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Oracle Database Programming with Visual Basic.NET
 IEEE Press
445 Hoes Lane
Piscataway, NJ 08854

IEEE Press Editorial Board

Ekram Hossain, Editor in Chief

Jón Atli Benediktsson Xiaoou Li Jeffrey Reed

Anjan Bose Lian Yong Diomidis Spinellis
David Alan Grier Andreas Molisch Sarah Spurgeon
Elya B. Joffe Saeid Nahavandi Ahmet Murat Tekalp
Oracle Database Programming with Visual Basic.NET

Concepts, Designs, and Implementations

Ying Bai
Department of Computer Science and Engineering
Johnson C. Smith University
Charlotte, North Carolina
Copyright © 2021 by The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. All rights reserved.

Published by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.

Published simultaneously in Canada.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by
any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning, or otherwise, except as permitted under
Section 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of
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John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, (201) 748-6011, fax (201) 748-6008, or online at
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Limit of Liability/Disclaimer of Warranty: While the publisher and author have used their best efforts in preparing
this book, they make no representations or warranties with respect to the accuracy or completeness of the contents
of this book and specifically disclaim any implied warranties of merchantability or fitness for a particular purpose.
No warranty may be created or extended by sales representatives or written sales materials. The advice and
strategies contained herein may not be suitable for your situation. You should consult with a professional where
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including but not limited to special, incidental, consequential, or other damages.

For general information on our other products and services or for technical support, please contact our Customer
Care Department within the United States at (800) 762-2974, outside the United States at (317) 572-3993 or fax
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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data applied for:

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Cover design by Wiley

Cover image: © metamorworks/iStock/Getty Images

Set in 9.5/12.5pt STIXTwoText by SPi Global, Pondicherry, India

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
This book is dedicated to my wife, Yan Wang, and my daughter, Susan (Xue) Bai.
 vii

Contents

About the Author xiv

Preface xv
Acknowledgments xvii
About the Companion Website xviii

1 Introduction 1
1.1 ­Outstanding Features About This Book 2
1.2 ­Who This Book Is For 2
1.3 What This Book Covered 2
1.4 How This Book Is Organized and How to Use This Book 4
1.5 How to Use Appendices and Related Materials 6
1.6 How to Use Source Codes and Sample Database 8
1.7 Instructors and Customer Supports 9

2 Introduction to Databases 10
2.1 What Are Databases and Database Programs? 11
2.1.1 File Processing System 11
2.1.2 Integrated Databases 11
2.2 Develop a Database 12
2.3 Sample Database 13
2.3.1 Relational Data Model 13
2.3.2 Entity-Relationship (ER) Model 17
2.4 Identifying Keys 18
2.4.1 Primary Key and Entity Integrity 18
2.4.2 Candidate Key 19
2.4.3 Foreign Keys and Referential Integrity 19
2.5 Define Relationships 19
2.5.1 Connectivity 19
2.6 ER Notation 22
2.7 Data Normalization 22
2.7.1 First Normal Form (1NF) 23
2.7.2 Second Normal Form (2NF) 23
2.7.3 Third Normal Form (3NF) 24
2.8 Database Components in Some Popular Databases 25
2.8.1 Microsoft Access Databases 27
viii Contents

2.8.2 SQL Server Databases 28

2.8.3 Oracle Databases 30
2.9 Create Oracle 18c XE Sample Database 33
2.9.1 Delete the Default Database XE 34
2.9.2 Create a New Oracle 18c XE Sample Database 34
2.9.3 Connect to Our Sample Database from the Oracle SQL Developer 41
2.9.4 Create an Oracle User Account for the User Schema 42
2.9.5 Create LogIn Table 45
2.9.6 Create Faculty Table 47
2.9.7 Create Other Tables 48
2.9.8 Create Relationships Among Tables 53
2.9.9 Store Images to the Oracle 18c Express Edition Database 60
2.10 Chapter Summary 73

3 Introduction to ADO.NET 77
3.1 The ADO and ADO.NET 77
3.2 Overview of the ADO.NET 79
3.3 The Architecture of the ADO.NET 80
3.4 The Components of ADO.NET 81
3.4.1 The Data Provider 81
3.4.2 The Connection Class 84
3.4.3 The Command and the Parameter Classes 87
3.4.4 The DataAdapter Class 95
3.4.5 The DataReader Class 98
3.4.6 The DataSet Component 101
3.4.7 The DataTable Component 105
3.4.8 ADO.NET Entity Framework 111
3.5 Chapter Summary 118

4 Introduction to Language-Integrated Query (LINQ) 123

4.1 Overview of Language-Integrated Query 123
4.1.1 Some Special Interfaces Used in LINQ 124
4.1.2 Standard Query Operators 126
4.1.3 Deferred Standard Query Operators 127
4.1.4 Non-Deferred Standard Query Operators 131
4.2 Introduction to LINQ 134
4.3 The Architecture and Components of LINQ 136
4.3.1 Overview of LINQ to Objects 137
4.3.2 Overview of LINQ to DataSet 138
4.3.3 Overview of LINQ to SQL 138
4.3.4 Overview of LINQ to Entities 139
4.3.5 Overview of LINQ to XML 140
4.4 LINQ to Objects 140
4.4.1 LINQ and ArrayList 140
4.4.2 LINQ and Strings 142
4.4.3 LINQ and File Directories 145
 Contents ix

4.4.4 LINQ and Reflection 148

4.5 LINQ to DataSet 149
4.5.1 Operations to DataSet Objects 150
4.5.2 Operations to DataRow Objects Using the Extension Methods 162
4.5.3 Operations to DataTable Objects 166
4.6 LINQ to Entities 166
4.6.1 The Object Services Component 167
4.6.2 The ObjectContext Component 167
4.6.3 The ObjectQuery Component 167
4.6.4 LINQ to Entities Flow of Execution 168
4.6.5 Implementation of LINQ to Entities 170
4.7 LINQ to XML 170
4.7.1 LINQ to XML Class Hierarchy 171
4.7.2 Manipulate XML Elements 172
4.7.3 Manipulate XML Attributes 175
4.7.4 Query XML with LINQ to XML 177
4.8 Visual Basic.NET Language Enhancement for LINQ 181
4.8.1 Lambda Expressions 181
4.8.2 Extension Methods 183
4.8.3 Implicitly Typed Local Variables 186
4.8.4 Query Expressions 188
4.9 LINQ To Oracle 189
4.10 Chapter Summary 190

5 Query Data from Oracle Database with Visual Basic.NET 196

­ Part I: Data Query with Visual Studio.NET Design Tools and Wizards 197
5.1 A Completed Sample Database Application Example 197
5.2 Visual Studio.NET Design Tools and Wizards 200
5.2.1 Data Components in the Toolbox Window 200
5.2.2 Data Source Window 204
5.3 Query Data from Oracle Database Using Design Tools and Wizards 212
5.3.1 Application User Interface 212
5.4 Use Visual Studio Wizards and Design Tools to Query and Display Data 217
5.4.1 Query and Display Data Using the DataGridView and Detail Controls 218
5.4.2 Use DataSet Designer to Edit the Structure of the DataSet 223
5.4.3 Bind Data to the Associated Controls in LogIn Form 225
5.4.4 Develop Codes to Query Data Using the Fill() Method 229
5.4.5 Use Return a Single Value to Query Data for LogIn Form 231
5.4.6 Develop the Codes for the Selection Form 234
5.4.7 Query Data from the Faculty Table for the Faculty Form 236
5.4.8 Develop Codes to Query Data from the Faculty Table 237
5.4.9 Query Data from the Course Table for the Course Form 242
­ Part II: Data Query with Runtime Objects 250
5.5 Introduction to Runtime Objects 250
5.5.1 Procedure of Building a Data-Driven Application Using Runtime Object 252
5.6 Query Data From Oracle Server Database Using Runtime Object 253
x Contents

5.6.1 Access to Oracle Server Database 253

5.6.2 Declare Global Variables and Runtime Objects for the Oracle Provider 255
5.6.3 Query Data Using Runtime Objects for the LogIn Form 256
5.6.4 The Coding for the Selection Form 261
5.6.5 Query Data Using Runtime Objects for the Faculty Form 261
5.6.6 Query Data Using Runtime Objects for the Course Form 268
5.6.7 Query Data Using Runtime Objects for the Student Form 277
5.7 Chapter Summary 293

6 Insert Data into Oracle Database with Visual Basic.NET 300

­ Part I: Insert Data with Visual Basic.NET Design Tools and Wizards 301
6.1 Insert Data into a Database 301
6.1.1 Insert New Records into a Database Using the TableAdapter.Insert Method 302
6.1.2 Insert New Records into a Database Using the TableAdapter.Update Method 303
6.2 Insert Data into Oracle Database Using a Sample Project InsertWizard 303
6.2.1 Create a New InsertWizard Project 303
6.2.2 Application User Interfaces 304
6.2.3 Validate Data Before the Data Insertion 305
6.2.4 Initialization Coding Process for the Data Insertion 308
6.2.5 Build the Insert Query 309
6.2.6 Develop Codes to Insert Data Using the TableAdapter.Insert Method 310
6.2.7 Develop Codes to Insert Data Using the TableAdapter.Update Method 314
6.2.8 Insert Data into the Database Using the Stored Procedures 317
­ Part II: Data Insertion with Runtime Objects 325
6.3 The General Run-Time Objects Method 326
6.4 Insert Data into the Oracle Database Using the Run-Time Object Method 327
6.4.1 Insert Data into the Faculty Table for the Oracle Database 327
6.5 Insert Data into the Database Using Stored Procedures 335
6.5.1 Insert Data into the Oracle Database Using Stored Procedures 336
6.6 Insert Data into the Database Using the LINQ To DataSet Method 345
6.6.1 Insert Data into the Oracle Database Using the LINQ to DataSet Queries 346
6.7 Chapter Summary 348

7 Data Updating and Deleting with Visual Basic.NET 355

­ Part I: Data Updating and Deleting with Visual Studio.NET Design Tools and Wizards 356
7.1 Update or Delete Data Against Oracle Databases 356
7.1.1 Updating and Deleting Data from Related Tables in a DataSet 357
7.1.2 Using TableAdapter.Update and TableAdapter.Delete Methods 357
7.1.3 Update or Delete Data Against Database Using TableAdapter.Update Method 358
7.2 Update and Delete Data For Oracle 18c XE Database 359
7.2.1 Create a New UpdataDeleteWizard Project 359
7.2.2 Application User Interfaces 360
7.2.3 Validate Data Before the Data Updating and Deleting 361
7.2.4 Build the Update and Delete Queries 361
7.2.5 Develop Codes to Update Data Using the TableAdapter DBDirect Method 363
7.2.6 Develop Codes to Update Data Using the TableAdapter.Update Method 365
 Contents xi

7.2.7 Develop Codes to Delete Data Using the TableAdapter DBDirect Method 367
7.2.8 Develop Codes to Delete Data Using the TableAdapter.Update Method 368
7.2.9 Validate the Data After the Data Updating and Deleting 369
­Part II: Data Updating and Deleting with Runtime Objects 372
7.3 The Run Time Objects Method 373
7.4 Update and Delete Data for Oracle Database Using the Run Time Objects 374
7.4.1 Update Data Against the Faculty Table in the Oracle Database 375
7.4.2 Delete Data From the Faculty Table in the Oracle Database 377
7.5 Update and Delete Data against Oracle Database Using Stored Procedures 381
7.5.1 Modify the Existing Project to Create Our New Project 382
7.5.2 Create the Codes to Update and Delete Data from the Course Table 382
7.5.3 Update and Delete Data Using the LINQ to DataSet Query 392
7.6 Chapter Summary 395

8 Accessing Data in ASP.NET 401

8.1 What Is .NET Framework? 402
8.2 What Is ASP.NET? 403
8.2.1 ASP.NET Web Application File Structure 404
8.2.2 ASP.NET Execution Model 405
8.2.3 What Is Really Happened When a Web Application Is Executed? 406
8.2.4 The Requirements to Test and Run the Web Project 406
8.3 Develop ASP.NET Web Application to Select Data from Oracle Databases 407
8.3.1 Create the User Interface – LogIn Form 408
8.3.2 Develop the Codes to Access and Select Data from the Database 409
8.3.3 Validate the Data in the Client Side 413
8.3.4 Create the Second User Interface – Selection Page 415
8.3.5 Develop the Codes to Open the Other Page 415
8.3.6 Modify Codes in the LogIn Page to Transfer to the Selection Page 417
8.3.7 Create the Third User Interface – Faculty Page 418
8.3.8 Develop the Codes to Select the Desired Faculty Information 419
8.3.9 Create the Fourth User Interface – Course Page 424
8.3.10 Develop the Codes to Select the Desired Course Information 427
8.4 Develop ASP.NET Web Application to Insert Data into Oracle Databases 434
8.4.1 Develop the Codes to Perform the Data Insertion Function 435
8.4.2 Develop the Codes for the Insert Button Click Event Procedure 436
8.4.3 Validate the Data Insertion 441
8.5 Develop Web Applications to Update and Delete Data in Oracle Databases 443
8.5.1 Develop the Codes for the Update Button Click Event Procedure 443
8.5.2 Develop the Codes for the Delete Button Click Event Procedure 446
8.6 Develop ASP.NET Web Applications with LINQ to Oracle Query 457
8.6.1 Generate a New Web Project LINQWebOracle and a New LinqConnect Model 457
8.6.2 Develop the Codes for Our Web Project LINQWebOracle 462
8.7 Chapter Summary 471

