: I told this news to my father.
• News is a singular uncountable noun. Therefore it has to be used with
a singular determiner.
• Incorrect: The teacher gave us many advices.
• Correct: The teacher gave us some advice.
• Advice is an uncountable noun. It does not have a plural form. The
determiner many is only used with plural countable nouns.
• Incorrect: I have a five dollars note.
• Correct: I have a five dollar note.
Incorrect: He is working for the blinds.
Correct: He is working for the blind.

Expressions like the poor, the blind, the deaf etc., are always plural.

Incorrect: She likes to feed the poors.

Correct: She likes to feed the poor.
Incorrect: He is working for the eir plural forms by adding –s to them.
 PRONOUNS
-Pronouns make up a small subcategory of nouns. The distinguishing
characteristic of pronouns is that they can be substituted for other
nouns. For example:
• They went to the store.
• He runs a great shop in town.
• You can't leave, either.
• Go talk to her.
• Mary put the gift under it.
• Don't look at them.
 ERRORS IN THE USE OF PRONOUNS
(i)Always use the subject form of pronoun after ‘than’ and ‘as’ in
comparison.
• (W)-She is not as good singer as he.
• (R)-She is not as good singer as him.

(ii)Always use the subject form of pronoun after the verbs am, is, are,
was, were.
• (W)-It was him who stood first.
• (R)-It was he who stood first.
NOTES:
• Incorrect: None but I turned up.
Correct: None but me turned up.
Incorrect: They are all wrong but I.
Correct: They are all wrong but me.
Explanation:
• When but is used as a preposition it means except. The
preposition but should be followed by a pronoun in the objective
case.
• Incorrect: His teaching was like Buddha.
Correct: His teaching was like that of Buddha.
• Incorrect: None but I turned up.
Correct: None but me turned up.
Incorrect: They are all wrong but I.
Correct: They are all wrong but me.
• Explanation
• When but is used as a preposition it means except. The
preposition but should be followed by a pronoun in the
objective case.
• Incorrect: One should keep his promises.
• Correct: One should keep one's promises.
• Correct: A man or woman should keep his / her promises.
• One when used in a sentence should be used throughout. Note that
in American English, the pronouns he, him and his can be used later
in a sentence to refer back to one. This is not possible in British
English.
• Incorrect: 'Is he coming'? 'Yes, I think.'
• Correct: 'Is he coming?' 'Yes, I think so.'
• Here the sentence 'I think so' means 'I think that he is coming.' So can
be used after verbs like say, tell and think instead of repeating
information in a that-clause.
• Correct: One should keep one's promises.
• Correct: A man or woman should keep his / her promises.
• One when used in a sentence should be used throughout. Note that
in American English, the pronouns he, him and his can be used later
in a sentence to refer back to one. This is not possible in British
English.
• Incorrect: 'Is he coming'? 'Yes, I think.'
• Correct: 'Is he coming?' 'Yes, I think so.'
• Here the sentence 'I think so' means 'I think that he is coming.' So can
be used after verbs like say, tell and think instead of repeating
information in a that-clause.
• incorrect: I enjoyed when I went to Venice.
• Correct: I enjoyed myself when I went to Venice.
• To talk about having a good time, we normally say enjoy myself /
yourself / himself etc.
• Incorrect: The boy who does best he will get the prize.
• Correct: The boy who does best will get the prize.
• Incorrect: The man who stole the bicycle he has been arrested.
• Correct: The man who stole the bicycle has been arrested.
• One subject or object in a relative clause is enough. For example, in
the clause 'the boy he will get the prize' there are two subjects - the
boy and he. One of these should be removed.
 ADJECTIVES
-Adjectives are words that describe the qualities or states of being of
nouns: enormous, doglike, silly, yellow, fun, fast. They can also describe
the quantity of nouns: many, few, millions, eleven. For example:
• Margot wore a beautiful hat to the pie-eating contest.
• Furry dogs may overheat in the summertime.
• My cake should have sixteen candles.
• The scariest villain of all time is Darth Vader.
ERRORS IN THE USE OF ADJECTIVES
(A)Use of double comparative and superlative.
• (W)-He is more stronger than me.
• (R)-He is stronger than me.

(B) Use of superlative while making comparisons between two things.

