Full download ebook at ebooksecure.

com

(eBook PDF) Research Methods in Psychology 5th

Edition

https://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-research-methods-
in-psychology-5th-edition/

OR CLICK BUTTON

DOWLOAD EBOOK

Download more ebook from https://ebooksecure.com

More products digital (pdf, epub, mobi) instant
download maybe you interests ...

(eBook PDF) Research Methods in Psychology 6th Edition

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-research-methods-in-
psychology-6th-edition/

(eBook PDF) Research In Psychology Methods And Design,

8th Edition

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-research-in-psychology-
methods-and-design-8th-edition/

(eBook PDF) Research Methods and Statistics in

Psychology 3rd Edition

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-research-methods-and-
statistics-in-psychology-3rd-edition/

(eBook PDF) Research Methods in Psychology:

Investigating Human Behavior 3rd Edition

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-research-methods-in-
psychology-investigating-human-behavior-3rd-edition/
(eBook PDF) Introduction to Qualitative Research
Methods in Psychology 4th Edition

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-introduction-to-
qualitative-research-methods-in-psychology-4th-edition/

(Original PDF) Research Design in Clinical Psychology

5th

http://ebooksecure.com/product/original-pdf-research-design-in-
clinical-psychology-5th/

(eBook PDF) Psychology Research Methods 1st Edition

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-psychology-research-
methods-1st-edition/

(eBook PDF) Research Methods in Psychology: From Theory

to Practice, Canadian Edition

http://ebooksecure.com/product/ebook-pdf-research-methods-in-
psychology-from-theory-to-practice-canadian-edition/

(Original PDF) Research Methods in Psychology:

Evaluating a World of Information 3rd Edition

http://ebooksecure.com/product/original-pdf-research-methods-in-
psychology-evaluating-a-world-of-information-3rd-edition/
 Research Methods in Psychology
Dennis Howitt and Duncan Cramer Fifth Edition
Research Methods
in Psychology
‘This book is an excellent ‘go to’ resource for those wanting to learn about
quantitative and qualitative methods of research in psychology.’
Dr Alex J. Bridger, University of Huddersfield

‘A must for any undergraduate and postgraduate student in psychology...

Research Methods in Psychology Howitt and Cramer Fifth Edition

The chapters on writing-up quantitative and qualitative research are particularly
welcome and will really help students (and experienced researchers also)
produce clear and professional work.’
Mr Adam Boughey, Staffordshire University
Dennis Howitt and Duncan Cramer
Introduction to Research Methods in Psychology, 5th edition, is an essential introduction to
research methods in psychology. With comprehensive coverage of both quantitative and qualitative
Fifth Edition
methods as well as the ethical and legal realities of carrying out research, this is the ideal guide for
students just beginning and those moving on to more advanced projects.

New to this Edition

• New chapter ‘Data analysis issues and scientific progress’ explores complexities in research,
discussing issues such as questionable research practices and replication studies.
• New chapter ‘Improving a qualitative write up’ offers advice on how to prepare a high-
quality qualitative research report and includes an illustrative example of how to write-up
a qualitative study.

Key features:
• Research Examples at the end of every chapter put research methods in a real-world context.
• Key Ideas are highlighted to help students grasp and revise the main topics and concepts.
• Talking Points address some of the controversial issues to critically engage students with the
debates in the field.
• Practical Advice boxes give handy hints and tips on how to carry out research in practice.
• Examples of published research with how to advice and guidance on writing up reports help
students to develop a practical, as well as theoretical, understanding.

About the Authors

Dennis Howitt and Duncan Cramer are with Loughborough University.

www.pearson-books.com

Cover image: Anna Kucherova . Shutterstock

CVR_HOWIT_05_34277.indd 1 04/10/2016 15:41

 Contents

Guided tour xvii

Introduction xix
Acknowledgements xxi

Part 1 Basics of research 1

1 Role of research in psychology 3

Overview 3
1.1 Introduction 4
1.2 Reading 5
1.3 Evaluating the evidence 7
1.4 Inferring causality 8
1.5 Types of research and the assessment of causality 11
1.6 Practice 22
1.7 Conclusion 25
Key points 25
Activities 26

2 Aims and hypotheses in research 27

Overview 27
2.1 Introduction 28
2.2 Types of study 29
2.3 Aims of research 31
2.4 Research hypotheses 32
2.5 Four types of hypothesis 34
2.6 Difficulties in formulating aims and hypotheses 38
2.7 Conclusion 43
Key points 43
Activities 44

A01_HOWI4277_05_SE_FM.indd 7 12/09/16 8:52 pm

 viii CONTENTS

3 Variables, concepts and measures 45

Overview 45
3.1 Introduction 46
3.2 History of the variable in psychology 47
3.3 Types of variable 48
3.4 Independent and dependent variables 50
3.5 Measurement characteristics of variables 50
3.6 Stevens’ theory of scales of measurement 53
3.7 Operationalising concepts and variables 58
3.8 Conclusion 61
Key points 62
Activities 62

4 Problems of generalisation and decision-making in research: Chance findings

and sample size 63
Overview 63
4.1 Introduction 64
4.2 Universalism 66
4.3 Sampling and generalisation 66
4.4 Statistics and generalisation 71
4.5 Directional and non-directional hypotheses again 73
4.6 More on the similarity between measures of effect (difference) and association 75
4.7 Sample size and size of association 78
4.8 Conclusion 83
Key points 84
Activities 84

5 Research reports: The total picture 85

Overview 85
5.1 Introduction 86
5.2 Overall strategy of report writing 88
5.3 Sections of the research report in detail 93
5.4 Conclusion 111
Key points 114
Activities 114

6 Improving a quantitative write-up 115

Overview 115
6.1 Introduction 116
6.2 Poorly written quantitative report 117

A01_HOWI4277_05_SE_FM.indd 8 12/09/16 8:52 pm

 CONTENTS ix

6.3 Analysis of the report 121

6.4 Improved version of the report 128
6.5 Conclusion 134
Key points 135
Activities 135

7 Literature search 136

Overview 136
7.1 Introduction 137
7.2 Library classification systems 143
7.3 Electronic databases 146
7.4 Obtaining articles not in your library 154
7.5 Personal bibliographic database software 157
7.6 Conclusion 160
Key points 161
Activities 161

8 Ethics and data management in research 162

Overview 162
8.1 Introduction 163
8.2 Ethics: general principles 165
8.3 Research ethics 167
8.4 Ethics and publication 174
8.5 Obtaining the participant’s consent 175
8.6 Data management 177
8.7 Conclusion 179
Key points 180
Activities 181