9 ASP.NET Web Services 476

9.1 What Are Web Services and Their Components? 477
9.2 Procedures to Build a Web Service 478
xii Contents

9.2.1 The Structure of a Typical Web Service Project 478

9.2.2 Some Real Considerations When Building a Web Service Project 479
9.2.3 Introduction to Windows Communication Foundation (WCF) 480
9.2.4 Procedures to Build an ASP.NET Web Service 484
9.2.5 Install WCF Component with Visual Studio Installer 484
9.3 Build ASP.NET Web Service Project to Access Oracle Database 485
9.3.1 Files and Items Created in the New Web Service Project 486
9.3.2 A Feeling of the Hello World Web Service Project as it Runs 489
9.3.3 Modify the Default Namespace 492
9.3.4 Create a Base Class to Handle Error Checking for Our Web Service 493
9.3.5 Create a Customer Returned Class to Hold all Retrieved Data 493
9.3.6 Visual Basic System Class and Web Service Class 495
9.3.7 Add and Build Web Method GetOracleSelect() to the Web Services 495
9.3.8 Develop the Stored Procedure to Perform the Data Query 503
9.3.9 Use DataSet as the Returning Object for the Web Method 507
9.3.10 Build Windows‐based Web Service Clients to Consume the Web Services 510
9.3.11 Build Web‐based Web Service Clients to Consume the Web Service 519
9.3.12 Deploy the Completed Web Service to Production Servers 526
9.4 Build ASP.NET Web Service Project to Insert Data Into Oracle Databases 529
9.4.1 Create a New Web Service Project WebServiceOracleInsert 529
9.4.2 Develop Four Web Service Methods 530
9.4.3 Build Windows‐based Web Service Clients to Consume the Web Services 549
9.4.4 Build Web‐based Web Service Clients to Consume the Web Services 564
9.5 Build ASP.NET Web Service to Update and Delete Data for Oracle Database 575
9.5.1 Modify the Default Namespace and Add Database Connection String 576
9.5.2 Create Our Customer‐Built Base and Returned Classes 577
9.5.3 Create a Web Method to Call Stored Procedure to Update Student Records 578
9.5.4 Create a Web Method to Call Stored Procedure to Delete Student Records 580
9.5.5 Create a Web Method to Collect the Current Student Members 582
9.5.6 Develop Two Oracle Stored Procedures with Oracle SQL Developer 584
9.6 Build Windows-Based Web Service Clients to Consume the Web Services 590
9.6.1 Add a Web Service Reference to Our Client Project 590
9.6.2 Modify the Codes in the Form_Load Event Procedure 591
9.6.3 Build the Codes to the Update Button’s Click Event Procedure 592
9.6.4 Build the Codes to the Delete Button’s Click Event Procedure 593
9.7 Build Web-Based Web Service Clients to Consume the Web Services 596
9.7.1 Create a New ASP.NET Web Project and Add an Existing Web Page 597
9.7.2 Add a Web Service Reference and Modify the Web Form Window 597
9.7.3 Develop the Codes for the Page_Load() Event Procedure 598
9.7.4 Build the Codes Inside the Back Button’s Click Event Procedure 599
9.7.5 Add the Codes to the Update Button’s Click Event Procedure 599
9.7.6 Develop Codes for the Delete Button’s Click Event Procedure 601
9.7.7 Develop Codes for the Select Button’s Click Event Procedure 602
9.8 Chapter Summary 606
 Contents xiii

Appendix A: Download and Install Oracle Database XE 18c 613

Appendix B: Download and Install Oracle SQL Developer 619
Appendix C: Download and Install DevExpress WinForms 622
Appendix D: How to Use the Sample Database 625
Appendix E: How to Export the Sample Database 628
Appendix F: Download and Install dotConnect Express 632
Appendix G: How to Use User-Defined Windows/Web Forms 637
Appendix H: Download and Install FrontPage Server Extension for Windows 10 643
Appendix I: Download and Install LinqConnect Express 646

Index 649
xiv

About the Author

Dr. YING BAI is a Professor in the Department of Computer Science and Engineering at Johnson
C. Smith University. His special interests include: artificial intelligences, soft computing, mixed-
language programming, fuzzy logic and deep learning, robotic controls, robots calibrations, and
database programming.
His industry experience includes positions as software engineer and senior software engineer at
companies such as Motorola MMS, Schlumberger ATE Technology, Immix TeleCom, and Lam
Research.
Since 2003, Dr. Bai has published sixteen (16) books with publishers such as Prentice Hall, CRC
Press LLC, Springer, Cambridge University Press, and Wiley IEEE Press. The Russian translation
of his first book titled Applications Interface Programming Using Multiple Languages was published
by Prentice Hall in 2005. The Chinese translation of his eighth book titled Practical Database
Programming with Visual C#.NET was published by Tsinghua University Press in China in 2011.
Most books are about software programming, serial port programming, fuzzy logic controls in
industrial applications, microcontroller controls and programming as well as classical and modern
controls on microcontrollers.
During recent years, Dr. Bai has also published more than sixty (60) academic research papers in
IEEE Trans. Journals and International conferences.
 xv

Preface

Databases have become an integral part of our modern-day life. We are an information-driven
society. Database technology has a direct impact on our daily lives. Decisions are routinely made
by organizations based on the information collected and stored in the databases. A record com-
pany may decide to market certain albums in selected regions based on the music preference of
teenagers. Grocery stores display more popular items at the eye level and reorders are based on the
inventories taken at regular intervals. Other examples include patients’ records in hospitals, cus-
tomers’ account information in banks, book orders by the libraries, club memberships, auto part
orders, and winter cloth stock by department stores, and many others.
In addition to database management systems, in order to effectively apply and implement data-
bases in real industrial or commercial systems, a good Graphic User Interface (GUI) is needed to
allow users to access and manipulate their records or data in databases. Visual Basic.NET is an
ideal candidate to be selected to provide this GUI functionality. Unlike other programming lan-
guages, Visual Basic.NET is a kind of language that has advantages such as easy-to-learn and easy-
to-be-understood with little learning curves. In the beginning of Visual Studio.NET 2005, Microsoft
integrated a few programming languages such as Visual C++, Visual Basic, C#, and Visual J# into
a dynamic model called .NET Framework that makes Internet and Web programming easy and
simple, and any language integrated in this model can be used to develop professional and efficient
Web applications that can be used to communicate with others via Internet. ADO.NET and ASP.
NET are two important submodels of .NET Framework. The former provides all components,
including the Data Providers, DataSet, and DataTable, to access and manipulate data against dif-
ferent databases. The latter provides support to develop Web applications and Web services in ASP.
NET environment to allow users to exchange information between clients and servers easily and
conveniently.
This book is mainly designed for college students and software programmers who want to
develop practical and commercial database programming with Visual Basic.NET and relational
database such as Oracle XE 18c. The book provides a detailed description about the practical con-
siderations and applications in database programming with Visual Basic.NET 2019 with authentic
examples and detailed explanations. More important, a new writing style is developed and imple-
mented in this book, combined with real examples, to provide readers with a clear picture as how
to handle the database programming issues in Visual Basic.NET 2019 environment.
The outstanding features of this book include, but no limited to:
1) A novel writing style is adopted to try to attract students’ or beginning programmers’ interest in
learning and developing practical database programs and to avoid the headache caused by
using huge blocks of codes in the traditional database programming books.
xvi Preface

2) Updated database programming tools and components are covered in the book, such as .NET
Framework 4.7, LINQ, ADO.NET 4.6, and ASP.NET 4.6, to enable readers to easily and quickly
learn and master advanced techniques in database programming and develop professional and
practical database applications.
3) A real completed sample Oracle XE 18c database CSE_DEPT is provided and used for the entire
book. Step by step, a detailed illustration and description about how to design and build a prac-
tical relational database are provided.
4) Covered both fundamental and advanced database-programming techniques to the conveni-
ence of both beginning students and experienced programmers.
5) All projects can be run in Microsoft Visual Studio.NET 2019 with Oracle XE 18c database.
6) Good textbook for college students, good reference book for programmers, software engineers,
and academic researchers.
I sincerely hope that this book can provide useful and practical help and guide to all readers or
users who adopted this book, and I will be more than happy to know that you guys can develop and
build professional and practical database applications with the help of this book.

Ying Bai
 xvii

Acknowledgments

First, a special thanks to my wife, Yan Wang, for I could not have finished this book without her
sincere encouragement and support.
Special thanks also to Dr. Satish Bhalla, a specialist in database programming and management,
especially in SQL Server, Oracle, and DB2, who spent a lot of time preparing materials for Chapter 2.
Many thanks to the Senior Editor, Mary Hatcher, who made this book available to the public,
without whose perseverance and hard work this book would not be available in the market. Thanks
should also go to the entire editorial team for all their contributions which made it possible to
publish this book.
Thanks are extended to the following book reviewers for their valuable suggestions and inputs:
●● Dr. Jiang (Linda) Xie, Professor, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University
of North Carolina at Charlotte.
●● Dr. Dali Wang, Professor, Department of Physics and Computer Science, Christopher Newport
University.
●● Dr. Daoxi Xiu, Application Analyst Programmer, North Carolina Administrative Office of the
Courts.
Finally, but not the least, I would like to express my gratitude to all the people who supported me
in completing this book.
xviii

About the Companion Website

This book is accompanied by a companion website:

www.wiley.com/go/bai-VB-Oracle

The book companion website includes:

1) Instructor materials (accessible only by Instructors)
a) HW DB Project Solutions
b) HW Question Solutions
c) Images
d) Sample Database
e) Teaching-PPT
2) Student materials
a) Class DB Projects
b) Images
c) Sample Database
d) VB Forms
 1

Introduction

For many years during my teaching Visual Basic.NET programming and database-related
­programming courses in my college, I found that it is not easy to find a good textbook for this topic
and I had to combine a few different professional books together as references to teach these
courses. Most of those books are specially designed for programmers or software engineers, which
cover a lot of programming strategies and huge blocks of codes, which is a terrible headache to the
college students or beginning programmers who are new to the Visual Basic.NET and database
programming. I have to prepare my class presentations and figure out all home works and exer-
cises for my students. I dream that one day I could find a good textbook that is suitable for the
college students or beginning programmers and could be used to help them to learn and master the
database programming with Visual Basic.NET easily and conveniently. Finally, I decided that I
need to do something for this dream myself after a long time waiting.
Another reason for me to have this idea is the job market. As you know, most industrial and com-
mercial companies in US belong to database application businesses such as manufactures, banks,
hospitals, and retails. Majority of them need professional people to develop and build database-
related applications but not database management and design systems. To enable our students to
become good candidates for those companies, we need to create a book like this one.
Unlike most of database programming books in the current market, which discuss and present
the database programming techniques with huge blocks of programming codes from the first page
to the last page, this book tries to use a new writing style to show readers, especially to the college
students, how to develop professional and practical database programs with Visual Basic.NET by
using Visual Studio.NET Design Tools and Wizards related to ADO.NET and to apply codes that
are auto-generated by various Wizards. By using this new style, the over headache caused by using
huge blocks of programming codes can be removed; instead, a simple and easy way to create
­database programs using the Design Tools can be taken to attract students’ learning interest and
furthermore to enable students to build professional and practical database programming in more
efficient and interesting ways.
There are so many different database-programming books available on the market, but rarely
can you find a book like this one, which implemented a novel writing style to attract the students’
learning interests in this topic. To meet the needs of some experienced or advanced students or
software engineers, the book contains two programming methods: the interesting and easy-to-
learn fundamental database programming method – Visual Studio.NET Design Tools and

Oracle Database Programming with Visual Basic.NET: Concepts, Designs, and Implementations, First Edition. Ying Bai.
© 2021 The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. Published 2021 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Companion website: www.wiley.com/go/bai-VB-Oracle
2 1 Introduction

Wizards – and the advanced database programming method – runtime object method. In the
­second method, all database-related objects are created and applied during or when your project is
running by utilizing quite a few blocks of codes.

1.1 ­Outstanding Features About This Book

1) All programming projects can be run in Microsoft Visual Studio.NET 2019 with Oracle XE 18c
databases.
2) A novel writing style is adopted to try to attract students’ or beginning programmers’ interests
in learning and developing practical database programs and to avoid the headache caused by
using huge blocks of codes in the traditional database programming books.
3) Updated database programming tools and components are covered in the book, such as .NET
Framework 4.7, LINQ, ADO.NET 4.6, and ASP.NET 4.7, to enable readers to easily and quickly
learn and master advanced techniques in database programming and develop professional and
practical database applications.
4) A real completed sample database CSE_DEPT with Oracle XE 18c database engine is provided
and used for the entire book. Step by step, a detailed illustration and description about how to
design and build a practical relational database are provided.
5) Covered both fundamental and advanced database programming techniques to convenience
both beginning students and experienced programmers.
6) Provides homework and exercises for students and teaching materials for instructors, and these
enable students to understand what they learned better by doing something themselves and
allow instructors to organize and prepare their courses easily and rapidly.
7) Good textbook for college students, good reference book for programmers, software engineers,
and academic researchers.