• (W)-This chair is the best of the two.
• (R)-This chair is the better of the two.
• · Incorrect: Chennai is further from Delhi than Gurgaon.
• · Correct: Chennai is farther from Delhi than Gurgaon.
• · Incorrect: You have much dresses.
• · Correct: You have many dresses.
• Incorrect: You have much dresses.
• · Correct: You have many dresses.
• Incorrect: Tell me the last news.
• · Correct: Tell me the latest news.
 VERBS
-Verbs are the action words in a sentence that describe what the
subject is doing. For example:
• Mark eats his dinner quickly.
• We went to the market.
• You write neatly in your notebook.
• They thought about all the prizes in the competition.
 ADVERBS
-An adverb is a word that is used to change, modify or qualify several
types of words including an adjective, a verb, a clause, another adverb,
or any other type of word or phrase, with the exception of determiners
and adjectives, that directly modify nouns.
• Mandy drives carefully.
• It was an extremely bad match.
• There are quite a lot of people here.
• Jamie Oliver can taste well.
 PREPOSITIONS
-Prepositions indicate relationships between other words in a sentence.
Prepositions tell us where or when something is in relation to
something else. For example:
• Sam left his jacket in the car.
• Did you send that letter to your mother?
• We’re cooking for ten guests tonight.
• Dan ate lunch with his boss.
 ERRORS IN THE USE OF
PREPOSITIONS
(i)Use ‘of’ (not ‘over’) after ‘command’.
• (W)-You must have excellent command over spoken and written
English.
• (R)-You must have excellent command of spoken and written English.

(ii)Use ‘on’ (not ‘for’) after ‘congratulate’ and ‘insist’.

• (W)-I congratulate you for your victory.
• (R)-I congratulate you on your victory.
 NOTES:
• Incorrect: Send this letter on my new address.
• Correct: Send this letter to my new address.
• Incorrect: He goes in the school.
• Correct: He goes to the school.
• Incorrect: He goes on his work.
• Correct: He goes to his work
To/At
“At” tells where an object or subject is while “to” refers to another location. For
example:
We arrived at the station.
Mary returned to the store.
For/Since
“For” measures time while “since” refers to a specific period. For example,
He has been traveling for five years.
He’s been with the company since it was established.
Dates and Times
Use “in” or “for” with general measurements and “on” or “at” for specific dates.
For example:
Muriel has a meeting in the morning.
The term paper is due at 8:00 AM on the 5th.
• Seasons, Months and Holidays
Specific days require the preposition “on” or “for” while general
measurements call for the proposition “in“. For example:
The whole family loves to go sailing in the springtime.
Are you going to the barbecue on the 4th of July?
• Quantities
“About“, “around” and “up to” are used to create approximate
quantifications.
• Regions
“In” refers to geographic regions, continents, counties and towns.
• Roads and Streets
When referring to a street or road, “on” is the word of choice. For example:
There’s a bank on Birch Street.
• Specific Places
“At” refers to specific places and addresses. For example:
The Andersons live at 144 Byrd Lane.
• Phrases
Phrases that require a preposition, include:
Afraid of
Love of
Concern for
Study for
Worry about, etc.
• Missing Prepositions
Whenever an infinitive is used, a helping verb is required. For
example:
INCORRECT: I would like visit Washington D.C.
CORRECT: I would like to visit Washington D.C
• Unnecessary Additions
Some constructions don’t need additional prepositions. For example:
Off of/off
Meet up with/meet
Where are they at?/Where are they?
• Exceptions
In some cases, a preposition is unnecessary. For example:
Go home
Inside/outside
Upstairs/downstairs
Uptown/downtown
• Complex Constructions
When making comparisons, the second preposition can be omitted if
it’s the same as the first. However, it must be included if the second
phrase requires a different preposition. For example:
The climate in the United States is much different than Norway.
We drove to the beach and swam in the ocean.
 CONJUNCTIONS
-Conjunctions are words that link other words, phrases, or clauses together.
Conjunctions allow us to form complex, elegant sentences and avoid the
choppiness of multiple short sentences. For example:
• I tried to hit the nail but hit my thumb instead.
• I have two goldfish and a cat.
• I’d like a bike for commuting to work.
• You can have peach ice cream or a brownie sundae.
• Neither the black dress nor the gray one looks right on me.
• My dad always worked hard so we could afford the things we wanted.
• I try very hard in school yet I am not receiving good grades.
 MODALS
-A modal is a type of auxiliary verb that is used to express: ability,
possibility, permission or obligation. Modal phrases (or semi-modals)
are used to express the same things as modals, but are a combination
of auxiliary verbs and the preposition to. The modals and semi-modals
in English are:
• Can/could/be able to
• May/might
• Shall/should
• Must/have to
• Will/would
 CAN, COULD, BE ABLE TO
-Ability / Lack of Ability
• Tom can write poetry very well.
• I can help you with that next week.
• Lisa can’t speak French.
• Mike is able to solve complicated math equations.
• When I was a child I could climb trees.
 MAY, MIGHT
-Formal Permission / Formal Prohibition
• You may start your exam now.
• You may not wear sandals to work.
• May I help you?
• We may go out for dinner tonight. Do you want to join us?
• Our company might get the order if the client agrees to the price.
 SHALL, SHOULD, OUGHT TO
-To Offer of Assistance or Polite Suggestion (When you are quite sure of
a positive answer)
• Shall we go for a walk?
• Should I call a doctor?
• The proposal should be finished on time.
• I shouldn’t be late. The train usually arrives on time.
• You should check that document before you send it out.
• You ought to have your car serviced before the winter.
 MUST, HAVE TO, NEED TO, DON’T
HAVE TO, NEEDN‘T
-Necessity or Requirement
• You must have a passport to cross the border.
• Elisabeth has to apply for her visa by March 10th.
• I need to drop by his room to pick up a book.
• I had to work late last night.
• I needed to drink a few cups of coffee in order to stay awake.
• You must try this wine. It’s excellent.
• You have to visit us while you’re in town.
 WILL / WOULD
-Polite Request or Statement
• John will pick you up at 7:00am.
• Beth won’t be happy with the results of the exam.
• Will you please take the trash out?
• Would you mind if I sat here?
• I’d (I would) like to sign up for your workshop.
• When I was a child, I would spend hours playing with my train set.
• Peter wouldn’t eat broccoli when he was a kid. He loves it now.
 ERRORS IN THE USE OF VERBS

