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Contents
2 Axioms of Probability 21
4.9 Expected Value of Sums of Random
Variables 155
2.1 Introduction 21 4.10 Properties of the Cumulative Distribution
Function 159
2.2 Sample Space and Events 21
Summary 162
2.3 Axioms of Probability 25
Problems 163
2.4 Some Simple Propositions 28
Theoretical Exercises 169
2.5 Sample Spaces Having Equally Likely
Outcomes 32 Self-Test Problems and Exercises 173
2.6 Probability as a Continuous Set Function 42
2.7 Probability as a Measure of Belief 46 5 Continuous Random
Summary 47 Variables 176
Problems 48
5.1 Introduction 176
Theoretical Exercises 52
5.2 Expectation and Variance of Continuous
Self-Test Problems and Exercises 54 Random Variables 179
3 Conditional Probability
5.3
5.4
The Uniform Random Variable 184
Normal Random Variables 187
and Independence 56
5.5 Exponential Random Variables 197
3.1 Introduction 56 5.6 Other Continuous Distributions 203
3.2 Conditional Probabilities 56 5.7 The Distribution of a Function
3.3 Bayes’s Formula 62 of a Random Variable 208
3.4 Independent Events 75 Summary 210
3.5 P(·|F ) Is a Probability 89 Problems 212
Summary 97 Theoretical Exercises 214
Problems 97 Self-Test Problems and Exercises 217
vii
viii Contents
7.1
7.2
Introduction 280
Expectation of Sums of Random
10 Simulation 415
“We see that the theory of probability is at bottom only common sense reduced
to calculation; it makes us appreciate with exactitude what reasonable minds feel
by a sort of instinct, often without being able to account for it. . . . It is remark-
able that this science, which originated in the consideration of games of chance,
should have become the most important object of human knowledge. . . . The most
important questions of life are, for the most part, really only problems of proba-
bility.” So said the famous French mathematician and astronomer (the “Newton of
France”) Pierre-Simon, Marquis de Laplace. Although many people believe that the
famous marquis, who was also one of the great contributors to the development of
probability, might have exaggerated somewhat, it is nevertheless true that proba-
bility theory has become a tool of fundamental importance to nearly all scientists,
engineers, medical practitioners, jurists, and industrialists. In fact, the enlightened
individual had learned to ask not “Is it so?” but rather “What is the probability that
it is so?”
ix
x Preface
Acknowledgments
I would like to thank the following people who have graciously taken the time to
contact me with comments for improving the text: Amir Ardestani, Polytechnic
University of Teheran; Joe Blitzstein, Harvard University; Peter Nuesch, Univer-
sity of Lausaunne; Joseph Mitchell, SUNY, Stony Brook; Alan Chambless, actuary;
Robert Kriner; Israel David, Ben-Gurion University; T. Lim, George Mason Univer-
sity; Wei Chen, Rutgers; D. Monrad, University of Illinois; W. Rosenberger, George
Mason University; E. Ionides, University of Michigan; J. Corvino, Lafayette College;
T. Seppalainen, University of Wisconsin; Jack Goldberg; University of Michigan;
Sunil Dhar, New Jersey Institute of Technology; Vladislav Kargin, Stanford Univer-
sity; Marlene Miller; Ahmad Parsian; and Fritz Scholz, University of Washington.
I would also like to especially thank the reviewers of the ninth edition: Richard
Laugesen, University of Illinois; Stacey Hancock, Clark University; Stefan Heinz,
University of Wyoming; and Brian Thelen, University of Michigan. I would like to
Preface xi
thank the accuracy checkers, Keith Friedman (University of Texas at Austin) and
Stacey Hancock (Clark University), for their careful review.
Finally, I would like to thank the following reviewers for their many helpful
comments. Reviewers of the ninth edition are marked with an asterisk.
Contents
1
1.1 Introduction 1.5 Multinomial Coefficients
1.2 The Basic Principle of Counting 1.6 The Number of Integer Solutions of
1.3 Permutations Equations
1.4 Combinations
1.1 Introduction
Here is a typical problem of interest involving probability: A communication system
is to consist of n seemingly identical antennas that are to be lined up in a linear order.
The resulting system will then be able to receive all incoming signals—and will be
called functional—as long as no two consecutive antennas are defective. If it turns
out that exactly m of the n antennas are defective, what is the probability that the
resulting system will be functional? For instance, in the special case where n = 4 and
m = 2, there are 6 possible system configurations, namely,
0 1 1 0
0 1 0 1
1 0 1 0
0 0 1 1
1 0 0 1
1 1 0 0
where 1 means that the antenna is working and 0 that it is defective. Because the
resulting system will be functional in the first 3 arrangements and not functional in
the remaining 3, it seems reasonable to take 36 = 12 as the desired probability. In
the case of general n and m, we could compute the probability that the system is
functional in a similar fashion. That is, we could count the number of configurations
that result in the system’s being functional and then divide by the total number of all
possible configurations.