1.2 ­Who This Book Is For

This book is designed for college students and software programmers who want to develop practi-
cal and commercial database programming with Visual Basic.NET and relational databases such
as Oracle XE 18c. Fundamental knowledge and understanding on Visual Basic.NET and Visual
Studio.NET IDE is assumed.

1.3 ­What This Book Covered

Nine (9) chapters are included in this book. The contents of each chapter can be summarized as
below.
●● Chapter 1 provides an introduction and summarization to the whole book.
●● Chapter 2 provides detailed discussions and analyses of the structure and components about
relational databases. Some key technologies in developing and designing database are also given
and discussed in this part. The procedure and components used to develop a practical relational
database with Oracle XE 18c are analyzed in detailed with some real data tables in our sample
database CSE_DEPT.
 1.3 ­What This Book Covere 3

●● Chapter 3 provides an introduction to the ADO.NET, which includes the architectures, ­organizations,
and components of the ADO.NET. Detailed discussions and descriptions are provided in this chap-
ter to give readers both fundamental and practical ideas and pictures in how to use components in
ADO.NET to develop professional data-driven applications. Two ADO.NET architectures are dis-
cussed to enable users to follow the directions to design and build their preferred projects based on
the different organizations of the ADO.NET. Four popular data providers, such as OleDb, ODBC,
SQL Server, and Oracle, are discussed. The basic ideas and implementation examples of DataTable
and DataSet are also analyzed and described with some real coding examples.
●● Chapter 4 provides detailed discussions and analyses about the Language-Integrated Query
(LINQ), which includes LINQ to Objects, LINQ to DataSet, LINQ to Entities, and LINQ to XML.
An introduction to LINQ general programming guide is provided in the first part of this chapter.
Some popular interfaces widely used in LINQ, such as IEnumerable, IEnumerable(Of T),
IQueryable and IQueryable(Of T), and Standard Query Operators (SQO) including the deferred
and non-deferred SQO, are also discussed in that part. An introduction to LINQ Query is given
in the second section of this chapter. Following this introduction, a detailed discussion and anal-
ysis about the LINQ queries that are implemented for different data sources is provided in detail
with quite a few example projects.
●● Starting from Chapter 5, the real database programming techniques with Visual Basic.NET such
as data selection queries are provided and discussed. Two parts are covered in this chapter: Part
I contains the detailed descriptions in how to develop professional data-driven applications with
the help of the Visual Studio.NET design tools and wizards with some real projects. This part
contains a lot of hiding codes that are created by Visual Basic.NET automatically when using
those design tools and wizards. Therefore, the coding job for this part is very simple and easy.
Part II covers an advanced technique, the runtime object method, in developing and building
professional data-driven applications. Detailed discussions and descriptions about how to build
professional and practical database applications using this runtime object method are provided
combined with four (4) real projects.
●● Chapter 6 provides detailed discussions and analyses about three popular data insertion meth-
ods with Oracle XE 18c database:
1) Using TableAdapter’s DBDirect methods TableAdapter.Insert() method.
2) Using the TableAdapter’s Update() method to insert new records that have already been
added into the DataTable in the DataSet.
3) Using the Command object’s ExecuteNonQuery() method.
This chapter is also divided into two parts: Methods 1 and 2 are related to Visual Studio.NET
design tools and wizards and therefore are covered in Part I. The third method is related to runt-
ime object and therefore it is covered in Part II. Four (4) real projects are used to illustrate how
to perform the data insertion into the Oracle XE 18c database. Some professional and practical
data validation methods are also discussed in this chapter to confirm the data insertion.
●● Chapter 7 provides discussions and analyses on three popular data updating and deleting meth-
ods with four real project examples:
1) Using TableAdapter DBDirect methods such as TableAdapter.Update() and TableAdapter.
Delete() to update and delete data directly again in the databases.
2) Using TableAdapter.Update() method to update and execute the associated TableAdapter’s
properties such as UpdateCommand or DeleteCommand to save changes made for the table
in the DataSet to the table in the database.
4 1 Introduction

3) Using the runtime object method to develop and execute the Command’s method
ExecuteNonQuery() to update or delete data again in the database directly.
This chapter is also divided into two parts: Methods 1 and 2 are related to Visual Studio.NET
design tools and wizards and therefore are covered in Part I. The third method is related to runt-
ime object and it is covered in Part II. Four (4) real projects are used to illustrate how to perform
the data updating and deleting against the database Oracle XE 18c. Some professional and prac-
tical data validation methods are also discussed in this chapter to confirm the data updating and
deleting actions. The key points in performing the data updating and deleting actions against a
relational database, such as the order to execute data updating and deleting between the parent
and child tables, are also discussed and analyzed.
●● Chapter 8 provides introductions and discussions about the developments and implementations
of ASP.NET Web applications in Visual Basic.NET 2019 environment. At the beginning of
Chapter 8, a detailed and complete description about the ASP.NET and the .NET Framework is
provided, and this part is especially useful and important to students or programmers who do
not have any knowledge or background in the Web application developments and implementa-
tions. Following the introduction section, a detailed discussion on how to install and configure
the environment to develop the ASP.NET Web applications is provided. Some essential tools
such as the Web server, IIS, and FrontPage Server Extension 2000 as well as the installation pro-
cess of these tools are introduced and discussed in detail. Starting from Section 8.3, the detailed
development and building process of ASP.NET Web applications to access the Oracle databases
are discussed with four (4) real Web application projects. One popular database Oracle XE 18c is
utilized as the target databases for those development and building processes.
●● Chapter 9 provides introductions and discussions about the developments and implementations
of ASP.NET Web services in Visual Basic.NET 2019 environment. A detailed discussion and
analysis about the structure and components of the Web services is provided at the beginning of
this chapter. One of the most popular databases, Oracle XE 18c, is discussed and used for three
kinds of example Web service projects, which include:
1) WebServiceOracleSelect
2) WebServiceOracleInsert
3) WebServiceOracleUpdateDelete
Each Web service contains different Web methods that can be used to access different databases
and perform the desired data actions such as Select, Insert, Update, and Delete via the Internet. To
consume those Web services, different Web service client projects are also developed in this chap-
ter. Both Windows-based and Web-based Web service client projects are discussed and built for
each kind of Web services listed earlier. Totally, nine (9) projects, including the Web service and the
associated Web service client projects, are developed in this chapter. All projects have been
debugged and tested and can be run in most popular Windows compatible operating systems, such
as Windows XP, Windows 7/8, and Windows 10.

1.4 ­How This Book Is Organized and How to Use This Book

This book is designed for both college students who are new to database programming with
Visual Basic.NET and professional database programmers who has professional experience on
this topic.
 1.4 ­How This Book Is Organized and How to Use This Boo 5

Level I

Chapter 2 Level II

Chapters 3 & 4 Chapters 3 & 4

Part I Part II
Chapter 5 Chapter 5

Part I Part II
Chapter 6 Chapter 6

Part I Part II
Chapter 7 Chapter 7
Optional
Chapter 8 Chapter 8

Chapter 9 Chapter 9

Figure 1.1 Two study levels in the book.

Chapters 2~4 provide the fundamentals on database structures and components, ADO.NET
and LINQ components. Chapters 5~7 each is divided into two parts: fundamental part and
advanced part. The data-driven applications developed with design tools and wizards provided
by Visual Studio.NET, which can be considered as the fundamental part, have less coding loads
and therefore they are more suitable to students or programmers who are new to the database
programming with Visual Basic.NET. Part II contains the runtime object method and it covers a
lot of coding developments to perform the different data actions against the database, and this
method is more flexible and convenient to experienced programmers even a lot of coding jobs is
concerned.
Chapters 8 and 9 give a full discussion and analysis about the developments and implementa-
tions of ASP.NET Web applications and Web services. These technologies are necessary to students
and programmers who want to develop and build Web applications and Web services to access and
manipulate data via Internet.
Based on the organization of this book we described earlier, this book can be used as two catego-
ries such as Level I and Level II, which is shown in Figure 1.1.
For undergraduate college students or beginning software programmers, it is highly recom-
mended to learn and understand the contents of Chapters 2~4 and Part I of Chapters 5~7, since
those are fundamental knowledge and techniques in database programming with Visual Basic.
NET. Regarding Chapters 8 and 9, it is optional to instructors and it depends on the time and
schedule available to instructors.
For experienced college students or software programmers who have already had some knowl-
edge and techniques in database programming, it is recommended to learn and understand the
contents of Part II of Chapters 5~7 as well as Chapters 8 and 9 since the runtime objects method
and some sophisticated database programming techniques, such as joined-table query and nested
stored procedures, are discussed and illustrated in those chapters with real examples. Also the ASP.
NET Web applications and ASP.NET Web services are discussed and analyzed with many real data-
base program examples for Oracle XE 18c database.
6 1 Introduction

1.5 ­How to Use Appendices and Related Materials

Totally, nine (9) Appendices, Appendices A~I, are provided with the book to assist and help readers
to easily and correctly download and install all required and necessary software and tools to build
desired practical database projects. These Appendices provide crystal clear directions for readers to
enable them to smoothly go through the entire installing and setup processes for each kind of soft-
ware and development tool and make them ready to be used to build professional and practical
database applications. The main functions and directions provided by these Appendices include:
–– Appendix A: Download and Install Oracle Database 18c XE. Provides a
complete and accurate direction to help users to complete downloading and installing this
Oracle XE 18c Database with its engine.
–– Appendix B: Download and Install Oracle SQL Developer. Provides an
accurate direction to help users to complete downloading and installing this Oracle SQL
Developer. This tool is a key component to build and develop any customer Oracle database,
including our sample database CSE_DEPT with five data tables and keys.
–– Appendix C: Download and Install DevExpress WinForms. Provides a com-
plete direction to help users to complete downloading and installing this third-party tool. By
using this tool, users can directly and conveniently insert any image into any table in Oracle
database without any coding process. This product is a 30-day free trial version without any
charge to the user.
–– Appendix D: How to Use the Sample Database. To assist readers to quickly and
easily build professional database application projects, a sample database, CSE_DEPT, is pro-
vided and used for entire book. This sample database is used to simulate a computer science
and engineering department with five tables, LogIn, Faculty, Course, Student,
and StudentCourse. This Appendix provides a clear picture to show readers how to down-
load and duplicate this sample database in just some button clicks. Indeed, by using this
Appendix and following up the directions, one can easily and quickly build this sample data-
base without spending much time and efforts! It greatly simplifies the generation and building
process of this sample database and therefore provides a quick shortcut for readers.
–– Appendix E: How to Export the Sample Database. Opposite to Appendix D,
this Appendix provides a way to show readers how to export our sample database CSE_DEPT
to enable other users to import it to their blank database to simplify this database-building
process. By following up the directions provided by this Appendix, readers can easily and
quickly export their database to enable other users to import and make that database as their
database. How easy it is!
–– Appendix F: Download and Install dotConnect Express. This is a free-ver-
sion third-party product that provides a data drive for Oracle data provider. To access an Oracle
database from any programming environment, including Visual Basic.NET, a data drive is
necessary to work as a translator or a bridge to setup up a connection between Visual Basic.
NET and Oracle database engine. This Appendix provides a clear and complete direction to
enable readers to quickly setup this connection.
–– Appendix G: How to Use User-Defined Windows/Web Forms. To assist readers
to speed up their database project developments, all Windows Forms and Web Pages used for
all projects built in this book have been developed. Readers can use any of them by just simply
adding them into their projects by using Add|Existing Item menu item. All built
Windows Forms, including the LogIn Form, Selection Form, Faculty Form,
 1.5 ­How to Use Appendices and Related Material 7

Course Form, and Student Form, and all built Web Pages, including the LogIn Page,
Selection Page, Faculty Page, Course Page, and Student Page, can be found from a folder VB
Forms\Windows and VB Forms\Web, which is located under the Students folder at the
Wiley ftp site (refer to Figure 1.2).
–– Appendix H: Download and Install FrontPage Server Extension for Windows 10.
To run any project developed in Chapters 8 and 9, one needs to use Internet Information Services
(IIS) provider. The FrontPage Server Extension can be considered as an administrator for IIS. To uti-
lize the IIS more effectively and efficiently, it is recommend installing this extension if possible.

For instructors:

Instructor materials are available upon request from wwww.wiley.com/go/bai-VB-Oracle/Instructors

HW DB projects Images HW question solutions

Sample database solutions Teaching-PPT

CSE_DEPT Chapter 1.ppt HW_Solution.pdf

Chapter 5 Chapter 2.ppt Faculty
2 Projects
Chapter 3.ppt 12-Faculty
Chapter 6 images
3 Projects Chapter 4.ppt

Chapter 7 Chapter 5.ppt

2 Projects Chapter 6.ppt Students
Chapter 8 Chapter 7.ppt 8-Student
4 Project images
Chapter 8.ppt
Chapter 9 Chapter 9.ppt
6 Projects

For students:

Learning materials are free to access via the site www.wiley.com/go/bai-VB-Oracle/Students

Class DB projects

Sample database I mages

VB forms
Chapter 2
CSE_DEPT 1 Project
Window Faculty
Chapter 4
12 Projects
Login form 13-Faculty
Faculty form Chapter 5 images
4 Projects
Course form
Student form Chapter 6
4 Projects Students
Selection form
Chapter 7 8-Student
Web 4 Projects images
Login page
Chapter 8
Faculty page 4 Projects
Course page
Chapter 9
Student page 9 Projects
Selection page

Figure 1.2 Book-related materials on Web site.