(i)When the verb does not agree with its subject in number and/or in
person. Verb should be in agreement with the subject.
• (W)-Two and two makes four.
• (R)-Two and two make four.

(ii)The verb does not agree with the relative pronoun.

• (W)-Amartya Sen is one of the few Indians who has won the Nobel
Prize.
• (R)-Amartya Sen is one of the few Indians who have won the Nobel
Prize.
 ERRORS IN THE USE OF ADVERBS
(A)Use of ‘less’ in place of ‘fewer’.
• (W)-Less than twenty students came to the class.
• (R)-Fewer than twenty students came to the class.

(B)Always use ‘quite’ which means completely or entirely immediately

after the word it modifies.
• (W)-The quite Annual Function of our college was successful.
• (R)-The Annual Function of our college was quite successful.
ERRORS IN THE USE OF CONJUNCTIONS

(A)Use of a conjunction to connect unrelated ideas.

• She will wash clothes tomorrow but India will not play England.

(B)Use of different parts of speech after conjunction in pairs.

• (W)-She not only teaches English but also Mathematics.
• (R)-She teaches not only English but also Mathematics.
ERRORS IN TENSES
 PRESENT INDEFINITE TENSE
-To express a habitual action.
• I go out for a walk every morning.
• She drinks tea every evening.

-To express general truths.

• The sun rises in the east.
• Future favors the brave.
 PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE
-For an action going on at the time of speaking.
• She is playing.
• Is it still raining?

-For an action that has already been arranged to take place in near
future.
• My daughter is arriving tomorrow.
• We are going to the cinema tonight.
 PRESENT PERFECT TENSE
-To indicate completed activities in the immediate past.
• It has just struck twelve.
• She has just gone out.

-To express past actions whose time is not given and not definite.
• I have never known him to be sad.
• My son has been to Washington.
PRESENT PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE

-To describe an action in which time and some word indicating present
is given.
• I have been living in the house for five years.
• These boys have been playing cricket for an hour.