From the preceding discussion, we see that it would be useful to have an effec-
tive method for counting the number of ways that things can occur. In fact, many
problems in probability theory can be solved simply by counting the number of dif-
ferent ways that a certain event can occur. The mathematical theory of counting is
formally known as combinatorial analysis.
1
2 Chapter 1 Combinatorial Analysis
Proof of the Basic Principle: The basic principle may be proven by enumerating
all the possible outcomes of the two experiments; that is,
(1, 1), (1, 2), . . . , (1, n)
(2, 1), (2, 2), . . . , (2, n)
#
#
#
(m, 1), (m, 2), . . . , (m, n)
where we say that the outcome is (i, j) if experiment 1 results in its ith possible
outcome and experiment 2 then results in its jth possible outcome. Hence, the set of
possible outcomes consists of m rows, each containing n elements. This proves the
result.
Example A small community consists of 10 women, each of whom has 3 children. If one
2a woman and one of her children are to be chosen as mother and child of the year,
how many different choices are possible?
Solution By regarding the choice of the woman as the outcome of the first experi-
ment and the subsequent choice of one of her children as the outcome of the second
experiment, we see from the basic principle that there are 10 * 3 = 30 possible
choices. .
When there are more than two experiments to be performed, the basic principle
can be generalized.
Example How many different 7-place license plates are possible if the first 3 places are to be
2c occupied by letters and the final 4 by numbers?
Solution By the generalized version of the basic principle, the answer is 26 · 26 ·
26 · 10 · 10 · 10 · 10 = 175,760,000. .
Example How many functions defined on n points are possible if each functional value is
2d either 0 or 1?
Solution Let the points be 1, 2, . . . , n. Since f (i) must be either 0 or 1 for each
i = 1, 2, . . . , n, it follows that there are 2n possible functions. .
Example In Example 2c, how many license plates would be possible if repetition among letters
2e or numbers were prohibited?
Solution In this case, there would be 26 · 25 · 24 · 10 · 9 · 8 · 7 = 78,624,000
possible license plates. .
1.3 Permutations
How many different ordered arrangements of the letters a, b, and c are possible?
By direct enumeration we see that there are 6, namely, abc, acb, bac, bca, cab,
and cba. Each arrangement is known as a permutation. Thus, there are 6 possible
permutations of a set of 3 objects. This result could also have been obtained
from the basic principle, since the first object in the permutation can be any of
the 3, the second object in the permutation can then be chosen from any of the
remaining 2, and the third object in the permutation is then the remaining 1.
Thus, there are 3 · 2 · 1 = 6 possible permutations.
Suppose now that we have n objects. Reasoning similar to that we have just used
for the 3 letters then shows that there are
n(n − 1)(n − 2) · · · 3 · 2 · 1 = n!
Example How many different batting orders are possible for a baseball team consisting of 9
3a players?
Solution There are 9! = 362,880 possible batting orders. .
(b) If the men are ranked just among themselves and the women just among them-
selves, how many different rankings are possible?
Example Ms. Jones has 10 books that she is going to put on her bookshelf. Of these, 4 are math-
3c ematics books, 3 are chemistry books, 2 are history books, and 1 is a language book.
Ms. Jones wants to arrange her books so that all the books dealing with the same
subject are together on the shelf. How many different arrangements are possible?
Solution There are 4! 3! 2! 1! arrangements such that the mathematics books are
first in line, then the chemistry books, then the history books, and then the language
book. Similarly, for each possible ordering of the subjects, there are 4! 3! 2! 1! pos-
sible arrangements. Hence, as there are 4! possible orderings of the subjects, the
desired answer is 4! 4! 3! 2! 1! = 6912. .
Example How many different letter arrangements can be formed from the letters PEPPER?
3d
Solution We first note that there are 6! permutations of the letters P1 E1 P2 P3 E2 R
when the 3P’s and the 2E’s are distinguished from one another. However, consider
any one of these permutations—for instance, P1 P2 E1 P3 E2 R. If we now permute the
P’s among themselves and the E’s among themselves, then the resultant arrange-
ment would still be of the form PPEPER. That is, all 3! 2! permutations
P1 P2 E1 P3 E2 R P1 P2 E2 P3 E1 R
P1 P3 E1 P2 E2 R P1 P3 E2 P2 E1 R
P2 P1 E1 P3 E2 R P2 P1 E2 P3 E1 R
P2 P3 E1 P1 E2 R P2 P3 E2 P1 E1 R
P3 P1 E1 P2 E2 R P3 P1 E2 P2 E1 R
P3 P2 E1 P1 E2 R P3 P2 E2 P1 E1 R
are of the form PPEPER. Hence, there are 6!/(3! 2!) = 60 possible letter arrange-
ments of the letters PEPPER. .
In general, the same reasoning as that used in Example 3d shows that there are
n!
n1 ! n2 ! · · · nr !
different permutations of n objects, of which n1 are alike, n2 are alike, . . . , nr are
alike.