8 1 Introduction

–– Appendix I: Download and Install LinqConnect Express. This is a free-

version third-party product that provides a drive for LINQ to Oracle. To access and manipulate
data records in an Oracle database via LINQ to Oracle, one needs to use some third-party tool
or drive to setup a connection between any programming environment, including Visual
Basic.NET, and the Oracle database engine. This Appendix provides a clear and complete
direction to enable readers to quickly setup this connection and use this LINQ to Oracle tech-
nique to develop and build professional database applications.

1.6 ­How to Use Source Codes and Sample Database

All source codes in each project developed in this book are available and open to publics, and all
projects are categorized and stored into the associated chapters, which are located at a folder
Class DB Projects that is under the Students folder at the Wiley ftp site www.wiley.com/
go/bai-VB-Oracle. You can copy or download those codes into your computer and run each project
as you like. To successfully run those projects, the following conditions must be met:
●● Visual Studio.NET 2019 or higher must be installed in your computer.
●● The database management system, Oracle Database Configuration Assistant,
must be installed in your computer.
●● The sample database, CSE_DEPT, must be installed in your computer in the appropriate
folders.
●● To run projects developed in Chapters 8 and 9, in addition to conditions listed above, an Internet
Information Services (IIS) such as FrontPage Server Extension 2000 or 2002 must be installed in
your computer and it works as a pseudo server for those projects.
●● Some third-party drives and tools, such as DevExpress WinForms, dotConnect for Oracle,
LinqConnect Express, and Oracle SQL Developer, should have been installed in your computer.
All related teaching and learning materials, including the sample database, example projects,
homework solutions, faculty and student images, as well as sample Windows forms and Web
pages, can be found from the associated folders, Instructors or Students, located at the
Wiley ftp site www.wiley.com/go/bai-VB-Oracle, as shown in Figure 1.2.
These materials are categorized and stored at different folders in two different sites based on the
teaching purpose (for instructors) and learning purpose (for students):
1) Sample Database Folder: Contains our sample database, CSE_DEPT (Oracle XE 18c) with
five (5) tables. Refer to Appendix D to get details in how to use this database for your applica-
tions or sample projects.
2) Class DB Projects Folder: Contains all sample projects developed in the book. Projects are
categorized and stored at different Chapter subfolder based on the book chapter sequence.
Readers can directly use the codes and GUIs of those projects by downloading them from this
folder that is located under the Students folder at the Wiley ftp site.
3) Images Folder: Contains all sample faculty image files (under the Images\Faculty sub-
folder) and all student image files (under the Images\Students subfolder) used in all sample
projects in the book. Readers can copy and paste those image files to their projects to use them.
4) VB Forms Folder: Contains all sampled Windows-based Forms (under the VB Forms\
Window subfolder) and Web-based Pages (under the VB Forms\Web subfolder) developed
and implemented in all sample projects in the book. Readers can use those Forms or Pages by
 1.7 ­Instructors and Customer Support 9

adding them into their real projects with the Add|Existing Item menu item in the Visual
Studio.NET environment.
5) Teaching-PPT Folder: Contains all MS-PPT teaching slides for each chapter.
6) HW Question Solutions Folder: Contains selected solutions for the homework
Questions developed and used in the book. The solutions are categorized and stored at the dif-
ferent Chapter subfolder based on the book chapter sequence.
7) HW DB Project Solutions Folder: Contains all solutions for the homework Exercises
developed and used in the book. The project solutions are categorized and stored at the different
Chapter subfolder based on the book chapter sequence.
Folders 1~4 belong to learning materials for students; therefore, they are located at the sub-
folder Students at the site: www.wiley.com/go/bai-VB-Oracle. Folders 1~3 and 5~7 belong to
teaching materials for instructors, they are located at the sub-folder Instructors at the same
site (password protected) and available upon requests by instructors.

1.7 ­Instructors and Customer Supports

The teaching materials for all chapters have been extracted and represented by a sequence of
Microsoft Power Point files, each file for one chapter. The interested instructors can find them from
the folder Teaching-PPT that is located at a sub-folder Instructors at the site www.wiley.
com/go/bai-VB-Oracle and those instructor materials are available upon request from the book’s
listing on that site (password protected).
A selected homework Questions solution and all homework Exercise solutions are also available
upon request from the site. E-mail support is available to readers of this book. When you send
e-mail to us, please provide the following information:
●● The detailed description about your problems, including the error message and debug message,
as well as the error or debug number if it is provided.
●● Your name, job title, and company name.
●● Please send all questions to the e-mail address: ybai@jcsu.edu.
Detailed structure and distribution of all book-related materials in the Wiley site, including the
teaching and learning materials, are shown in Figure 1.2.
All projects in the folder Instructors|HW DB Project Solutions are different from
those in the Students folder since the former contained solutions to projects in the Exercises
part, but the latter have no solutions.
10

Introduction to Databases
Ying Bai and Satish Bhalla

Databases have become an integral part of our modern day life. Today, we are an ­information-driven
society. Large amounts of data are generated, analyzed, and converted into different information
at each moment. A recent example of biological data generation is the Human Genome project
that was jointly sponsored by the Department of Energy (DOE) and the National Institute of
Health (NIH). Many countries participated in this venture for more than 10 years. The project was
a tremendous success. It was completed in 2003 and resulted in the generation of huge amount of
genome data, currently stored in databases around the world. The scientists will be analyzing this
data in years to come.
Database technology has a direct impact on our daily lives. Decisions are routinely made by
organizations based on the information collected and stored in the databases. A record company
may decide to market certain albums in selected regions based on the music preference of teenag-
ers. Grocery stores display more popular items at the eye level, and reorders are based on the inven-
tories taken at regular intervals. Other examples include book orders by the libraries, club
memberships, auto part orders, winter cloth stock by department stores, and many others.
Database management programs have been in existence since the sixties. However, it was not
until the seventies when E. F. Codd proposed the then revolutionary Relational Data Model that
database technology really took off. In the early eighties, it received a further boost with the arrival
of personal computers and microcomputer-based data management programs like dBase II (later
followed by dBase III and IV). Today, we have a plethora of vastly improved programs for PCs and
mainframe computers, including Microsoft Access, SQL Server, IBM DB2, Oracle, Sequel Server,
MySQL, and others.
This chapter covers the basic concepts of database design followed by implementation of a spe-
cific relational database to illustrate the concepts discussed here. The sample database, CSE_DEPT,
is used as a running example. The database structure is shown by using Microsoft Access, Microsoft
SQL Server, and Oracle databases with a real Oracle 18c XE database sample in details. The topics
discussed in this chapter include:
●● What are databases and database programs?
–– File Processing System
–– Integrated Databases
●● Various approaches to developing a Database
●● Relational Data Model and Entity-Relationship (ER) Model

Oracle Database Programming with Visual Basic.NET: Concepts, Designs, and Implementations, First Edition. Ying Bai.
© 2021 The Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers, Inc. Published 2021 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Companion website: www.wiley.com/go/bai-VB-Oracle
 2.1 ­What Are Databases and Database Programs 11

●● Identifying Keys
–– Primary Keys, Foreign Keys, and Referential Integrity
●● Defining Relationships
●● Normalizing the Data
●● Implementing the Relational Sample Database
–– Create Microsoft SQL Server 2017 Express Sample Database

2.1 ­What Are Databases and Database Programs?

A modern day database is a structured collection of data stored in a computer. The term structured
implies that each record in the database is stored in a certain format. For example, all entries in a
phone book are arranged in a similar fashion. Each entry contains a name, an address, and a telephone
number of a subscriber. This information can be queried and manipulated by database programs. The
data retrieved in answer to queries becomes information that can be used to make decisions. The data-
bases may consist of a single table or related multiple tables. The computer programs used to create,
manage, and query databases are known as a DataBase Management Systems (DBMSs). Similar to the
databases, the DBMSs vary in complexity. Depending on the need of a user, one can use either a simple
application or a robust program. Some examples of these programs were given earlier.

2.1.1 File Processing System

File processing system (FPS) is a precursor of the integrated database approach. The records for a
particular application are stored in a file. An application program is needed to retrieve or manipulate
data in this file. Thus, various departments in an organization will have their own file processing
systems with their individual programs to store and retrieve data. The data in various files may be
duplicated and not available to other applications. This causes redundancy and may lead to inconsist-
ency, meaning that various files that supposedly contain the same information may actually contain
different data values. Thus, duplication of data creates problems with data integrity. Moreover, it is
difficult to provide access to multiple users with the file processing systems without granting them
access to the respective application programs, which manipulate the data in those files.
The FPS may be advantageous under certain circumstances. For example, if data is static and a
simple application will solve the problem, a more expensive DBMS is not needed. For example, in
a small business environment, you want to keep track of the inventory of the office equipment
purchased only once or twice a year. The data can be kept in an Excel spreadsheet and manipulated
with ease from time to time. This avoids the need to purchase an expensive database program and
hiring a knowledgeable database administrator. Before the DBMS’s became popular, the data was
kept in files and application programs were developed to delete, insert, or modify records in the
files. Since specific application programs were developed for specific data
These programs lasted for months or years before modifications were necessitated by business needs.

2.1.2 Integrated Databases

A better alternative to a file processing system is an integrated database approach. In this environ-
ment, all data belonging to an organization is stored in a single database. The database is not a
mere collection of files; there is a relation between the files. Integration implies a logical relation-
ship, usually provided through a common column in the tables. The relationships are also stored
12 2 Introduction to Databases

within the database. A set of sophisticated programs known as DBMS is used to store, access, and
manipulate the data in the database. Details of data storage and maintenance are hidden from the
user. The user interacts with the database through the DBMS. A user may interact either directly
with the DBMS or via a program written in a programming language such as Visual C++, Java,
Visual Basic, or Visual C#. Only the DBMS can access the database. Large organizations employ
Database Administrators (DBA’s) to design and maintain large databases.
There are many advantages of using an integrated database approach over that of a file ­processing
approach:
1) Data sharing: The data in the database is available to a large numbers of users who can access
the data simultaneously and create reports and manipulate the data given proper authorization
and rights.
2) Minimizing data redundancy: Since all the related data exists in a single database, there is a
minimal need of data duplication. The duplication is needed to maintain relationship between
various data items.
3) Data consistency and data integrity: Reducing data redundancy will lead to data consist-
ency. Since data is stored in a single database, enforcing data integrity becomes much easier.
Furthermore, the inherent functions of the DBMS can be used to enforce the integrity with
minimum programming.
4) Enforcing standards: DBAs are charged with enforcing standards in an organization. DBA
takes into account the needs of various departments and balances it against the overall need of
the organization. DBA defines various rules such as documentation standards, naming conven-
tions, update and recovery procedures etc. It is relatively easy to enforce these rules in a Database
System, since it is a single set of programs which is always interacting with the data files.
5) Improving security: Security is achieved through various means such as controlling access to
the database through passwords, providing various levels of authorizations, data encryption,
providing access to restricted views of the database etc.
6) Data independence: Providing data independence is a major objective for any database system.
Data independence implies that even if the physical structure of a database changes, the applica-
tions are allowed to access the database as before the changes were implemented. In other words,
the applications are immune to the changes in the physical representation and access techniques.
The downside of using an integrated database approach has mainly to do with exorbitant costs
associated with it. The hardware, the software, and maintenance are expensive. Providing security,
concurrency, integrity, and recovery may add further to this cost. Furthermore, since DBMS
­consists of a complex set of programs, trained personnel are needed to maintain it.

2.2 ­Develop a Database

Database development process may follow a classical Systems Development Life Cycle.
1) Problem Identification – Interview the user, identify user requirements, and perform pre-
liminary analysis of user needs.
2) Project Planning – Identify alternative approaches to solving the problem. Does the project
need a database? If so define the problem. Establish scope of the project.
3) Problem Analysis – Identify specifications for the problem. Confirm the feasibility of the pro-
ject. Specify detailed requirements
 2.3 ­Sample Databas 13

4) Logical Design – Delineate detailed functional specifications. Determine screen designs,

report layout designs, data models etc.
5) Physical Design – Develop physical data structures.
6) Implementation – Select DBMS. Convert data to conform to DBMS requirements. Code pro-
grams; perform testing.
7) Maintenance – Continue program modification until desired results are achieved.
An alternative approach to developing a database is through a phased process which will include
designing a conceptual model of the system that will imitate the real-world operation. It should be
flexible and change when the information in the database changes. Furthermore, it should not be
dependent upon the physical implementation. This process follows following phases:
1) Planning and Analysis – This phase is roughly equivalent to the first three steps men-
tioned above in the Systems Development Life Cycle. This includes requirement specifica-
tions, evaluating alternatives, and determining input, output, and reports to be generated.
2) Conceptual Design – Choose a data model and develop a conceptual schema based on the
requirement specification that was laid out in the planning and analysis phase. This conceptual
design focuses on how the data will be organized without having to worry about the specifics of
the tables, keys, and attributes. Identify the entities that will represent tables in the database,
identify attributes that will represent fields in a table, and identify each entity attribute relation-
ship. ER diagrams provide a good representation of the conceptual design.
3) Logical Design – Conceptual design is transformed into a logical design by creating a road-
map of how the database will look before actually creating the database. Data model is iden-
tified; usually, it is the relational model. Define the tables (entities) and fields (attributes).
Identify primary and foreign key for each table. Define relationships between the tables.
4) Physical Design – Develop physical data structures; specify file organization and data storage
etc. Take into consideration the availability of various resources including hardware and soft-
ware. This phase overlaps with the implementation phase. It involves the programming of the
database taking into account the limitations of the DBMS used.
5) Implementation – Choose the DBMS that will fulfill the user needs. Implement the physi-
cal design. Perform testing. Modify if necessary or until the database functions satisfactorily.