-To describe an action which begins with since, when or for how long.
• Since when has she been living in this house?
• For how long have you been waiting for the teacher?
 PAST INDEFINITE TENSE
-To indicate an action in which time showing the past is given.
• Mohan left the country last year.
• The steamer sailed yesterday.

-To describe the past habits.

• She always carried a torch.
• Mahatma Gandhi always spoke the truth.
 PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE
-To indicate an action in which adverb clause is given in the past
indefinite tense.
• She was taking tea when I went to her house.
• I was reading a book when she entered the room.

-To indicate persistent habits in the past, along with words always,
continually, etc.
• She was always grumbling.
• He was continually cursing his fate.
 PAST PERFECT TENSE
-To describe an action in which till, yesterday, till then are given.
• She had not paid her fee till yesterday.
• He had not finished his homework till then.

-To show which action out of two happened earlier than the other.
• I had finished the lunch before she arrived.
• When she reached the station the train had started.
 PAST PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE
-This tense is used for an action that began before a certain point in the
past and continued up to that time.
• At that time she had been writing a poem for two days.

-If when and before clause is given then the main clause in which
since/for is given is expressed in past perfect continuous.
• The maid had been cooking food for an hour when she came.
• She had been sleeping for two hours when I entered the house.
 FUTURE INDEFNITE TENSE
-To talk about what we think or believe will happen in future.
• I think India will win the match.
• I’m sure Ria will get a first class.

-To express events which we cannot control.

• She shall be fifty next Monday.
• It will be Holi in a fort night.
 FUTURE CONTINUOUS TENSE
-To denote an action that will keep on going at some time in the future.
• I shall be leaving Delhi at this hour on coming Sunday.
• The maid will be washing clothes at this time tomorrow.

-For future actions which are already planned.

• The postman will be coming soon.
• She will be staying here till Sunday.
 FUTURE PERFECT TENSE
-For an action in which the time indicating future is given after till or by.
• The teacher will have taken tea by now.
• I shall have revised my courses by tomorrow.

-To describe an action in which present indefinite is given after when

and before.
• She will have taken bath before the day dawns.
• I shall have got ready before the train arrives.
 FUTURE PERFECT CONTINUOUS TENSE

-To denote an action which will be in progress over a period of time in

the future.
• By next June we shall have been living here for five years.
• I’ll have been teaching for thirty seven years next July.
ERRORS IN REPORTED SPEECH
(DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH)
 DIRECT AND INDIRECT SPEECH
-Direct Speech: the message of the speaker is conveyed or reported in
his own actual words without any change.
-Indirect Speech: the message of the speaker is conveyed or reported in
our own words.
• For example:
a)Direct: Radha said, “I am very busy now”.
b)Indirect: Radha said that she was very busy then.
 RULES FOR CHANGING DIRECT TO
INDIRECT SPEECH
-Rule 1 – The pronoun of the first person in the reported speech is
changed according to the subject of the reporting verb.
Direct: He says, “I am in the right”.
Indirect: He says that he is in the right.
-Rule 2 – The pronoun of second person in the reported speech is
changed according to the object of the reporting verb.
Direct: He says to me, “You have done your job”.
Indirect: He tells me that I have done my job.
 RULES FOR CHANGING DIRECT TO
INDIRECT SPEECH
-Rule 3 – The pronoun of the third person in the reported speech
remains unchanged.
Direct: He says, “She does not take coffee”.
Indirect: He says that she does not take coffee.
-Rule 4 – If the reporting verb is given in the present or future tense,
the tense of the verb is in reported speech.
Direct: The manager says, “Ramesh works hard”.
Indirect: The manager says that Ramesh works hard.
 RULES FOR CHANGING DIRECT TO
INDIRECT SPEECH
-Rule 5 – If the verb is given in past tense then the tense of the verb in
the reported speech is changed into past tense.
Direct: He said, “I am strong”.
Indirect: He said that he was strong.
-Rule 6 – If universal truth, habitual fact, two actions, and imagined
condition happening at the same time are given in reported speech,
the tense is not changed.
Direct: He said, “God is omni present”.
Indirect: He said that God is omni present.
RULES FOR CHANGING INDIRECT TO
DIRECT SPEECH
-Told, asked, advised, requested, suggested, wished, prayed, given in
reporting verbs are converted to “said” or “said to”.
-In case of the pronouns in the reported speech if these are consistent
subject of the reporting verb, then covert into first person.
-If, that, whether, to are converted into inverted commas.
Example –
• Indirect: He exclaimed with joy that he had won the race.
• Direct: He said, “Hurrah! I won the race”.
 SUMMARY OF RULES FOR CHANGING
INDIRECT TO DIRECT SPEECH
Conversion Table
Direct Speech Indirect Speech