Part 2 Quantitative research methods 183

9 Basic laboratory experiments 185

Overview 185
9.1 Introduction 186
9.2 Characteristics of the true or randomised experiment 189
9.3 More advanced research designs 197
9.4 Conclusion 211
Key points 212
Activity 212

A01_HOWI4277_05_SE_FM.indd 9 12/09/16 8:52 pm

 x CONTENTS

10 Advanced experimental designs 213

Overview 213
10.1 Introduction 214
10.2 Multiple levels of the independent variable 215
10.3 Multiple dependent variables 220
10.4 Factorial designs 220
10.5 Psychology and social psychology of the laboratory experiment 225
10.6 Conclusion 232
Key points 232
Activities 233

11 Cross-sectional or correlational research: Non-manipulation studies 234

Overview 234
11.1 Introduction 235
11.2 Cross-sectional designs 237
11.3 Case for non-manipulation studies 238
11.4 Key concepts in the analysis of cross-sectional studies 240
11.5 Conclusion 248
Key points 249
Activities 249

12 Longitudinal studies 250

Overview 250
12.1 Introduction 251
12.2 Panel designs 253
12.3 Different types of third variable 255
12.4 Analysis of non-experimental designs 258
12.5 Conclusion 264
Key points 264
Activities 264

13 Sampling and population surveys 265

Overview 265
13.1 Introduction 266
13.2 Types of probability sampling 266
13.3 Non-probability sampling 269
13.4 National surveys 272
13.5 Socio-demographic characteristics of samples 275
13.6 Sample size and population surveys 276
13.7 Conclusion 282

A01_HOWI4277_05_SE_FM.indd 10 12/09/16 8:52 pm

 CONTENTS xi

Key points 282

Activities 282

14 Data analysis issues and scientific progress 283

Overview 283
14.1 Introduction 284
14.2 Confidence intervals 287
14.3 Effect sizes 290
14.4 Power 291
14.5 Replication 296
14.6 Questionable research practices and truth inflation 298
14.7 Conclusion 302
Key points 305
Activities 305

Part 3 Fundamentals of testing and measurement 307

15 Psychological tests: Their use and construction 309

Overview 309
15.1 Introduction 310
15.2 Concept of a scale 311
15.3 Scale construction 313
15.4 Item analysis or factor analysis? 323
15.5 Other considerations in test construction 325
15.6 Conclusion 327
Key points 328
Activities 328

16 Reliability and validity: Evaluating the value of tests and measures 329
Overview 329
16.1 Introduction 330
16.2 Reliability of measures 332
16.3 Validity 335
16.4 Types of validity 336
16.5 Conclusion 344
Key points 345
Activity 345

A01_HOWI4277_05_SE_FM.indd 11 12/09/16 8:52 pm

 xii CONTENTS

17 Coding data 346

Overview 346
17.1 Introduction 347
17.2 Types of coding 348
17.3 Reliability and validity 353
17.4 Qualitative coding 354
17.5 Conclusion 357
Key points 358
Activities 358

Part 4 Qualitative research methods 359

18 Why qualitative research? 361

Overview 361
18.1 Introduction 362
18.2 What is qualitative research? 363
18.3 History of the qualitative/quantitative divide in psychology 366
18.4 Quantification–qualitative methods continuum 369
18.5 Evaluation of qualitative versus quantitative methods 371
18.6 Conclusion 373
Key points 373
Activity 373

19 Qualitative data collection 374

Overview 374
19.1 Introduction 375
19.2 Major qualitative data collection approaches 376
19.3 Conclusion 385
Key points 386
Activities 386

20 Transcribing language data: Jefferson system 387

Overview 387
20.1 Introduction 388
20.2 Jefferson transcription 389
20.3 Advice for transcribers 394
20.4 Conclusion 395

A01_HOWI4277_05_SE_FM.indd 12 12/09/16 8:52 pm

 CONTENTS xiii

Key points 395

Activities 395

21 Thematic analysis 396

Overview 396
21.1 Introduction 397
21.2 What is thematic analysis? 399
21.3 Basic approach to thematic analysis 400
21.4 More sophisticated version of thematic analysis 403
21.5 Conclusion 410
Key points 410
Activity 410

22 Grounded theory 411

Overview 411
22.1 Introduction 412
22.2 Development of grounded theory 414
22.3 Data in grounded theory 415
22.4 How to do grounded theory analysis 416
22.5 Computer grounded theory analysis 420
22.6 Evaluation of grounded theory 424
22.7 Conclusion 426
Key points 427
Activity 427

23 Discourse analysis 428

Overview 428
23.1 Introduction 429
23.2 Important characteristics of discourse 431
23.3 The agenda of discourse analysis 433
23.4 Doing discourse analysis 435
23.5 Conclusion 439
Key points 440
Activities 440

24 Conversation analysis 441

Overview 441
24.1 Introduction 442
24.2 Precepts of conversation analysis 445
24.3 Stages in conversation analysis 446

A01_HOWI4277_05_SE_FM.indd 13 12/09/16 8:52 pm

 xiv CONTENTS

24.4 Conclusion 451

Key points 452
Activities 452

25 Interpretative phenomenological analysis 453

Overview 453
25.1 Introduction 454
25.2 Philosophical foundations of interpretative phenomenological analysis 455
25.3 Stages in interpretative phenomenological analysis 462
25.4 Conclusion 469
Key points 469
Activities 470

26 Evaluating qualitative research 471

Overview 471
26.1 Introduction 472
26.2 Evaluating qualitative research 474
26.3 Validity 476
26.4 Criteria for novices 479
26.5 Conclusion 480
Key points 481
Activities 481

27 Improving a qualitative write-up 482

Overview 482
27.1 Introduction 483
27.2 Poorly written qualitative report 488
27.3 Critical evaluation 494
Key points 499
Activities 500

Part 5 Research for projects, dissertations and theses 501

28 Developing ideas for research 503

Overview 503
28.1 Introduction 504
28.2 Why not a replication study? 506
28.3 Choosing a research topic 511

A01_HOWI4277_05_SE_FM.indd 14 12/09/16 8:52 pm

 CONTENTS xv

28.4 Sources of research ideas 512

28.5 Conclusion 520
Key points 521
Activity 522

Glossary 523
References 530
Index 541

A01_HOWI4277_05_SE_FM.indd 15 12/09/16 8:52 pm

 Companion Website ON THE
WEBSITE
For open-access student resources specifically written
to complement this textbook and support your learning,
please visit www.pearsoned.co.uk/howitt

A01_HOWI4277_05_SE_FM.indd 16 12/09/16 8:52 pm

 Guided tour
CHAPTER 1 ROlE OF RESEARCH In PSyCHOlOgy 5

CHAPTER 1 Box 1.1 Key Ideas

CONFIDENTIAL: Uncorrected WIP proof, NOT for circulation or distribution. © Pearson Education.
CONFIDENTIAL: Uncorrected WIP proof, NOT for circulation or distribution. © Pearson Education.