2.3 ­Sample Database

We will use a sample database CSE_DEPT to illustrate some essential database concepts.
Tables 2.1~2.5 show sample data tables stored in this database.
The data in CSE_DEPT database is stored in five tables – LogIn, Faculty, Course, Student, and
StudentCourse. A table consists of row and columns (Figure 2.1). A row represents a record, and
the column represents a field. Row is called a tuple, and a column is called an attribute. For exam-
ple, Student table has seven columns or fields – student_id, name, gpa, major, schoolYear, and
email. It has five records or rows.

2.3.1 Relational Data Model

Data model is like a blue print for developing a database. It describes the structure of the data-
base and various data relationships and constraints on the data. This information is used in
building tables, keys, and defining relationships. Relational model implies that a user perceives
Table 2.1 LogIn table.

user_name pass_word faculty_id student_id

abrown america B66750

ajade tryagain A97850
awoods smart A78835
banderson birthday A52990
bvalley see B92996
dangles tomorrow A77587
hsmith try H10210
terica excellent T77896
jhenry test H99118
jking goodman K69880
sbhalla india B86590
sjohnson jermany J33486
ybai come B78880

Table 2.2 Faculty table.

faculty_id faculty_ office phone college title email fimage

name

A52990 Black MTC-218 750-378-9987 Virginia Tech Professor banderson@ NULL

Anderson college.edu
A77587 Debby MTC-320 750-330-2276 University of Associate dangles@ NULL
Angles Chicago Professor college.edu
B66750 Alice MTC-257 750-330-6650 University of Assistant abrown@ NULL
Brown Florida Professor college.edu
B78880 Ying Bai MTC-211 750-378-1148 Florida Atlantic Associate ybai@college. NULL
University Professor edu
B86590 Davis MTC-214 750-378-1061 University of Associate dbhalla@ NULL
Bhalla Notre Dame Professor college.edu
H99118 Jeff Henry MTC-336 750-330-8650 Ohio State Associate jhenry@ NULL
University Professor college.edu
J33486 Steve MTC-118 750-330-1116 Harvard Distinguished sjohnson@ NULL
Johnson University Professor college.edu
K69880 Jenney MTC-324 750-378-1230 East Florida Professor jking@ NULL
King University college.edu

Table 2.3 Course table.

course_id course credit classroom schedule enrollment faculty_id

CSC-131A Computers in Society 3 TC-109 M-W-F: 9:00-9:55 28 A52990

AM
CSC-131B Computers in Society 3 TC-114 M-W-F: 9:00-9:55 20 B66750
AM
CSC-131C Computers in Society 3 TC-109 T-H: 11:00-12:25 PM 25 A52990
CSC-131D Computers in Society 3 TC-109 M-W-F: 9:00-9:55 AM 30 B86590
CSC-131E Computers in Society 3 TC-301 M-W-F: 1:00-1:55 PM 25 B66750
Table 2.3 (Continued)

course_id course credit classroom schedule enrollment faculty_id

CSC-131I Computers in Society 3 TC-109 T-H: 1:00-2:25 PM 32 A52990

CSC-132A Introduction to 3 TC-303 M-W-F: 9:00- 21 J33486
Programming 9:55 AM
CSC-132B Introduction to 3 TC-302 T-H: 1:00-2:25 PM 21 B78880
Programming
CSC-230 Algorithms & Structures 3 TC-301 M-W-F: 1:00-1:55 PM 20 A77587
CSC-232A Programming I 3 TC-305 T-H: 11:00-12:25 PM 28 B66750
CSC-232B Programming I 3 TC-303 T-H: 11:00-12:25 PM 17 A77587
CSC-233A Introduction to 3 TC-302 M-W-F: 9:00-9:55 18 H99118
Algorithms AM
CSC-233B Introduction to Algorithms 3 TC-302 M-W-F: 11:00- 19 K69880
11:55 AM
CSC-234A Data Structure & 3 TC-302 M-W-F: 9:00- 25 B78880
Algorithms 9:55 AM
CSC-234B Data Structure & 3 TC-114 T-H: 11:00-12:25 PM 15 J33486
Algorithms
CSC-242 Programming II 3 TC-303 T-H: 1:00-2:25 PM 18 A52990
CSC-320 Object Oriented 3 TC-301 T-H: 1:00-2:25 PM 22 B66750
Programming
CSC-331 Applications Programming 3 TC-109 T-H: 11:00-12:25 PM 28 H99118
CSC-333A Computer Arch & 3 TC-301 M-W-F: 10:00- 22 A77587
Algorithms 10:55 AM
CSC-333B Computer Arch & 3 TC-302 T-H: 11:00-12:25 PM 15 A77587
Algorithms
CSC-335 Internet Programming 3 TC-303 M-W-F: 1:00-1:55PM 25 B66750
CSC-432 Discrete Algorithms 3 TC-206 T-H: 11:00-12:25 PM 20 B86590
CSC-439 Database Systems 3 TC-206 M-W-F: 1:00-1:55 PM 18 B86590
CSE-138A Introduction to CSE 3 TC-301 T-H: 1:00-2:25 PM 15 A52990
CSE-138B Introduction to CSE 3 TC-109 T-H: 1:00-2:25 PM 35 J33486
CSE-330 Digital Logic Circuits 3 TC-305 M-W-F: 9:00- 26 K69880
9:55 AM
CSE-332 Foundations of 3 TC-305 T-H: 1:00-2:25 PM 24 K69880
Semiconductors
CSE-334 Elec. Measurement & 3 TC-212 T-H: 11:00-12:25 PM 25 H99118
Design
CSE-430 Bioinformatics in 3 TC-206 Thu: 9:30-11:00 AM 16 B86590
Computer
CSE-432 Analog Circuits Design 3 TC-309 M-W-F: 2:00-2:55 PM 18 K69880
CSE-433 Digital Signal Processing 3 TC-206 T-H: 2:00-3:25 PM 18 H99118
CSE-434 Advanced Electronics 3 TC-213 M-W-F: 1:00-1:55 PM 26 B78880
Systems
CSE-436 Automatic Control and 3 TC-305 M-W-F: 10:00-10:55 29 J33486
Design AM
CSE-437 Operating Systems 3 TC-303 T-H: 1:00-2:25 PM 17 A77587
CSE-438 Advd Logic & 3 TC-213 M-W-F: 11:00-11:55 35 B78880
Microprocessor AM
CSE-439 Special Topics in CSE 3 TC-206 M-W-F: 10:00- 22 J33486
10:55 AM
Table 2.4 Student table.

student_id student_name gpa credits major schoolYear email simage

A78835 Andrew Woods 3.26 108 Computer Science Senior awoods@college.edu NULL
A97850 Ashly Jade 3.57 116 Information System Junior ajade@college.edu NULL
Engineering
B92996 Blue Valley 3.52 102 Computer Science Senior bvalley@college.edu NULL
H10210 Holes Smith 3.87 78 Computer Sophomore hsmith@college.edu NULL
Engineering
T77896 Tom Erica 3.95 127 Computer Science Senior terica@college.edu NULL

Table 2.5 StudentCourse table.

s_course_id student_id course_id credit major

1000 H10210 CSC-131D 3 CE

1001 B92996 CSC-132A 3 CS/IS
1002 T77896 CSC-335 3 CS/IS
1003 A78835 CSC-331 3 CE
1004 H10210 CSC-234B 3 CE
1005 T77896 CSC-234A 3 CS/IS
1006 B92996 CSC-233A 3 CS/IS
1007 A78835 CSC-132A 3 CE
1008 A78835 CSE-432 3 CE
1009 A78835 CSE-434 3 CE
1010 T77896 CSC-439 3 CS/IS
1011 H10210 CSC-132A 3 CE
1012 H10210 CSC-331 2 CE
1013 A78835 CSC-335 3 CE
1014 A78835 CSE-438 3 CE
1015 T77896 CSC-432 3 CS/IS
1016 A97850 CSC-132B 3 ISE
1017 A97850 CSC-234A 3 ISE
1018 A97850 CSC-331 3 ISE
1019 A97850 CSC-335 3 ISE
1020 T77896 CSE-439 3 CS/IS
1021 B92996 CSC-230 3 CS/IS
1022 A78835 CSE-332 3 CE
1023 B92996 CSE-430 3 CE
1024 T77896 CSC-333A 3 CS/IS
1025 H10210 CSE-433 3 CE
1026 H10210 CSE-334 3 CE
1027 B92996 CSC-131C 3 CS/IS
1028 B92996 CSC-439 3 CS/IS
 2.3 ­Sample Databas 17

Table

ID Name Ages Address Phone

1000 Tom 36 220 Ave 549-0507

Record 1002 Jim 58 101 Main 678-1002
2010 Jeff 49 25 Court 678-3211

3090 Kim 23 43 Route 202-5587

Field

Figure 2.1 Records and fields in a table.

the database as made up of relations, a database jargon for tables. It is imperative that all data
elements in the tables are represented correctly. In order to achieve these goals, designers use
various tools. The most commonly used tool is ER Model. A well-planned model will give con-
sistent results and will allow changes if needed later on. Following section further elaborates on
the ER Model.

2.3.2 Entity-Relationship (ER) Model

ER model was first proposed and developed by Peter Chen in 1976. Since then Charles Bachman
and James Martin have added some refinements, the model was designed to communicate the
database design in the form of a conceptual schema. The ER model is based on the perception that
the real world is made up of entities, their attributes, and relationships. The ER model is graphi-
cally depicted as ER diagrams (ERDs). ERDs are a major modeling tool; they graphically describe
the logical structure of the database. ER diagrams can be used with ease to construct the relational
tables and are a good vehicle for communicating the database design to the end user or a developer.
The three major components of ERD are entities, relationships, and the attributes.

2.3.2.1 Entities
An entity is a data object, either real or abstract, about which we want to collect information. For
example, we may want to collect information about a person, a place, or a thing. An entity in an ER
diagram translates into a table. It should preferably be referred to as an entity set. Some common
examples are departments, courses, and students. A single occurrence of an entity is an instance.
There are four entities in the CSE_Dept database, LogIn, Faculty, Course, and Student. Each entity
is translated into a table with the same name. An instance of the Faculty entity will be Alice Brown
and her attributes.

2.3.2.2 Relationships
A database is made up of related entities. There is a natural association between the entities; it is
referred to as relationship. For example,
●● Students take courses
●● Departments offer certain courses
●● Employees are assigned to departments
18 2 Introduction to Databases

The number of occurrences of one entity associated with single occurrence of a related entity is
referred to as cardinality.

2.3.2.3 Attributes
Each entity has properties or values called attributes associated with it. The attributes of an entity
map into fields in a table. Database Processing is one attribute of an entity called Courses. The
domain of an attribute is a set of all possible values from which an attribute can derive its value.

2.4 ­Identifying Keys

2.4.1 Primary Key and Entity Integrity

An attribute that uniquely identifies one and only one instance of an entity is called a primary key.
Sometimes a primary key consists of a combination of attributes. It is referred to as a composite key.
Entity integrity rule states that no attribute that is a member of the primary (composite) key may
accept a null value.
A faculty_id may serve as a primary key for the Faculty entity, assuming that all faculty mem-
bers have been assigned a unique FaultyID. However, caution must be exercised when picking an
attribute as a primary key. Last Name may not make a good primary key because a department is
likely to have more than one person with the same last name. Primary keys for the CSE_DEPT
database are shown in Table 2.6.
Primary keys provide a tuple level addressing mechanism in the relational databases. Once you
define an attribute as a primary key for an entity, the DBMS will enforce the uniqueness of the
primary key. Inserting a duplicate value for primary key field will fail.

Table 2.6 Faculty table.

faculty_id faculty_name title office phone college email fimage

A52990 Black Professor MTC-218 750-378- Virginia Tech banderson@ NULL

Anderson 9987 college.edu
A77587 Debby Angles Associate MTC-320 750-330- University of dangles@ NULL
Professor 2276 Chicago college.edu
B66750 Alice Brown Assistant MTC-257 750-330- University of abrown@ NULL
Professor 6650 Florida college.edu
B78880 Ying Bai Associate MTC-211 750-378- Florida ybai@college. NULL
Professor 1148 Atlantic edu
University
B86590 Davis Bhalla Associate MTC-214 750-378- University of dbhalla@ NULL
Professor 1061 Notre Dame college.edu
H99118 Jeff Henry Associate MTC-336 750-330- Ohio State jhenry@college. NULL
Professor 8650 University edu
J33486 Steve Johnson Distinguished MTC-118 750-330- Harvard sjohnson@ NULL
Professor 1116 University college.edu
K69880 Jenney King Professor MTC-324 750-378- East Florida jking@college. NULL
1230 University edu
 2.5 ­Define Relationship 19

2.4.2 Candidate Key

There can be more than one attribute which uniquely identifies an instance of an entity. These are
referred to as candidate keys. Any one of them can serve as a primary key. For example, ID Number
as well as Social Security Number may make a suitable primary key. Candidate keys that are not
used as primary key are called alternate keys.