Simple present Simple past

He said, ”I go to market every day.” He said (that) he went to the market every day.

Simple past Past perfect

He said, ”I went to the market every day.” He said (that) he had gone to the market every day.

Present perfect Past perfect

He said, ”I have gone to the market every day.” He said (that) he had gone to the market every day.

Present continuous Past continuous

He said, “I am going to the market every day.” He said (that) he was going to the market every day.
Past continuous Past perfect continuous
He said, “I was going to market every day.” He said (that) he had been going to the market every
day.
Future (will) Would + verb name
He said, “I will go to market every day.” He said (that) he would go to the market every day.

Future (going to) Present continuous

He said, “I am going to market every day.” He said (that) he is going to market every day.

Auxiliary +verb name Simple past

He said, ”Do you go to market everyday?” He asked me if I went to market every day.
He said, “Where do you go to market?” He asked me where I went to market.

Imperative Infinitive
He said, “Go to market every day.” He said to go to market every day.

Be careful about Yes / No question in direct speech. When a Yes / No Question is being asked in direct speech, then
a construction with if or whether is used. If a WH question is being asked, then use the WH to introduce the clause.
Direct Speech Indirect Speech

Simple present + simple present Simple present + simple present

He says, “I go to the market every day.” He says (that) he goes to market every day.

Present perfect + simple present Present perfect + simple present

He has said, “I go to the market every day.” He has said (that) he goes to market every day.

Past continuous + simple past Past continuous + simple past

He was saying, ”I went to market every day.” He was saying (that) he went to market every day.

Past continuous + past perfect Past continuous + simple past

He was saying, “he had gone to market every day.” He was saying (that) he had gone to market every day.

Future + simple present Future +simple present

He will say, “I go to market every day.” He will say (that) he goes to market every day.
Direct speech Indirect speech
Can Could
He said, “I can go to market every day.” He said (that) he could go to market every day.
May Might
He said, “I may go to market every day.” He said (that) he might go to market every day.
Might Might
He said, “I might go to market every day.” He said that I might go to market every day.
Must Must
He said, “ I must go to market every day.” He said (that) he must go to market every day.
Have to Had to
He said, “I have to go to market every day.” He said (that) he had to go to market every day.
Should Should
He said, “I should go to market every day.” He said (that) he should go to market every day.
Ought to Ought to
He said, ”I ought to go to market ever day.” He said (that) he ought to go to market every day.
ERRORS IN ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE,
CONCEPT , KINDS OF VOICE, GENERAL
RULES TO CHANGE VOICE.
 ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICE
-Active Voice
A feature of sentences in which the subject performs the action of the
verb and the direct object is the goal or the recipient:
• The mechanic fixed the car.

-Passive Voice
A feature of sentences in which the object or goal of the action
functions as the sentence subject and the main verb phrase includes
the verb to be and the past participle:
• The car was fixed by the mechanic.
 GENERAL RULES TO CHANGE THE
VOICE
(1) Make the object your subject: In case there is a pronoun of
objective case in the object, apply the following rules:
me=I her=she
us=we it=it
(2) Make subject your object and add ‘by’ before the object: In case
there is a pronoun of the nominative case in the subject, apply the
following rules:
I=by me they=by them
we=by us she=by her
 PRESENT INDEFINITE TENSE
ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE
1ST form is/am/are+3 rd form

He likes me. I am liked by him.

She lights the lamp. The lamp is lighted by her.
I do my homework. My homework is done by me.
They expect success. Success is expected by them.
We help the needy. The needy are helped by us.
 PRESENT CONTINUOUS TENSE
ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE
is/am/are+1ST form+ing is/am/are+being+3rd form

She is driving a truck. A truck is being driven by her.