Role of research in Some essential concepts in research

Cause Something which results in an effect, action or So by randomisation, the researcher tries to avoid any sys-

psychology
condition. tematic differences between the experimental and control
conditions prior to the experimental manipulation. Ran-
Data The information from which inferences are drawn
dom selection is covered in detail later (Chapter 13). In the
and conclusions reached. A lot of data are collected in
modern research literature, the randomised experiment is
numerical form but it is equally viable to use data in the
often referred to as the randomised trial in some research
form of text for an analysis.
contexts.
Randomised experiment This refers to a type of research
Reference In psychology, this refers to the details of the
in which participants in research are allocated at random
book or article that is the source of the ideas or data being
(by chance) to an experimental or control condition.
discussed. The reference includes such information as the
Simple methods of random assignment include flipping
author, the title and the publisher of the book or the journal
a coin and drawing slips of paper from a hat. The basic
in which the article appears.
idea is that each participant has an equal chance of being
allocated to the experimental or control conditions. The Variable A variable is any concept that varies and can
Overview experimental and control conditions involve differences in be measured or assessed in some way. Intelligence, height,
procedure related to the hypothesis under examination. gender and social status are simple examples.

● Research is central to all the activities of psychologists as it is to modern life in general. A

key assumption of psychology is that the considered and careful collection of research data
is an essential part of the development of the discipline.
1.2 Reading
● Most psychology involves the integration of theoretical notions with the outcomes of
research. Psychology characteristically emphasises causal explanations. Many psychologists
adhere to the belief that a prime purpose of research is to test causal propositions, though The best way of understanding psychological research methods is to read in detail about
this is far from universal. the studies which have been done and build on this. Few psychological textbooks give
research in sufficient detail to substitute effectively for this. So developing a better under-
● A first-rate psychologist – researcher or practitioner – needs to be familiar with the way standing of how research is carried out in a particular area is greatly facilitated by reading
in which good research is carried out. This enables them to determine the adequacy and at least some of the research work that lecturers and textbook writers refer to in its origi-
value of the findings claimed from a particular study as well as to carry out their own nal form. Admittedly, some psychologists use too much jargon in their writing, but ignore
research effectively. these in favour of the many others who communicate well wherever you can. University
● All psychologists need the skills and resources to enable them to understand research students spend only a small part of a working week being taught – they are expected to
reports in detail, especially research studies reported in journals of psychological research. spend much of their time on independent study, which includes reading a great deal as
This requires an appreciation of the purposes, advantages and disadvantages of the different well as independently working on assignments.
research methods used to investigate even the same issues. Glance through any textbook or lecture course reading list and you will see the work
of researchers cited. For example, the lecturer or author may cite the work of Byrne
● Very often research reports are concisely written and so assume a degree of knowledge of (1961) on attraction and similarity of attitude. Normally a list of the ‘references’ cited is
the topic and research methods. The study of research methods will help prepare students provided. The citation provides information on the kind of work it is (for example, what
for this. Research reports become much clearer and easier to understand once the basics the study is about) and where it has been presented or published. The details are shown
of psychological research methods are known. in the following way:
● Psychologists have traditionally distinguished between true experiments and non-
experiments. True experiments are typical of laboratory studies in psychology, whereas Byrne, D. (1961). Interpersonal attraction and attitude similarity. Journal of Abnormal
non-experiments are more typical of more naturalistic studies in the field (community and Social Psychology, 62, 713–715.
or other real-life settings).
The format is standard for a particular type of publication. Details differ according to
➔ what sort of publication it is – a book may be referenced differently from a journal article
and an Internet source is referenced differently still. For a journal article, the last name of the

M01_HOWI4277_05_SE_C01.indd 3 07/06/16 2:04 pm M01_HOWI4277_05_SE_C01.indd 5 07/06/16 2:04 pm

Clear Overview Key Ideas

Introduces the chapter to give students a feel for the Outlines the important concepts in more depth to give
topics covered you a fuller understanding

Practical Advice
CHAPTER 5 RESEARCH REPORTS 95

Gives you handy hints and tips on how to carry out

Box 5.2 Practical Advice
research in practice
Important points to summarise in the abstract
CONFIDENTIAL: Uncorrected WIP proof, NOT for circulation or distribution. © Pearson Education.

Ideally, the following should be outlined in the abstract. key variables. For an experiment, in addition it would
Normally, subheadings are not used except in structured be appropriate to describe how the different conditions
abstracts, though this rule may be broken if necessary. were created (i.e. manipulated), for example ‘Levels
They are given here simply for purposes of clarity. They of hunger were manipulated by asking participants to
relate to the major subheadings of the report itself. refrain from eating or drinking for 1 hour, 3 hours and
6 hours prior to the experiment.’
● Introduction This is a brief statement justifying the
research and explaining the purpose, followed by a ● Results There is no space in an abstract for elabo-
short statement of the research question or the main rate presentations of the statistical analyses that the
hypotheses. The justification may be in terms of the researcher may have carried out. Typically, however,
social or practical utility of the research, its relevance broad indications are given of the style of analysis, for
to theory, or even the absence of previous research. The example ‘Factor analysis of the 20-item anxiety scale
research question or hypotheses will also be given. Prob- revealed two main factors’, ‘The groups were compared
ably no more than 30 per cent of the abstract will be using a mixed-design ANOVA’ or ‘Binomial logistic
such introductory material. regression revealed five main factors which differenti-
ated men and women’. Now these statistical techniques
● Method This is a broad orientation to the type of
may be meaningless to you at the moment but they will
research that was carried out. Often a simple phrase will
not be to most researchers. They refer to very distinct
be sufficient to orient the reader to the style of research
types of analysis, so the terms are very informative to
in question. So phrases like ‘Brain activity was studied
researchers. In addition, the major findings of the sta-
using PET (positron emission tomography) and FMRI
tistical analysis need to be reported. Normally, this will
(functional magnetic resonance imaging). . . ’, ‘A con-
be the important, statistically significant features of the
trolled experiment was conducted . . . ’, ‘The interview
data analysis. Of course, sometimes the lack of signifi-
transcripts were analysed using discourse analysis. . . ’
cance is the most important thing to draw attention to
and ‘A survey was conducted. . . ’ suggest a great deal
in the abstract. There is no need and normally no space
about the way in which the research was carried out
to use the succinct methods of the reporting of statistics
without being wordy.
in the abstract. So things like [t(17) = 2.43, p < .05] are
● Participants This will consist of essential detail about rare in abstracts and best omitted.
the sample(s) employed, for example ‘Interview data
● Discussion In an abstract, the discussion (and con-
from an opportunity sample consisting of young car-
clusions) need to be confined to the main things that
ers of older relatives was compared with a sample of
the reader should take away from the research. As ever,
young people entering the labour market for the first
there are a number of ways of doing this. If you have
time, matched for age.’
already stated the hypothesis, then you need do little
● Procedure This should identify the main measures other than confirm whether or not this was supported,
employed, for example ‘Loneliness was assessed using given any limitations you think are important concern-
the shortened UCLA loneliness scale. A new scale was ing your research, and possibly mention any crucial
developed to measure social support.’ By stipulating the recommendations for further research activity in the
important measures employed, one also identifies the field.