2.4.3 Foreign Keys and Referential Integrity

Foreign keys are used to create relationships between tables. It is an attribute in one table whose
values are required to match those of primary key in another table. Foreign keys are created to
enforce referential integrity which states that you may not add a record to a table containing a
foreign key unless there is a corresponding record in the related table to which it is logically linked.
Furthermore, the referential integrity rule also implies that every value of foreign key in a table
must match the primary key of a related table or be null. MS Access also makes provision for cas-
cade update and cascade delete which imply that changes made in one of the related tables will be
reflected in the other of the two related tables.
Consider two tables Course and Faculty in the sample database, CSE_DEPT. The Course table
has a foreign key entitled faculty_id which is the primary key in the Faculty table. The two tables
are logically related through the faculty_id link. Referential integrity rules imply that we may not
add a record to the Course table with a faculty_id which is not listed in the Faculty table. In other
words, there must be a logical link between the two related tables. Second, if we change or delete
a faculty_id in the Faculty table, it must reflect in the Course table meaning that all records in the
Course table must be modified using a cascade update or cascade delete (Tables 2.7).

2.5 ­Define Relationships

2.5.1 Connectivity
Connectivity refers to the types of relationships that entities can have. Basically, it can be one-
to-one, one-to-many, and many-to-many. In ER diagrams, these are indicated by placing 1, M or
N at one of the two ends of the relationship diagram. Figure illustrates the use of this
notation.

Table 2.7 Course (Partial data shown); Faculty (Partial data shown).

course_id course faculty_id faculty_id faculty_name office

CSC-132A Introduction to Programming J33486 A52990 Black Anderson MTC-218

CSC-132B Introduction to Programming B78880 A77587 Debby Angles MTC-320
CSC-230 Algorithms & Structures A77587 B66750 Alice Brown MTC-257
CSC-232A Programming I B66750 B78880 Ying Bai MTC-211
CSC-232B Programming I A77587 B86590 Davis Bhalla MTC-214
CSC-233A Introduction to Algorithms H99118 H99118 Jeff Henry MTC-336
CSC-233B Introduction to Algorithms K69880 J33486 Steve Johnson MTC-118
CSC-234A Data Structure & Algorithms B78880 K69880 Jenney King MTC-324
20 2 Introduction to Databases

●● A one-to-one (1 : 1) relationship occurs when one instance of entity A is related to only one
instance of entity B. For example, user_name in the LogIn table and user_name in the Student
table (Figure 2.2).
●● A one-to-many (1 : M) relationship occurs when one instance of entity A is associated with
zero, one, or many instances of entity B. However, entity B is associated with only one instance
of entity A. For example, one department can have many faculty members; each faculty member
is assigned to only one department. In CSE_DEPT database, One-to-many relationship is repre-
sented by faculty_id in the Faculty table and faculty_id in the Course table, student_id in the
Student table and student_id in the StudentCourse table, course_id in the Course table and
course_id in the StudentCourse table (Figure 2.3).
●● A many-to-many (M : N) relationship occurs when one instance of entity A is associated with
zero, one, or many instances of entity B. And one instance of entity B is associated with zero,
one, or many instance of entity A. For example, a student may take many courses, and one
course may be taken by more than one student (Figure 2.4).
In CSE_DEPT database, a many-to-many relationship can be realized by using the third table.
For example, in this case, the StudentCourse that works as the third table set a many-to-many
relationship between the Student and the Course tables.
This database design assumes that the course table only contains courses taught by all faculty
members in this department for one semester. Therefore, each course can only be taught by a
unique faculty. If one wants to develop a Course table that contains courses taught by all faculty in
more than one semester, the third table, say FacultyCourse table, should be created to set up a
many-to-many relationship between the Faculty and the Course table since one course may be
taught by the different faculty for the different semester.

LogIn Student
user_name pass_word user_name gpa credits student_id
ajade tryagain ajade 3.26 108 A97850
awoods smart awoods 3.57 116 A78835
bvalley see
bvalley 3.52 102 B92996
hsmith try
hsmith 3.87 78 H10210
terica excellent
terica 3.95 127 T77896

Figure 2.2 One-to-one relationship in the LogIn and the Student tables.

Faculty Course
faculty_id faculty_name office course_id course faculty_id
A52990 Black Anderson MTC-218 CSC-132A Introduction to Programming J33486
A77587 Debby Angles MTC-320 CSC-132B Introduction to Programming B78880
B66750 Alice Brown MTC-257 CSC-230 Algorithms & Structures A77587
B78880 Ying Bai MTC-211 CSC-232A Programming I B66750
B86590 Davis Bhalla MTC-214 CSC-232B Programming I A77587
H99118 Jeff Henry MTC-336 CSC-233A Introduction to Algorithms H99118
J33486 Steve Johnson MTC-118 CSC-233B Introduction to Algorithms K69880
K69880 Jenney King MTC-324 CSC-234A Data Structure & Algorithms B78880

Figure 2.3 One-to-many relationship between Faculty and Course tables.

Another random document with
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the other side, there were murmurs among the well-to-do, who were
deprived of their favourite beverages unless they could obtain a
doctor’s certificate of ill-health, which did not, however, seem difficult
to arrange. I was asked more than once whether King George was
about to follow the lead given by the Tsar, Russians not being very
clear as to the limitations of a constitutional monarchy.
Soldiers were to be seen everywhere, sometimes drilling near the
great red Winter Palace, sometimes as reservists, with numbers
chalked upon their backs, or again as small parties of wounded in
charge of kind-faced hospital nurses. I heard pathetic accounts of
the extreme poverty of the men who were being nursed back to
health in the English Hospital directed by Lady Georgina Buchanan,
who had had the kindly thought of fitting them out when they were
dismissed to their peasant homes; the totally disabled being trained
in basket-making. Both at Petrograd and at Moscow, our next
halting-place, those actively engaged in nursing spoke highly of the
courage and gratitude of their patients. In the latter city an English
girl of only nineteen and a Russian lady of the same age, neither of
whom had had any training in nursing, were in charge of a hospital
containing forty-five wounded soldiers. They did all the bandaging
themselves, assisted at every operation, and supervised the peasant
women who performed the more menial share of the work. My
devoted compatriot told me that the men called her “Little Sister,”
and were marvellously brave when operated upon, saying that her
presence gave them courage. Owing to the absence of the great
majority of the trained nurses at the front, these capable amateurs
were of the utmost service. We heard that the Russian medical
faculty disapproved of inoculation for typhoid, giving the somewhat
inadequate reason that “there were so many worse diseases,” and
consequently the soldiers suffered terribly from this scourge.
My brother and I did the sights of Petrograd, with its many gold-
covered domes, cupolas and spires, but I will refrain from describing
the gorgeous interior of St. Isaak, the pictures of the Hermitage, or
even the deeply interesting house in which Peter the Great lived
while building his “window opening to the West.”
Moscow, with its hundreds of gilt-domed or purple or blue or green
cupolas, that bizarre orgy of colour and fantastic design called the
Church of Ivan the Terrible, and the ancient Kremlin built to resist
Tartar inroads, gave me, as indeed it does to most travellers, the
impression of a semi-Oriental city.
We were in the very heart of Russia, and no one could fail to be
struck by the intense devotion—I refrain from calling it superstition—
of the people. In the dim magnificence of the small but lofty
Coronation Chapel, which has its walls literally encrusted with
jewelled icons, crowds were kissing the hands and feet of the sacred
pictures all day long, in defiance of every hygienic principle. Long-
haired priests in embroidered copes were chanting services, and as
the body of a saint, dead centuries ago, had just been exhumed, it
was confidently expected that many miracles of healing would be
wrought by the remains. Gilded and jewelled banners to be carried in
procession stood in the ornate chapels, which had gorgeous doors
through which no woman might pass. On the great day of his
coronation the Tsar passed through these portals, anointed and
crowned himself, then issued forth, the Father of his people, to
perform the same ceremony on the Tsaritsa.
The monarch, in common with the humblest of his subjects,
uncovers himself as he passes under one of the entrances to the
Kremlin, above which stands a particularly holy icon. Indeed in every
room of every Russian house, even in the hotels, hangs some
pictured saint with a little lamp in front of him, while the railway
stations and waiting-rooms are all provided with sacred guardians.
To these people the War was then a holy one. The chambermaid of
our hotel, who spoke German—a language it is forbidden to use in
public—told me with tears that her only son had been killed at the
front, that his father had died of grief when the news reached them,
and that her daughter, working at a hospital, had had no news of her
soldier-husband for three months and naturally feared the worst. “But
we must not grumble,” she ended bravely; “it is terrible for all of us,
but with God’s help our Tsar will conquer his enemies and we shall
have peace once more.”
Russians struck us as being somewhat silent in the streets, and we
never heard any one whistle. It was explained that they have the
same superstition about whistling as have the Persians, and look
upon it as “devilish speech.” In connection with this we were told that
on one occasion an American bishop and his chaplain were visiting a
monastery in Moscow, and to the horror of the monks the chaplain
kept on bursting into snatches of whistling. But one of the holy men
was equal to the occasion and, walking close behind the
unconscious offender, made the sign of the cross repeatedly in order
to avert any evil consequences!
The lack of efficiency in Russia was very noticeable. For example, to
cash our letters of credit in a bank was a tedious business, the
money being slowly counted with the aid of an abacus. The
shopkeepers also depend greatly on these aids to arithmetic. It was
moreover a land of tips. In every private house the servant who
helped you on and off with your fur coat and galoshes expected a
pourboire, and on leaving a hotel we were surrounded by a throng of
waiters, porters of different grades, and a bevy of small boys, all
intent on fees.
During the next section of our journey to Tashkent the trains were by
no means as comfortable as before. Our only light was a guttering
candle in a lantern placed high above the carriage door, and, what
was worse, the double windows were screwed up for the winter, all
the air we breathed passing through most inadequate ventilators in
the roof. After some thirty hours of semi-suffocation it was a relief
when the train stopped at Samara, and its great bridge over the
Volga. Before we crossed, soldiers with fixed bayonets filed into the
corridors and lined the train, and henceforward sentries stood with
fixed bayonets on all the platforms. Instead of going through to
Tashkent, our train stopped for eighteen hours, so we drove perforce
to the best hotel in the place. There I was ushered into a bedroom
which had only a mattress on the bedstead; but a cheery maid soon
produced sheets, pillows and towels, these articles from now onward
being charged separately in the bill: she also filled up the water-tank
which discharged itself into the basin by a kind of squirt, liable to
drench the unwary. A hot bath is an expensive luxury in Russia,
costing from three to five shillings; but I never appreciated it at its
proper value. The bath, filled with water too hot for me to plunge my
hand into, was invariably taken in a tiny room without ventilation in
which a stove was fiercely burning, and the attendant, armed with a
thermometer, was always greatly astonished when I demanded a
copious admixture of cold water. Half the room would be occupied by
a divan covered with a sheet on which to repose after the bath, and
once or twice I had some difficulty in getting rid of the maid, so
anxious was she to wrap me in a second sheet, with which Russians
drape themselves before they step into the water.
Samara is an important provincial town, but the whole place looked
poor and shabby, partly because the coloured plaster coating of the
houses was dropping off in unsightly patches. The wide streets
radiated from a small public garden in which stood a statue of
Alexander II., the Liberator, and, as it was Sunday, all the world was
promenading in its best clothes along the slush-covered pavements,
the thaw having set in. The peasants looked picturesque in short
sheepskin coats, worn with the wool inside, fur caps with lappets to
protect the ears, long leather riding-boots, putties tied up with string
and thick leather gloves. The shaggy hats of black or white
sheepskin made their wearers look like brigands in opera, and
beside them the women, in long black coats much kilted at the waist,
with their heads tied up in woollen shawls, appeared decidedly tame.
We made our way down to the Volga and walked on the frozen river,
which was a mile wide, watching the drinking-water of the town being
drawn from various holes in the ice.
At the railway station that evening we found a large crowd on the
platform assembled to give a hearty send-off to a trainload of
soldiers evidently hailing from the neighbourhood. The men were
travelling to the front in horse-boxes, and leant over the wooden
barriers wildly cheering and waving their caps, full of health and
spirits, and one could hardly bear to think that many would never
return, or, sadder still, would come home incapacitated for the rest of
their days.
Owing to the War there were no restaurant-cars attached to the
trains, and as the time-tables were unaltered we had halts of only ten
or twelve minutes three or four times a day, when the passengers
made a frenzied rush to get what they could at the inferior station
buffets. We usually bought something in the way of meat, cheese
and bread, and carried it back with us to our carriage, after we had
gulped down plates of the excellent cabbage soups called stchee or
borsch. The only long halt we made—one of forty minutes—was at a
station with no buffet whatever. The farther east we went the less
food could we procure: sometimes packets of inferior Russian
biscuits were the only stock-in-trade of the buffet, and if it had not
been for our soup-packets we should have been half-starved. As it
was, we were often unpleasantly hungry, hot water being the only
thing that we could be sure of obtaining.
In spite of this the journey was full of interest. We were travelling
across limitless steppes, and the melting of the snow in patches
showed that spring was at hand, when the sun would break forth
from the grey, lowering skies. Near Orenburg we noticed many tons
of hay ready to be despatched to the front, and as we halted at
Alexis I suddenly saw the ungainly forms of camels. Nearer and
nearer they came, padding across the snow, drawing sleighs laden
with hay, and with a leap of the heart I realized that we were once
again in the East, that Europe was left behind, and that we had
entered that vast mysterious continent of Asia, cradle of the human
race and birthplace of its great religions.
The following day we passed the Sea of Aral, with masted ships
riding at anchor in its port; and by now all traces of snow had gone,
and the sandy steppe was scantily dotted with coarse grasses.
Sometimes we traversed stretches of salt-encrusted ground, and in
places the rolling sand-dunes were planted and bound together with
rushes in order to prevent them from encroaching upon the railway,
or long lines of fencing answered the same purpose for the
snowdrifts.
We saw few signs of life, and the loneliness of the steppe made me
realize something of those vast empty spaces of Asia which from
lack of water will for ever be dreary wastes forsaken by mankind. Yet
a picturesque crowd was usually assembled at the stations. Hairless-
faced men with high cheek-bones were clad in long padded coats
reaching to their heels, or wore sheepskins, their rope or straw-soled
shoes being tied with leather thongs criss-cross from knee to ankle
over thick woollen stockings. Among a variety of headgear the
quaintest resembled early Victorian coal-scuttle bonnets tied under
the chin. They were made of brightly coloured velvet, with broad fur-
lined brims, a fur-lined flap behind and lappets over the ears, and
looked most comical when worn by brawny Kirghiz, who strode up
and down the platforms trailing long whips in their hands.
The warm weather was now beginning, and the Russian women who
sold tea and hot water from big brass samovars had discarded their
winter clothes and appeared in flowered cotton dresses with gaily
coloured handkerchiefs over their heads. Their children were running
about barefoot, and I was amused at watching an encounter
between a lightly clad urchin and a smart little boy who was travelling
in our overheated train. This latter, who had a long fur-lined coat, a
fur cap and galoshes over his boots, held up his foot for the
admiration of the platform youngster, who laughed good-humouredly,
and stretched out his dusty toes in response.
In spite of the warm sunshine, ours were the only windows open in
the whole train, and when, after leaving Samara, my brother had
obtained fresh air by freely tipping a most reluctant conductor, an
official higher in rank came to enquire whether it was not a mistake
and whether after all we did not wish to be screwed up again! I could
not imagine why our fellow-passengers did not follow our example,
because, before we reached Tashkent, the sun flamed down from a
cloudless blue sky; the hoopoe, harbinger of spring, chased its mate;
the crested larks sang, and the children offered big bunches of the
little mauve iris. Ploughing was visible in places, and a faint green
flush was spreading over the vast plain, which near Tashkent gave
way to grassy downs on which cattle grazed.
At the imposing-looking station of Turkestan we made enquiries
respecting the flags that we noticed hanging out on all the platforms,
and to our joy were told that they were in honour of the taking of
Przemyzl. An officer of military police with whom my brother talked,
said that this victory had come at an opportune moment, as there
was considerable unrest among the native population.
We were sorry not to see the tomb erected by Tamerlane in the old
city of Turkestan to the memory of a Kirghiz saint, for M. Romanoff,
an authority on Mohamedan art, who has visited a large proportion of
the mosques and shrines of Central Asia, considers this splendid
building to be a masterpiece.
 CHAPTER II
BEYOND THE TIAN SHAN TO KASHGAR
Farghana is a country of small extent, but abounding in grain and fruits;
and it is surrounded with hills on all sides except on the west.... Andijan is
the capital. The district abounds in birds and beasts of game. Its
pheasants are so fat that the report goes that four persons may dine on
the broth of one of them and not be able to finish it.—Memoirs of Baber.