She is plucking the flowers. The flowers are being plucked by her.
I am not making a note. A note is not made by me.
What are they singing? What is being sung by them?
Who is writing an essay? By whom is the essay being written?
 PRESENT PERFECT TENSE
ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE
has/have+3rd form has/have+been+3rd form

I have done by homework. My homework has been done by me.

She has not returned my book. My book has not been returned by her.
Who has broken this desk? By whom has this desk been broken?
What have they done? What has been done by them?
 PAST INDEFINITE TENSE
ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE
2nd form was/were+3rd form

We did not expect her. She was not expected by us.

The boy drank all the milk. All the milk was drunk by the boy.
Did he make a noise? Was a noise made by him?
Where did you find the mobile? Where was the mobile found by you?
Which movie did you Which movie was seen by you last night?
see last night?
 PAST CONTINUOUS TENSE
ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE
was/were+1ST form+ing was/were+being+3rd form

The doctors were not The patient was not being operated by the
operating the patient. doctors.
Was she combing her hair? Were her hair being combed by her?
What was Rohan doing? What was being done by Rohan?
Whom were you helping? Who was being helped by you?
 PAST PERFECT TENSE
ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE
had+3rd form had+been+3rd form

They had cheated the bank. The bank had been cheated by them.
I had not read this book. This book had not been read by me.
Had she attended the class? Had the class been attended by her?
Why had you rebuked him? Why had he been rebuked by you?
 FUTURE INDEFINITE TENSE
ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE
will/shall+1ST form will/shall+be+3rd form

She will not attend the office. The office will not be attended by her.
I shall not lend you a single Not a single rupee will be lent to you by me.
rupee.
Why will you pay the bill? Why will the bill be paid by you?
What will you have for dinner? What will be had for dinner by you?
 FUTURE PERFECT TENSE
ACTIVE VOICE PASSIVE VOICE
will/shall have+3rd form will/shall have been+3rd form

The doctor will have operated The patient will have been operated on
on the patient. on by the doctor.
Who will have broken the window? By whom will the window have been
broken?
She will not have helped me. I shall not have been helped by her.
ERRORS IN CONDITIONAL CLAUSES,TYPES I.E
POSITIVE AND Negative, Types of sentences-Simple
,Compound and Complex
 CONDITIONAL CLAUSES
-Conditional clauses are the clauses that are used to state that an
action can take place only after a condition is fulfilled. These clauses
are of three types:
1) condition can be fulfilled.
2) condition can be fulfilled in theory.
3) condition cannot be fulfilled.
• For example – People who speak the truth are trusted.
• I think you have failed.
• If you work hard, you will succeed.
 CLAUSES IN COMPLEX AND
COMPOUND SENTENCES
-Compound sentences: A sentence which is made up of two or more
principal or main clauses is called a compound sentence, e.g.
• The sun was shining and we had to take off woolens.

-Complex sentences: A sentence which consists of two or more main

clauses and one or more subordinate clauses.
• Mohan called at 17.30, I told him, that you had gone out.
 CONNECTIVES
-The words and phrases which connect different parts of a compound
or complex sentence are called connectives. They are also known as
transitional tags.
• The teacher both thanked and rewarded me.
• She is either depressed or she has gone mad.
• You neither deserve praise nor a reward.
• The police fired at the robber but it missed him.
• I gave him no money nor did I help him.
• You shall do it now or you shall not do it at all.
Question Tags
 QUESTION TAGS
-Question tags are the short questions that we put on the end of
sentences. The pattern is auxiliary + n’t + subject if the statement is
positive and auxiliary + subject if the statement is negative.
• Negative tag is used with a positive statement.
• For example- It is very hot. Isn't it?
You are free. Aren't you?
• Positive tag is used with a negative statement.
• For example- It is not very cold. Is it?
She isn’t busy. Is she?
 SHORT RESPONSES
-Short answers to verbal questions are known as short responses.
Verbal questions are questions that begin with an auxiliary. The most
usual form of short responses to verbal questions are as follows:
yes + pronoun + auxiliary
Or no + pronoun + auxiliary + n’t
- Are you going to college? Yes, I am.
No, I am not.
- Can you drive a truck? Yes, I can.
No, I can’t.