Although this does not apply to student research reports, the abstract (apart from the
title) is likely to be all that potential readers have available in the first instance. Data-
bases of publications in psychology and other academic disciplines usually include just
the title and the abstract together, perhaps, with a few search terms. Hence, the abstract
is very important in a literature search – it is readily available to the researcher, whereas
obtaining the actual research report may require some additional effort. Most students

M05_HOWI4277_05_SE_C05.indd 95 09/06/16 9:10 am

A01_HOWI4277_05_SE_FM.indd 17 12/09/16 8:52 pm

 xviii GUIDED TOUR

110 PART 1 THE BASICS OF RESEARCH 92 PART 1 THE BASICS OF RESEARCH

● A good rule-of-thumb is to present the results of calculations to no more than two deci-
mal places. This is what the APA recommends. There is a danger of spuriously implying
Box 5.8 Research Example a greater degree of accuracy than psychological data usually possess. Whatever you
do, be consistent. You need to understand how to round to two decimals. Basically, if
the original number ends with a figure of 5 or above then we round up, otherwise we
Layout of a brief paper from an American Psychological round down. So 21.4551 gives 21.46 rounded, whereas 21.4549 gives 21.45 rounded.
CONFIDENTIAL: Uncorrected WIP proof, NOT for circulation or distribution. © Pearson Education.

CONFIDENTIAL: Uncorrected WIP proof, NOT for circulation or distribution. © Pearson Education.
If the thing which you have calculated the value of can take a value of above one then
Association journal values of it less than one should be written as 0.45, etc.If what you have calculated
cannot have a value of greater than 1, then omit the figure before the decimal point.
Dickson, J. M., Moberly, N. J., & Kinderman, P. (2011). Depressed people are not less motivated by personal goals So a correlation coefficient would be written as .32 because it cannot have a value of
but are more pessimistic about attaining them. Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 120, 975–980. greater than one.Again this is according to the APA Publication Manual.
● Psychological terms may not have a standard definition which is accepted by all
While this chapter has been largely about how, as a student, you should write up your reports of your research, the ulti-
researchers. Consequently, you may find it necessary to define how you are using terms
mate aim is to develop research skills to a professional level. Professional researchers publish their research in research
in your report. Always remember that definitions in psychology are rarely definitive
journals, of which there are many in psychology. Quite often, student research is of sufficient quality to be published –
and they are often problematic in themselves.
especially final-year research projects in psychology degrees, and the work of postgraduate students perhaps even more
so. So you may well find that you are asked to prepare your work with your research supervisor for publication. Of ● Regarding layout, normally the recommendation is to double-space your work and word-
course, such publications look extremely good in one’s c.v. The format of a journal article is exacting and writing your process it. According to the APA, 12-point Times New Roman is preferable.However,
first journal article (and your last) is a demanding activity. Here we will look at a published study in the light of the check local requirements on these matters. Leave wide margins for comments. Use under-
requirements of professional publication in journals. lining or bold for headings and subheadings. The underlying assumption behind this is
The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA) recommends how a research paper should that the report is being reviewed by another person. A report that will not be commented
be written and structured for publication in the journals published by the association. Many other psychological journals upon might not require double spacing. Check the local rules where you are studying.
stipulate that the APA’s suggestions should be followed. APA journals often publish papers which are longer than 5000
words and which typically describe a number of related studies rather than just one. Some of their journals, such as the
Journal of Abnormal Psychology, permit the publication of brief reports, which should not be longer than 5000 words.
This word limit includes everything such as the title, the references and any notes. The Publication Manual was last
revised in 2010, so papers are expected to follow these latest recommendations.
Box 5.1 Talking Point
The APA website has a Checklist for Manuscript Submission (http://www.apa.org/pubs/authors/manuscript-check.
aspx) which lists some of the requirements that a paper needs to meet before it is considered for publication. There is
also a free tutorial which outlines the basics of the APA style (http://www.apastyle.org/learn/tutorials/basics-tutorial.
Avoiding bias in language
aspx). Not all of the requirements are explicitly listed in this checklist, so other sources need to be consulted. One of the
checklist specifications is that each paragraph should be longer than a single sentence but not longer than a double-spaced Racism, sexism, homophobia and hostility to minorities work locations. In this way, not only will the avoidance
page (which is shorter than from the start of this box to here). The length of text on a page, of course, is governed by such as people with disabilities are against the ethics of of offensive language be helped but, more importantly, the
the size of the margins, the font style and the font size, so we need information on these in order to follow this guideline. psychologists. The use of racist and sexist language and inadvertent propagation of racist and sexist ideas through
The margin is specified in the checklist as being at least 1 inch (2.54 cm) wide and in the Publication Manual (p. 229) other unacceptable modes of expression is to be avoided research will be made much more difficult.
as being all round. However, the font style and font size are not presented in the checklist. One font style recommended in research reports. Indeed, such language may result in the A few examples of avoidable language use follow:
both in the fifth slide of the basics tutorial and in the Publication Manual is Times New Roman. The Publication Manual material being rejected for publication. We would stress
● Writing things like ‘the black sample...’ can readily
(p. 228) specifies the preferred font size as being 12-point. that the avoidance of racist and sexist language cannot fully
be modified to ‘the sample of black people...’ or, if
The general structure of psychological quantitative research papers has remained fairly consistent over a number be reduced to a list of dos and don’ts. The reason is that
you prefer, ‘the sample of people of colour...’. In this
of decades. However, how authors write their paper and what journal editors and reviewers want in them vary, so racism and sexism can manifest themselves in a multiplicity
way, the most important characteristic is drawn atten-
how these papers are presented may also differ somewhat. Because the Publication Manual has recently been revised of different forms and those forms may well change with
tion to: the fact that you are referring to people first
and because most students are going to write research reports of about 5000 words, a brief paper recently published time. For example, Howitt and Owusu-Bempah (1994)
and foremost who also happen to be black. You might
in an APA journal has been selected as a research example. This study was carried out by Joanne Dickson and two trace the history of racism in psychology and how the ways
also wish to ask why one needs to refer to the race of
collaborators and was published in 2011 in the Journal of Abnormal Psychology. You might like to download a copy it is manifest have changed over time. While it is easy to see
people at all.
via your university library. the appalling racism of psychology from a century ago, it is
The title is expressed as a sentence which describes the main finding. It consists of 16 words, which is slightly more far harder to understand its operation in present-day psy- ● Avoid references to the racial (or gender) characteris-
than the 12 recommended in the checklist and the Publication Manual (p. 23). The title is ‘Depressed people are not less chology. For detailed examples of how the writings of psy- tics of participants which are irrelevant to the substance
motivated by personal goals but are more pessimistic about attaining them’. A shorter alternative title might have been chologists may reinforce racism, see Owusu-Bempah and of the report, for example ‘Female participant Y was
‘Depression and personal goal motivation’. This simply lists the main variables of the study and is appropriate for a non- Howitt (1995) and Howitt and Owusu-Bempah (1990). a black lone-parent...’. Not only does this contain the
experimental study, which was the type of study carried out. This kind of title had been used by the first author in two Probably the first step towards the elimination of rac- elements of a stereotypical portrayal of black people
previous papers cited and illustrates its use. The title is written in upper and lower case with the first letter of the major ism and sexism in psychological research is for research- as being associated with father absence and ‘broken
words capitalised (or in upper case) as described in the Publication Manual. ers to undergo racism and sexism awareness training. families’, but the race of the participant may be totally
This is increasingly available in universities and many irrelevant to what the report is about.