After three days and nights in the train it was pleasant to make a
halt at Tashkent, the capital of Russian Turkestan, though the
sudden change of climate was somewhat exhausting. It was towards
the end of March, and the whole town, famous for its fruit trees, was
embowered in pink and white blossom, and the avenues of
magnificent poplars, willows and beautiful Turkestan elms were
shaking out their fresh green leaves.
The Russians, under General Kaufmann, took Tashkent about fifty
years ago, and have laid out the new town with broad roads planted
with fine trees that are watered by irrigation. There are churches,
public parks, tram-lines and imposing-looking shops, the
considerable Russian population appearing to mix freely with the
Sarts, as the inhabitants are termed by the dominant race. In India a
white woman of whatever class has a position with the natives, but
here the ordinary Russian woman is seemingly on an equality with
them, and not infrequently marries them. In the best confectioner’s
shop, served by Russian girls, natives came in and bought and ate
cakes and sweets on the premises, side by side with smart officers
or elegant ladies evidently belonging to the upper circles of Tashkent
society.
Even in this remote part of the Russian Empire the War was brought
home to the inhabitants by the presence of fifteen thousand
prisoners, Germans and Austrians. The latter, who were mostly
Slavs, had the privilege of shopping in the town, and we heard that
they were on excellent terms with their captors, whereas the
Germans were permitted no such relaxation of their captivity.
A long narrow street led from the Russian city straight into the native
town with its mud-built houses, its little stalls of food and clothing, its
mosques and shrines, and above all its gaily clad populace. But for
the people I could have imagined myself to be in a Persian city; but
here, instead of men in dingily coloured frock-coats and tall
astrakhan hats, and women shrouded in black from head to foot, the
inhabitants of both sexes revelled in colour. All wore smart velvet or
embroidered caps, round which the greybeards swathed snowy
turbans. The men had striped coats of many colours, the brighter the
better, the little girls rivalling them with bold contrasts, such as a
short, gold-laced magenta velvet jacket worn above a flowered,
scarlet cotton skirt, or a coat of emerald green with a vivid blue
under-garment. For the most part they were pretty, rosy-cheeked,
velvet-eyed maidens, with their hair hanging down their backs in a
dozen plaits, and I felt sorry to think that all their charm would shortly
have to disappear behind the long cloak, beautifully embroidered
though it might be, and the hideous black horsehair veil affected by
their mothers.
One fascinating little figure adorned with big earrings and bracelets
came dancing down an alley into the street, holding out the ends of a
scarlet veil which she had thrown over her head, her cotton dress
and trousers being in two shades of rose. She pirouetted up to a tall
man in a rainbow-coloured silk coat who was carrying a tin can, and
had paused at the steps of the mosque to let the children gather
round him. To my surprise he began to dole out ice-cream in little
glasses, and boys and girls had delicious “licks” in exchange for
small coins. I remembered how envious I had felt in early youth
when I saw English street urchins partaking of what seemed to me to
be food fit for the gods, although my nurse allowed me no chance of
sampling it, and in a moment the East and the West seemed to
come very near, the ice-cream man acting as the bridge across the
gulf.
After leaving Tashkent we travelled through a rich alluvial country
watered by the Sir Daria, the classical Jaxartes, and halted on our
way to Andijan at the ancient city of Khokand. As at Tashkent, the
Russian and native towns are separate, and we hired a moon-faced,
beardless Sart, attired in a long red and blue striped coat and with an
embroidered skull-cap perched on his shaven head, to drive us
round.
He raced his wiry little ponies at a great pace along a wide tree-
planted avenue ending in a church of preternatural ugliness set in a
public garden. Near by were Russian houses and shops, while small
victorias containing grey-uniformed officers or turbaned Sarts
dashed past, and native carts laden with bales of cotton creaked
slowly by. Many of these carts had big tilts, the wooden framework
inside being gaudily painted, and the horses themselves were
decked with handsome brass trappings.
The old town, with its high mud walls, flat-roofed squalid dwellings, a
bazar closely resembling those to be found in any Asiatic city, and
comparatively modern mosques, had little of interest, though a well-
known traveller speaks of its thirty-five theological colleges: its roads,
as usual, were bad and narrow, and must be rivers of mud in wet
weather.
Many women were unveiled, others wore the ghoul-like horsehair
face coverings, and some of their embroidered coats were so
charming in design and colouring that I longed to do a “deal” with the
wearers. Many of the people were squatting, eating melons which
they store during the winter, or drinking tea, a Russian woman being
evidently a member of one family group. We had one or two narrow
shaves of colliding with other carriages, as our coachman threaded
his way far too fast for safety and exchanged abusive epithets with
his brother Jehus, among whom were Russians in black, sleeveless,
cassock-like garments worn over scarlet cotton blouses. The
harness of the little horses was adorned with many tufts of coloured
wools, giving a pretty effect as these tassels nearly swept the ground
or waved in the air. The life on the roads, the spring sunshine, the
fresh green leaves, the white and pink of the blossom, and the orgy
of colour furnished by the inhabitants, made the drive an
unforgettable experience.
A few hours later we reached Andijan, where the railway ended, and
here we had our last clean resting-place until we arrived at Kashgar.
I noticed that the native women wore long grey burnouses with black
borders ending in two tails that were always trailing in the dust, and
all hid their faces in the mask-like horsehair veils. It was the day
before Palm Sunday, and as we strolled in the evening up the
cobbled street of the town a large congregation was issuing from the
church, every one carrying a small branch and a little candle, which
each had lit in the sanctuary. In the darkness the scores of tiny lights
looked like fire-flies, and I observed how carefully the sacred flame
was sheltered from any draught, as it is considered most important
to convey it home unextinguished. Our hotel was fairly good, but I
was not pleased on retiring to find that my door did not lock, and that
my window, opening on to a public balcony, had no fastening. To
supplement these casual arrangements I made various “booby-
traps” by which I should be awakened if any robber entered my
room, but luckily slept undisturbed.
It may give some idea of the vast extent of the plains of Russia
which we had crossed by train, when I mention that there was not a
single tunnel on the hundreds of miles of rail between Petrograd and
Andijan.
It was the end of March when we set out to drive the thirty miles from
Andijan to Osh. We packed ourselves, our suit-cases and the lunch-
basket into a little victoria, while Achmet, the Russian Tartar cook we
had engaged at Tashkent, accompanied our heavy baggage in the
diligence. The sky was overcast with heavy clouds, so there was no
glare from the sun, and the rain of the previous night had laid the
dust on the broad road full of ruts and holes. Ploughing was in full
swing, barley some inches high in the fields, fruit blossom
everywhere, and the poplars and willows planted along the countless
irrigation channels made a delicate veil of pale green. Beyond the
cultivation lay bare rolling hills, behind which rose the lofty mountain
ranges which we must cross before we could reach our destination.
The whole country seemed thickly populated, and we passed
through village after village teeming with life, the source of which is
the river, which ran at this time of year in a surprisingly narrow
stream in its broad pebbled bed, and was so shallow that men on
foot or on donkey-back were perpetually crossing it. Tortoises were
emerging from their winter seclusion, the croak of the frog filled the
land, hoopoes and the pretty doves which are semi-sacred and
never molested flew about, and the ringing cry of quail and partridge
sounded from cages in which the birds were kept as pets.
The men, if not busied with agriculture, were usually fast asleep or
drinking tea on the mud platforms in front of their dwellings, and the
gaily clad women slipped furtively from house to house, or, if riding,
sat on a pillion behind the men. In fine contrast to her veiled sisters
was a handsome Kirghiz lady following her husband on horseback
through the Osh bazar, and making a striking figure in a long green
coat, her head and chin wrapped in folds of white that left her
massive earrings exposed to view. She rode astride every whit as
well as the man did, exchanged remarks freely with him, and was
moreover holding her child before her on the saddle. Other women
were carrying cradles which must have made riding difficult, and
often a child stood behind, clinging to its mother’s shoulders. On
entering the native town of Osh, mentioned in Baber’s Memoirs as
being unsurpassed for healthiness and beauty of situation, we
passed a mosque with such a badly constructed mud dome that it
looked like a turnip, and made our way along a broad tree-planted
Russian road to the nomera. This was a house with “furnished
apartments to let,” and the small rooms, by no means overclean,
were supplied with beds, tables and chairs. We set to work to
unpack our camp things, and sent Achmet out to buy bread, butter,
meat, eggs, etc., for our two hundred and sixty mile ride to Kashgar.
Our host made no pretensions to supply food, but exactly opposite
our lodgings was the officers’ mess; with true Russian hospitality its
members invited us to take our meals there, and next day at lunch
we met a dozen officers, with their jovial, long-haired chaplain in
black cassock with a broad silver chain and crucifix round his neck.
Luckily for me there were a couple of officers who spoke German,
though the others threatened them with heavy fines for daring to
converse in the language of the Huns. In spite of the Tsar’s edict,
vodka and wine flowed freely (the doctor had evidently given medical
certificates liberally to the mess) and numerous toasts were drunk,
every one clinking his glass with my brother’s and mine as the health
of King George, the Tsar, our journey, and so on were given. All were
most kind, though I could have wished Russian entertainments were
not so long—that luncheon lasted over three hours—and we left in a
chorus of good wishes for our ride to Kashgar.
We were roused early next morning by the arrival of our caravan of
small ponies, and with much quarrelling on the part of their drivers
the loads were at last adjusted. We had our saddles put on a couple
of ill-fed animals and started off beside the rushing river on our first
stage of twenty miles. The ponies were very inferior to the fine mules
with which we had travelled in Persia, and our particular steeds
would certainly have broken down long before we reached Kashgar
if we had not dismounted and walked at frequent intervals
throughout the whole journey.
At first the road was excellent as we left pretty little Osh nestling
under Baber’s “mountain of a beautiful figure,” and made our way up
a highly cultivated valley towards the distant snowy peaks. We were
escorted by a fine-looking Ming Bashi or “Commander of a
Thousand,” who had a broad velvet belt set with bosses and clasps
of handsome Bokhara silver-work. He wore the characteristic Kirghiz
headgear, a conical white felt with a turned-up black brim, and four
black stripes, from the back to the front and from side to side of the
brim, meeting at the top and finishing off with a black tassel. We
were to see this headgear constantly during the next eight months,
as it is worn throughout Chinese Turkestan and the Pamirs. Owing to
the presence of these Ming Bashis we met with extreme
consideration, village Begs and their servants escorting us at every
stage and securing the right of way for us with caravans. This was a
privilege that for my part I keenly appreciated, as the track, when it
skirted the flanks of the mountains, was hardly ever wide enough for
one animal to pass another, and I had no wish to be pushed out of
my saddle over the precipice by the great bales of cotton that formed
the load of most of the ponies we met. These officials usually
secured some garden or field, a place of trees and running water,
where we could lunch and rest at mid-day, and often they brought a
silken cushion which they offered to my brother. They were surprised
when he handed it on to me, for in Mohamedan countries the woman
is considered last—if at all.
In the Osh district horses, camels, donkeys, cows, goats and sheep
were in abundance, the sheep having the dumba or big bunch of fat
as a tail, which nourishes the animal when grass runs short during
the winter months. They had long hair like goats and rabbit-like ears,
were coloured black, white, brown, grey or buff, and looked far larger
in proportion than the undersized cattle and ponies. On the road we
saw many of the characteristic carts that had immensely high wheels
with prominent hubs. The driver sat on a saddle on the horse’s back,
supporting his feet on the shafts, thereby depriving the animal of half
its strength for pulling the load and proving that this nation of born
riders has not grasped the elementary principles of driving. These
carts had no sides, but carried their loads in a curious receptacle of
trellis-work, as shown in the illustration.