M05_HOWI4277_05_SE_C05.indd 110 09/06/16 9:10 am M05_HOWI4277_05_SE_C05.indd 92 09/06/16 9:10 am

Research Example Talking Point

Explores a real example of research being carried out, Investigates an important debate or issue in research
giving you an insight into the process

CHAPTER 2 AImS AND HyPOTHESES IN RESEARCH 43 44 PART 1 THE BASICS OF RESEARCH

2.7 Conclusion ● When suggesting that variables may be related to one another, we usually expect the variables to be
related in a particular way or direction. When this is the case, we should specify in the hypothesis what
this direction is.
It is almost a truism to suggest that the aims and hypotheses of research should be clear.
CONFIDENTIAL: Uncorrected WIP proof, NOT for circulation or distribution. © Pearson Education.
CONFIDENTIAL: Uncorrected WIP proof, NOT for circulation or distribution. © Pearson Education.

This does not mean that the aims and hypotheses are obvious at the earliest stages of the ● The variable thought to be the cause may be called the independent variable and the variable presumed to
research project. Since research is part of the ways in which psychological knowledge and be the effect the dependent variable. Some researchers feel that these two terms should be restricted to
ideas develop, it is almost inevitable that aims and hypotheses go through a developmental the variables in a true experiment. In non-experiments, the variable assumed to be the cause may be called
process. Reformulation of the aims and objectives of a study will commonly occur in the the predictor and the variable considered to be the effect the criterion.
research planning stage, and sometimes after. All research is guided by aims, but hypoth-
eses are only universal in certain types of research – especially true experiments – where
it is possible to specify likely outcomes with a great deal of precision. Hypotheses are
best included wherever possible, since they represent the distillation of the researcher’s
thoughts about the subject matter. Sometimes, for non-experimental studies, the formula-
tion of hypotheses becomes too cumbersome to be of value. Hence, many excellent studies ACTIVITIES
in psychology will not include hypotheses.
The true experiment (for example, the laboratory experiment) has many advantages in 1. Choose a recent study that has been referred to either in a textbook you are reading or in a lecture that you have
terms of the testing of hypotheses: (a) its ability to randomise participants to conditions, attended. What kind of aim or aims did the study have in terms of the aims mentioned in this chapter? What were
(b) the requirement of manipulating the independent variable rather than using already the specific aims of this study? What kinds of variables were manipulated or measured? If the study involved testing
existing variables such as gender, and (c) the control over variables. Although we have hypotheses, were the direction and the causal nature of the relationship specified? If the hypothesis was stated in a
largely discussed the testing of a single hypothesis at a time, very little research in real life causal form, was the design a true (i.e. randomised) one?
is so restricted. Remember, most research studies have several aims and several hypotheses
in the same study, because we are usually interested in the way in which a number of 2. you wish to test the hypothesis that we are what we eat. How could you do this? What variables could you measure?
different variables may be related to one another. It would also be more costly in terms of
time and effort to investigate these hypotheses one at a time in separate studies.
In the penultimate section of this book on qualitative research methods, we will see that
important research in psychology can proceed using a quite different approach to inves-
tigation in which the idea of specified aims and hypotheses is something of an anathema.
Nevertheless, much research in mainstream psychology either overtly or tacitly subscribes
to hypothesis testing as an ideal. Later (Chapter 18) we present an overview of the theo-
retical basis to these different approaches to research.

Key points

● Research studies have different general aims. most seem to be concerned with testing causal propositions or
hypotheses. Others may describe a phenomenon or intervention in detail, estimate how common a behaviour
is in some population, evaluate the effects of interventions, or statistically summarise the results of similar
studies. The aim or aims of a study should be clearly and accurately stated.
● Studies which test causal propositions should describe clearly and accurately what these propositions are.
● The research study should make a contribution to the topic. While research usually builds on previous research
in an area, the contribution of the study should be original to some extent in the sense that the particular
question addressed has not been entirely investigated in this way before.
● A hypothesis describes what the relationship is expected to be between two or more variables. The hypothesis
should be stated in a causal form when the study is a true experiment. It should be stated in a non-causal
form when the study is a non-experiment.
➔

M02_HOWI4277_05_SE_C02.indd 44 07/06/16 2:04 pm

M02_HOWI4277_05_SE_C02.indd 43 07/06/16 2:04 pm

Conclusion/Key points Activities

Each chapter has a conclusion and set of key points to Each chapter concludes with activities to help you test
help summarise chapter coverage when you’re revising your knowledge and explore the issues further
a topic

A01_HOWI4277_05_SE_FM.indd 18 12/09/16 8:52 pm

 Introduction

Modern psychological research is a complex activity. The fifth edition of Research meth-
ods in psychology is one of a set of three books covering the major approaches to psycho-
logical research and analysis as currently practised. A single volume combining statistics
and research methods to meet the needs of students and researchers is impractical, given
the scope of modern psychology. Nowadays, the discipline is extremely varied in the
styles of research it employs, and the methodological and statistical sophistication that it
currently enjoys would have been undreamt of even just a few years ago. Good research
requires thought, understanding and experience – it is not a simple rule-following exercise
and to pretend that it is does students a disservice. To our minds, the incredible progress
of modern psychology means that teaching resources must struggle to keep up to date
and to cope with the variety of different educational experiences provided by different
universities. At heart, each volume in our trilogy is modularly constructed. That is, we
do not expect that all their contents will be covered by lecturers and other instructors.
Instead, there is a menu of largely self-contained chapters from which appropriate selec-
tions can be made.
This is illustrated by the coverage of Research methods in psychology. This is unusual
in that both quantitative and qualitative research are covered in depth. These are com-
monly but, in our opinion, wrongly seen as alternative and incompatible approaches to
psychological research. For some researchers, there may be an intellectual incompatibility
between the two. From our perspective, it is vitally important that students understand
the intellectual roots of the two traditions, how research is carried out in these tradi-
tions, and what each tradition is capable of achieving. We believe that the student who is
so informed will be better placed to make intelligent and appropriate choices about the
style of research appropriate for the research questions they wish to address. On its own,
the qualitative material in this fifth edition effectively supports much of the qualitative
research likely to be carried out today. There is as much detailed practical advice and
theory as is available in most books on qualitative research methods. (If more is required,
the book by Dennis Howitt (2016), Introduction to Qualitative Research Methods in
Psychology, Harlow: Pearson Education, will probably meet your requirements.) But
this is in addition to the quantitative coverage, which easily outstrips any competition in
terms of variety, depth and authority. We have tried to provide students with resources
to help them in ways largely ignored by most other texts. For example, Chapter 7 on
literature searches is extremely comprehensive and practical. Similarly, Chapter 8 on eth-
ics meets the most recent standards and deals with them in depth. Chapter 5 on writing
research reports places report writing at the centre of the research process rather than as
an add-on at the end. We would argue that a student requires an understanding of the
nature of research in psychology to be able to write a satisfactory research report. How-
ever, we have included one chapter on a quantitative research report and a new chapter
on a qualitative research report which illustrate many of the problems that are found in
research reports in response to requests for such material. You will also find some discus-
sion of statistics in this book. For the most part, this is when dealing with topics which

A01_HOWI4277_05_SE_FM.indd 19 12/09/16 8:52 pm

 xx INTRODUCTION

are missing from the popular SPSS-based statistics textbooks, simply because SPSS does
not cover everything useful in psychological research. Also new is a chapter on more
controversial aspects of statistics to give some flavour of the kinds of issues that are still
being currently debated. Finally we have also included additional references to indicate
when important concepts initially appeared to enter the literature to provide you with
more of a chronological and evidential context for these ideas.
As far as is possible, we have tried to provide students with practical skills as well as
the necessary conceptual overview of research methods in modern psychology. Neverthe-
less, there is a limit to this. The bottom line is that anyone wishing to understand research
needs to read research, not merely plan, execute, analyse and write up research. Hence,
almost from the start we emphasise that reading is not merely unavoidable but crucial.
Without such additional reading, the point of this book is missed. It is not intended as a
jumble of technical stuff too boring to be part of any module other than one on research
methods. The material in the book is intended to expand students’ understanding of psy-
chology by explaining just how researchers go about creating psychology. At times this
can be quite exciting as well as frustrating and demanding.
This is the fifth book the authors have written together. It is also the one that came close
to spoiling a long friendship. What became very clear while writing this book is how emo-
tive the topic of research methods can be. We found out, perhaps for the first time, how
different two people’s thinking can be, even when dealing with seemingly dry topics. As a
consequence, rather than smooth over the cracks, making joins when this was not possi-
ble, you will find that we have incorporated the differences of opinion. This is no different
from the disparity of positions to be found within the discipline itself – probably less so.
The main features of this book are:
● in-depth coverage of both quantitative and qualitative methods
● a range of pedagogic features including summaries, exercises, boxes and step-by-step
instructions where appropriate
● analytic strategies provided for the research designs discussed
● detailed information about the structure, purpose and contents of research reports
● the use of databases and other resources
● suggestions about how to develop research ideas for projects and similar studies
● ethics as an integral feature of the work of all psychologists.
Research methods in psychology is part of the trilogy of books which includes Statistics
in psychology using SPSS and SPSS essentials. In Research methods in psychology, we
have tried to make the presentation both clear in terms of the text but with additional
visual learning aids throughout the book. We have added SPSS and other computer pro-
gram instructions to the statistics book, though we have kept these instructions as short
and to the point as possible. Students are well used to computers and so we have provided
the major steps together with some screenshots just as a means of checking progress in
the analysis. Anyone needing a quick and foolproof introduction to the use of SPSS will
find this in SPSS essentials. We are determined to provide resources for students which
are both user-friendly and professionally orientated. Increasingly, research is part of many
of the different sorts of careers that psychology students enter – we simply hope that our
books speed the user towards a considered, mature approach to research.
Education is a cooperative effort. So should you find errors then please let us know.
These can be difficult to spot but easy to correct – some corrections can be made when a
book is reprinted. Ideas and comments of any sort would be most welcome.

A01_HOWI4277_05_SE_FM.indd 20 12/09/16 8:52 pm

Another random document with
no related content on Scribd:
 PLEASE READ THIS BEFORE YOU DISTRIBUTE OR USE THIS WORK

To protect the Project Gutenberg™ mission of promoting the free

distribution of electronic works, by using or distributing this work (or
any other work associated in any way with the phrase “Project
Gutenberg”), you agree to comply with all the terms of the Full
Project Gutenberg™ License available with this file or online at
www.gutenberg.org/license.