CART USED IN THE OSH DISTRICT.

Page 26.
We reached our first night’s lodging about four o’clock, and I was
glad to dismount, as riding at a foot pace on an animal that is a slow
walker is a tedious business. All these halting-places in Russian
territory were much alike—a couple of small plastered rooms, often
with bedsteads, table and stools, sometimes looking into a courtyard
where the ponies were tied for the night, but often with no shelter for
the animals and their drivers. Jafar Bai, the chuprassi from the
Kashgar Consulate sent to escort us, was of the utmost service to us
on the road. I noticed that many of the men we passed saluted him
by throwing their whips from right to left across their chests, and their
deference made me realize the high esteem in which he was held.
He put up our camp beds, tables and chairs, and found water for our
folding baths. It was usually cold at night, and besides warm
underclothing I had a sleeping sack, rugs and my fur-lined coat. We
always got up at 5.30 a.m., and I did a hasty toilette in the dark with
the aid of my torchlight, Achmet producing coffee, eggs, bread,
butter and jam for our early breakfast, while Jafar Bai packed our
bedding.
Once or twice we were accommodated in the house of a village Beg,
and found the floors covered with felts and carpets, and a table
spread with bread, sweets, raisins, almonds and pistachios. One of
our hosts kept his treasures in a wonderful gilt, red and black chest,
from which he produced a handsome watch given him by the
Russians. This chest emitted a loud musical note when opened or
shut, in order, I presume, to warn the owner if thieves attempted to
rifle it. At night his servants removed his bedding of Bokhara silken
quilts, but with touching confidence left the box in our charge!
Our second day’s march found us approaching the mountains, and
we rode to the top of a low pass where hills slashed with scarlet,
crimson and yellow rose one behind another, to be dominated by the
glorious snow-covered Tian Shan peaks clear cut against a superb
blue sky. Walking down the passes was certainly preferable to sitting
on a stumbling pony, but I found it rather hard work, as the track was
usually very steep and littered with loose stones, on which one could
easily twist an ankle or tumble headlong. Every now and again it
looked as if we had reached the bottom, when lo, after turning a
corner, the track zigzagged down beneath our feet seemingly longer
and steeper than ever.
During this march we passed a party of Chinese bound for Kashgar,
consisting of an official and a rich merchant with their retinues. The
ladies of the party travelled in four mat-covered palanquins, each
drawn by two ponies, one leading and one behind, and I pitied them
having to descend these steep places in such swaying conveyances.
They were attended by a crowd of servants in short black coats, tight
trousers and black caps with hanging lappets lined with fur, the
leaders being old men clad in brocades and wearing velvet shoes
and quaint straw hats. As seems usual with upper-class Chinese,
they were very indifferent horsemen, and sat on bundles of silk
quilts, not attempting to guide their ponies in any way, but letting the
burly Kirghiz lead them by the halters. In striking contrast to them
was a fine-looking man in a long green and purple striped coat, from
the handsome girdle of which hung a silver-sheathed knife. His
boldly cut aquiline features were surmounted by a black fur cap, and
as he rode down the pass on a beautiful Badakshani horse the pair
made a delightful picture.
Caravans laden with bales of cotton toiled uphill towards us, and
sometimes we met a string of camels; but ponies did most of the
work here, their small heads peering out from between their bulky
loads. They had bells hung round their necks, enabling the approach
of a pack-train to be heard at a considerable distance, and specially
favoured animals wore collars of blue beads to avert the evil eye.
Besides caravans we met gangs of Kashgaris going to work at Osh
or Andijan during the summer, in order to earn the money on which
they live throughout the winter. They were sturdy men, their white
teeth flashing in faces tanned almost black by the sun, and they
wore long padded cotton coats of all colours, the most usual being
scarlet, faded to delicious tints. As these coats were turned back to
enable them to walk more freely, we had the contrast of a bright
turquoise blue, or an emerald green or a purple lining. Some walked
barefoot, others in long leather riding-boots or felt leggings, and all
had leather caps edged with fur. Each man carried a bundle of his
belongings, out of which cooking-pots often peeped, and some one
in the gang was certain to have a tar, a kind of mandoline, with which
to amuse the party, or perhaps a bagpipe or a small native drum; it
was pleasant to come across a group of these wayfarers beguiling
their long march by listening to the music that has so strong a
fascination for Orientals.
The farther we left Osh behind us the more barren became the
country, until we marvelled how the flocks and herds could support
life on the scanty vegetation. At one point the hills were a bright
scarlet and it was strange to see a red mud-built village with sheep
grazing in this brilliantly coloured setting. We crossed rivers and
streams many times, but they were not deep, for the mountain snow
had not yet melted, and we found the bridges formed of rough poplar
stems, with big holes into which boulders were stuck, far more
dangerous than the water. It was during this march that my pony
nearly ended our joint careers by backing with me to the edge of a
precipice. We were passing a donkey laden with brushwood, an
ordinary sight, of which my brother’s horse on ahead had not taken
the smallest notice, when my animal made a big shy, and if Jafar Bai
had not seized the rein I held out to him and hauled at it manfully
while I urged my mount with whip and voice, we should both have
fallen into the river rushing far below.
The crux of our journey was the crossing of the Terek Dawan or
Pass, 12,000 feet high, and the night before we lodged in akhois, at
its foot, in place of the usual rest-house.
It was my first experience of the bee-hive like homes of the Kirghiz
—“a dome of laths and o’er it felts were spread”—and, as we had
ridden through heavy rain and hail the last part of the way, I was
extremely thankful to pass behind a felt curtain and find myself in a
snug circular room lined with felts and embroideries. A fire was lit on
the ground in the centre, the smoke escaping from a large hole in the
roof, and by squatting on the floor we could more or less avoid the
acrid smoke that made our eyes water.
In the morning we started at seven o’clock, anxious to reach the top
of the pass before the sun, now hot during the day, could melt the
snow. To our intense relief it was a superb day, a few fleecy clouds
sailing across a deep turquoise sky. I was clad in a mixture of arctic
and tropical attire, wearing a leather coat under my thick tweed habit,
woollen putties and fur-lined gloves, along with a pith hat, blue
glasses and gauze veil. We soon came to the snow and zigzagged
upwards on a narrow track moving in single file, any animal trying to
pass another being liable to fall headlong in the soft deep snow on
either side, a fate that befell two of our party early in the day. After a
while, as we advanced, the great peaks towered on all sides, sharply
silhouetted against their blue background—nothing but white as far
as eye could reach; and here and there skeletons sticking out of the
snow bore eloquent witness to the terrible annual toll paid by the
hundreds of horses and donkeys that have to cross this cruel pass. I
could hardly believe that it was possible to ride over these
mountains, so steeply did they rise above us; and at the worst part of
the ascent some sturdy Kashgaris coming down towards us had
much ado to keep their feet, even though they carried long staves,
one man falling headlong and rolling a considerable distance. The
last pull to the crest is almost perpendicular, and is noted for
accidents—here my brother’s pony nearly went over—but finally,
caravan and all, we reached the summit of the pass in safety, and
dismounted to enjoy the fine view. Before us lay the great Alai
Range, peak towering above peak of boldly serrated mountains.
Over us hovered a huge vulture, and as I looked down the track in
front where the snow was partly melted, hideous heaps of bones
were revealed, and I felt that the ill-omened bird knew that it would
never lack food so long as Russia did nothing to improve this
execrable road.
In books of travel the writer frequently “swings down” such places,
but my experience was very different, as we crept down the worst
parts on foot. The snow on the farther side was rotten, and our feet
broke through it to water running underneath and big boulders. It
was the kind of path on which one could easily break a leg, and for a
loaded pony was a cruel ordeal, if not almost impossible. Even
where the snow had entirely melted near the foot of the pass the way
lay through a mass of boulders and slippery mud most trying to any
baggage animal.
For ourselves we had nothing to complain of, and a march of seven
hours found us at the little rest-house enjoying some lunch; but our
caravan fared very differently. The distance was only twelve miles,
but so bad was the going that the ponies, though lightly laden, were
about thirteen hours on the road, and four poor animals stayed out
all night. We had no evening meal till nine o’clock, and our hold-alls
when they arrived were encrusted with ice that had made its way
inside and soaked our bedding. We had no means of drying it in the
serai, and so were obliged to sleep in our clothes. We were too
thankful to be safely over the pass to heed such minor discomforts,
and were indeed most fortunate; for the road was closed for some
days after our journey in order that a fresh track might be trampled
down by driving unloaded animals across it.
On the morrow our caravan had a much-needed rest till mid-day,
while we unpacked our boxes and dried our wet belongings in the
sun. I was concerned about my face, as in spite of all my precautions
I found that my cheeks, nose and lips were terribly swollen, and
besides being burnt a bright scarlet, all my skin was coming off in
patches, making me most unsightly in appearance. On my
mentioning this experience not long ago to an eminent geographer
and traveller, he assured me that, if I had thickly powdered my
unlucky visage before encountering sun and snow, it would have got
off scot-free, and I insert the hint for the benefit of future travellers.
Our next stage was Irkeshtam, situated at the junction of the Osh-
Kashgar and Alai routes. In the time of Ptolemy it was an important
centre on the great trade route which ran from Rome across Asia to
China, the “Stone Tower” mentioned by the Greek geographer being
either here or in the vicinity. To-day it consists of a small fort
garrisoned by Cossacks, with customs and telegraph offices all set
down in hopelessly barren surroundings.
We were hospitably welcomed by the customs official’s wife and
sister, but were sorry to find that our host was ill. After the nine
o’clock supper we retired, my brother sleeping in some outhouse,
and I in a little room which my hostess’s sister had kindly vacated for
me, where I had a queer experience. As the window was
hermetically sealed up for the winter, and the stove was lit, I had
perforce to leave the door open in order to escape partial
suffocation. A large carpet was suspended from the ceiling above
the bedstead, across which it was carried, and hung down to the
floor, and upon the bed were a sheet, a velvet bedspread and a
couple of lace-covered pillows. Slipping into my rugs I put out the
lamp, and as I was composing myself for slumber I became aware of
a stirring under the bed, and a breathing. Thinking it must proceed
from the dog or cat, with both of which I had made friends, I tapped
the carpet and said “Ssh!” reflecting that if I troubled to drive the
animal out it would be sure to return again by the open door, and as
all was quiet I thought no more about the matter and went to sleep.
Some time in the middle of the night I was suddenly roused by
feeling the bed violently jolted and to my horror heard loud and
unmistakably human snores proceeding from under it. Considerably
startled, I sat up in the pitch darkness and listened to heavy
breathing while I summed up the situation. The intruder could not be
a burglar, as there was nothing to steal, and of course I was in no
danger, as I could rouse the house in a moment, my door being
open. I felt it would be wrong to make a disturbance as our host was
so ill; I could not communicate with my brother, for I had no idea
where he was, and it would have been impossible to leave the house
and search for him in the wind and darkness, with savage dogs
roaming about. Another alternative would have been to light the lamp
and turn out the intruder myself; but I feared that my lack of Russian
and Turki would make this difficult, and it would certainly rouse the
establishment. All things considered, I decided to lie and watch for
daylight, my matches being to my hand. After the unknown had
turned over again I heard the regular breathing of deep slumber, and
soon, contrary to my intention, I dropped off to sleep myself.
When I woke about seven o’clock it was quite light. Examining my
bed with some trepidation, I found a space between it and the wall at
each end. Behind my pillows was a heavy red felt, and pulling this up
I came upon a makeshift bed with pillow and bedding underneath
mine. The occupant had gone, and I discovered the place at the end
of the bed where “it” must have crept out noiselessly through the
open door!