Section 1. General Terms of Use and

Redistributing Project Gutenberg™
electronic works
1.A. By reading or using any part of this Project Gutenberg™
electronic work, you indicate that you have read, understand, agree
to and accept all the terms of this license and intellectual property
(trademark/copyright) agreement. If you do not agree to abide by all
the terms of this agreement, you must cease using and return or
destroy all copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in your
possession. If you paid a fee for obtaining a copy of or access to a
Project Gutenberg™ electronic work and you do not agree to be
bound by the terms of this agreement, you may obtain a refund
from the person or entity to whom you paid the fee as set forth in
paragraph 1.E.8.

1.B. “Project Gutenberg” is a registered trademark. It may only be

used on or associated in any way with an electronic work by people
who agree to be bound by the terms of this agreement. There are a
few things that you can do with most Project Gutenberg™ electronic
works even without complying with the full terms of this agreement.
See paragraph 1.C below. There are a lot of things you can do with
Project Gutenberg™ electronic works if you follow the terms of this
agreement and help preserve free future access to Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works. See paragraph 1.E below.
1.C. The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation (“the
Foundation” or PGLAF), owns a compilation copyright in the
collection of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works. Nearly all the
individual works in the collection are in the public domain in the
United States. If an individual work is unprotected by copyright law
in the United States and you are located in the United States, we do
not claim a right to prevent you from copying, distributing,
performing, displaying or creating derivative works based on the
work as long as all references to Project Gutenberg are removed. Of
course, we hope that you will support the Project Gutenberg™
mission of promoting free access to electronic works by freely
sharing Project Gutenberg™ works in compliance with the terms of
this agreement for keeping the Project Gutenberg™ name associated
with the work. You can easily comply with the terms of this
agreement by keeping this work in the same format with its attached
full Project Gutenberg™ License when you share it without charge
with others.

1.D. The copyright laws of the place where you are located also
govern what you can do with this work. Copyright laws in most
countries are in a constant state of change. If you are outside the
United States, check the laws of your country in addition to the
terms of this agreement before downloading, copying, displaying,
performing, distributing or creating derivative works based on this
work or any other Project Gutenberg™ work. The Foundation makes
no representations concerning the copyright status of any work in
any country other than the United States.

1.E. Unless you have removed all references to Project Gutenberg:

1.E.1. The following sentence, with active links to, or other

immediate access to, the full Project Gutenberg™ License must
appear prominently whenever any copy of a Project Gutenberg™
work (any work on which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” appears,
or with which the phrase “Project Gutenberg” is associated) is
accessed, displayed, performed, viewed, copied or distributed:
 This eBook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away
or re-use it under the terms of the Project Gutenberg License
included with this eBook or online at www.gutenberg.org. If you
are not located in the United States, you will have to check the
laws of the country where you are located before using this
eBook.

1.E.2. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is derived

from texts not protected by U.S. copyright law (does not contain a
notice indicating that it is posted with permission of the copyright
holder), the work can be copied and distributed to anyone in the
United States without paying any fees or charges. If you are
redistributing or providing access to a work with the phrase “Project
Gutenberg” associated with or appearing on the work, you must
comply either with the requirements of paragraphs 1.E.1 through
1.E.7 or obtain permission for the use of the work and the Project
Gutenberg™ trademark as set forth in paragraphs 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.3. If an individual Project Gutenberg™ electronic work is posted

with the permission of the copyright holder, your use and distribution
must comply with both paragraphs 1.E.1 through 1.E.7 and any
additional terms imposed by the copyright holder. Additional terms
will be linked to the Project Gutenberg™ License for all works posted
with the permission of the copyright holder found at the beginning
of this work.

1.E.4. Do not unlink or detach or remove the full Project

Gutenberg™ License terms from this work, or any files containing a
part of this work or any other work associated with Project
Gutenberg™.

1.E.5. Do not copy, display, perform, distribute or redistribute this

electronic work, or any part of this electronic work, without
prominently displaying the sentence set forth in paragraph 1.E.1
with active links or immediate access to the full terms of the Project
Gutenberg™ License.

1.E.6. You may convert to and distribute this work in any binary,
compressed, marked up, nonproprietary or proprietary form,
including any word processing or hypertext form. However, if you
provide access to or distribute copies of a Project Gutenberg™ work
in a format other than “Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other format used in
the official version posted on the official Project Gutenberg™ website
(www.gutenberg.org), you must, at no additional cost, fee or
expense to the user, provide a copy, a means of exporting a copy, or
a means of obtaining a copy upon request, of the work in its original
“Plain Vanilla ASCII” or other form. Any alternate format must
include the full Project Gutenberg™ License as specified in
paragraph 1.E.1.

1.E.7. Do not charge a fee for access to, viewing, displaying,

performing, copying or distributing any Project Gutenberg™ works
unless you comply with paragraph 1.E.8 or 1.E.9.

1.E.8. You may charge a reasonable fee for copies of or providing

access to or distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works
provided that:

• You pay a royalty fee of 20% of the gross profits you derive
from the use of Project Gutenberg™ works calculated using the
method you already use to calculate your applicable taxes. The
fee is owed to the owner of the Project Gutenberg™ trademark,
but he has agreed to donate royalties under this paragraph to
the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation. Royalty
payments must be paid within 60 days following each date on
which you prepare (or are legally required to prepare) your
periodic tax returns. Royalty payments should be clearly marked
as such and sent to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation at the address specified in Section 4, “Information
 about donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation.”

• You provide a full refund of any money paid by a user who

notifies you in writing (or by e-mail) within 30 days of receipt
that s/he does not agree to the terms of the full Project
Gutenberg™ License. You must require such a user to return or
destroy all copies of the works possessed in a physical medium
and discontinue all use of and all access to other copies of
Project Gutenberg™ works.

• You provide, in accordance with paragraph 1.F.3, a full refund of

any money paid for a work or a replacement copy, if a defect in
the electronic work is discovered and reported to you within 90
days of receipt of the work.

• You comply with all other terms of this agreement for free
distribution of Project Gutenberg™ works.

1.E.9. If you wish to charge a fee or distribute a Project Gutenberg™

electronic work or group of works on different terms than are set
forth in this agreement, you must obtain permission in writing from
the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the manager of
the Project Gutenberg™ trademark. Contact the Foundation as set
forth in Section 3 below.

1.F.

1.F.1. Project Gutenberg volunteers and employees expend

considerable effort to identify, do copyright research on, transcribe
and proofread works not protected by U.S. copyright law in creating
the Project Gutenberg™ collection. Despite these efforts, Project
Gutenberg™ electronic works, and the medium on which they may
be stored, may contain “Defects,” such as, but not limited to,
incomplete, inaccurate or corrupt data, transcription errors, a
copyright or other intellectual property infringement, a defective or
damaged disk or other medium, a computer virus, or computer
codes that damage or cannot be read by your equipment.

1.F.2. LIMITED WARRANTY, DISCLAIMER OF DAMAGES - Except for

the “Right of Replacement or Refund” described in paragraph 1.F.3,
the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation, the owner of the
Project Gutenberg™ trademark, and any other party distributing a
Project Gutenberg™ electronic work under this agreement, disclaim
all liability to you for damages, costs and expenses, including legal
fees. YOU AGREE THAT YOU HAVE NO REMEDIES FOR
NEGLIGENCE, STRICT LIABILITY, BREACH OF WARRANTY OR
BREACH OF CONTRACT EXCEPT THOSE PROVIDED IN PARAGRAPH
1.F.3. YOU AGREE THAT THE FOUNDATION, THE TRADEMARK
OWNER, AND ANY DISTRIBUTOR UNDER THIS AGREEMENT WILL
NOT BE LIABLE TO YOU FOR ACTUAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT,
CONSEQUENTIAL, PUNITIVE OR INCIDENTAL DAMAGES EVEN IF
YOU GIVE NOTICE OF THE POSSIBILITY OF SUCH DAMAGE.

1.F.3. LIMITED RIGHT OF REPLACEMENT OR REFUND - If you

discover a defect in this electronic work within 90 days of receiving
it, you can receive a refund of the money (if any) you paid for it by
sending a written explanation to the person you received the work
from. If you received the work on a physical medium, you must
return the medium with your written explanation. The person or
entity that provided you with the defective work may elect to provide
a replacement copy in lieu of a refund. If you received the work
electronically, the person or entity providing it to you may choose to
give you a second opportunity to receive the work electronically in
lieu of a refund. If the second copy is also defective, you may
demand a refund in writing without further opportunities to fix the
problem.

1.F.4. Except for the limited right of replacement or refund set forth
in paragraph 1.F.3, this work is provided to you ‘AS-IS’, WITH NO
OTHER WARRANTIES OF ANY KIND, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED,
INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO WARRANTIES OF
MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR ANY PURPOSE.

1.F.5. Some states do not allow disclaimers of certain implied

warranties or the exclusion or limitation of certain types of damages.
If any disclaimer or limitation set forth in this agreement violates the
law of the state applicable to this agreement, the agreement shall be
interpreted to make the maximum disclaimer or limitation permitted
by the applicable state law. The invalidity or unenforceability of any
provision of this agreement shall not void the remaining provisions.

1.F.6. INDEMNITY - You agree to indemnify and hold the Foundation,

the trademark owner, any agent or employee of the Foundation,
anyone providing copies of Project Gutenberg™ electronic works in
accordance with this agreement, and any volunteers associated with
the production, promotion and distribution of Project Gutenberg™
electronic works, harmless from all liability, costs and expenses,
including legal fees, that arise directly or indirectly from any of the
following which you do or cause to occur: (a) distribution of this or
any Project Gutenberg™ work, (b) alteration, modification, or
additions or deletions to any Project Gutenberg™ work, and (c) any
Defect you cause.

Section 2. Information about the Mission

of Project Gutenberg™
Project Gutenberg™ is synonymous with the free distribution of
electronic works in formats readable by the widest variety of
computers including obsolete, old, middle-aged and new computers.
It exists because of the efforts of hundreds of volunteers and
donations from people in all walks of life.

Volunteers and financial support to provide volunteers with the

assistance they need are critical to reaching Project Gutenberg™’s
goals and ensuring that the Project Gutenberg™ collection will
remain freely available for generations to come. In 2001, the Project
Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation was created to provide a
secure and permanent future for Project Gutenberg™ and future
generations. To learn more about the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation and how your efforts and donations can help,
see Sections 3 and 4 and the Foundation information page at
www.gutenberg.org.

Section 3. Information about the Project

Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation
The Project Gutenberg Literary Archive Foundation is a non-profit
501(c)(3) educational corporation organized under the laws of the
state of Mississippi and granted tax exempt status by the Internal
Revenue Service. The Foundation’s EIN or federal tax identification
number is 64-6221541. Contributions to the Project Gutenberg
Literary Archive Foundation are tax deductible to the full extent
permitted by U.S. federal laws and your state’s laws.

The Foundation’s business office is located at 809 North 1500 West,

Salt Lake City, UT 84116, (801) 596-1887. Email contact links and up
to date contact information can be found at the Foundation’s website
and official page at www.gutenberg.org/contact

Section 4. Information about Donations to

the Project Gutenberg Literary Archive
Foundation
Project Gutenberg™ depends upon and cannot survive without
widespread public support and donations to carry out its mission of
increasing the number of public domain and licensed works that can
be freely distributed in machine-readable form accessible by the
widest array of equipment including outdated equipment. Many
small donations ($1 to $5,000) are particularly important to
maintaining tax exempt status with the IRS.

The Foundation is committed to complying with the laws regulating

charities and charitable donations in all 50 states of the United
States. Compliance requirements are not uniform and it takes a
considerable effort, much paperwork and many fees to meet and
keep up with these requirements. We do not solicit donations in
locations where we have not received written confirmation of
compliance. To SEND DONATIONS or determine the status of
compliance for any particular state visit www.gutenberg.org/donate.

While we cannot and do not solicit contributions from states where

we have not met the solicitation requirements, we know of no
prohibition against accepting unsolicited donations from donors in
such states who approach us with offers to donate.

International donations are gratefully accepted, but we cannot make

any statements concerning tax treatment of donations received from
outside the United States. U.S. laws alone swamp our small staff.

Please check the Project Gutenberg web pages for current donation
methods and addresses. Donations are accepted in a number of
other ways including checks, online payments and credit card
donations. To donate, please visit: www.gutenberg.org/donate.

Section 5. General Information About

Project Gutenberg™ electronic works
Professor Michael S. Hart was the originator of the Project
Gutenberg™ concept of a library of electronic works that could be
freely shared with anyone. For forty years, he produced and
distributed Project Gutenberg™ eBooks with only a loose network of
volunteer support.
Project Gutenberg™ eBooks are often created from several printed
editions, all of which are confirmed as not protected by copyright in
the U.S. unless a copyright notice is included. Thus, we do not
necessarily keep eBooks in compliance with any particular paper
edition.

Most people start at our website which has the main PG search
facility: www.gutenberg.org.

This website includes information about Project Gutenberg™,

including how to make donations to the Project Gutenberg Literary
Archive Foundation, how to help produce our new eBooks, and how
to subscribe to our email newsletter to hear about new eBooks.