Example A chess tournament has 10 competitors, of which 4 are Russian, 3 are from the
3e United States, 2 are from Great Britain, and 1 is from Brazil. If the tournament
result lists just the nationalities of the players in the order in which they placed, how
many outcomes are possible?
A First Course in Probability 5
Example How many different signals, each consisting of 9 flags hung in a line, can be made
3f from a set of 4 white flags, 3 red flags, and 2 blue flags if all flags of the same color
are identical?
Solution There are
9!
= 1260
4! 3! 2!
different signals. .
1.4 Combinations
We are often interested in determining the number of different groups of r objects
that could be formed from a total of n objects. For instance, how many different
groups of 3 could be selected from the 5 items A, B, C, D, and E? To answer this
question, reason as follows: Since there are 5 ways to select the initial item, 4 ways to
then select the next item, and 3 ways to select the final item, there are thus 5 · 4 · 3
ways of selecting the group of 3 when the order in which the items are selected is
relevant. However, since every group of 3—say, the group consisting of items A, B,
and C—will be counted 6 times (that is, all of the permutations ABC, ACB, BAC,
BCA, CAB, and CBA will be counted when the order of selection is relevant), it
follows that the total number of groups that can be formed is
5 · 4 · 3
= 10
3 · 2 · 1
In general, as n(n − 1) · · · (n − r + 1) represents the number of different ways that
a group of r items could be selected from n items when the order of selection is
relevant, and as each group of r items will be counted r! times in this count, it follows
that the number of different groups of r items that could be formed from a set of n
items is
n(n − 1) · · · (n − r + 1) n!
=
r! (n − r)! r!
† By convention, 0! is defined to be 1. Thus, n n n
= = 1. We also take to be equal to 0 when
0 n i
either i < 0 or i > n.
6 Chapter 1 Combinatorial Analysis
n
Thus, represents the number of different groups of size r that could be
r
selected from a setof nobjects when the order of selection is not considered relevant.
n
Equivalently, is the number of subsets of size r that can be chosen from
r
n n n!
a set of size n. Using that 0! = 1, note that = = = 1, which is
n 0 0!n!
consistent with the preceding interpretation because in a set of size n there is exactly
1 subset of size n (namely, the entire set), and exactly
one subset of size 0 (namely
n
the empty set). A useful convention is to define equal to 0 when either r > n
r
or r < 0.
Example From a group of 5 women and 7 men, how many different committees consisting of
4b 2 women and 3 men can be formed? What if 2 of the men are feuding and refuse to
serve on the committee together?
5 7
Solution As there are possible groups of 2 women, and possible
2 3
5 7
groups of 3 men, it follows from the basic principle that there are =
2 3
5 · 4 7 · 6 · 5
= 350 possible committees consisting of 2 women and 3 men.
2 · 1 3 · 2 · 1
Now
suppose
that 2 of
the men refuse to serve together. Because a total of
2 5 7
= 5 out of the = 35 possible groups of 3 men contain both of
2 1 3
the feuding men, it follows that there are 35 − 5= 30 groups that do not contain
5
both of the feuding men. Because there are still = 10 ways to choose the 2
2
women, there are 30 · 10 = 300 possible committees in this case. .
Example Consider a set of n antennas of which m are defective and n − m are functional
4c and assume that all of the defectives and all of the functionals are considered indis-
tinguishable. How many linear orderings are there in which no two defectives are
consecutive?
Solution Imagine that the n − m functional antennas are lined up among them-
selves. Now, if no two defectives are to be consecutive, then the spaces between the
functional antennas must each contain at most one defective antenna. That is, in the
n − m + 1 possible positions—represented in Figure 1.1 by carets—between the
n − m functional antennas,we must selectm of these in which to put the defective
n − m + 1
antennas. Hence, there are possible orderings in which there is at
m
least one functional antenna between any two defective ones. .
A First Course in Probability 7
^1^1^1...^1^1^
1 ⫽ functional
We shall present two proofs of the binomial theorem. The first is a proof by
mathematical induction, and the second is a proof based on combinatorial consider-
ations.
Letting i = k + 1 in the first sum and i = k in the second sum, we find that
n
n − 1
n−1
n − 1
n i n−i
(x + y) = xy + xi yn−i
i − 1 i
i=1 i=0
⎡ ⎤
n−1
n − 1 n − 1
= xn + ⎣ + ⎦ xi yn−i + yn
i − 1 i
i=1
n−1
n
n
=x + xi yn−i + yn
i
i=1
n
n
= xi yn−i
i
i=0
where the next-to-last equality follows by Equation (4.1). By induction, the theorem
is now proved.
Its expansion consists of the sum of 2n terms, each term being the product of n fac-
tors. Furthermore, each of the 2n terms in the sum will contain as a factor either xi
or yi for each i = 1, 2, . . . , n. For example,
(x1 + y1 )(x2 + y2 ) = x1 x2 + x1 y2 + y1 x2 + y1 y2
Now, how many of the 2n terms in the sum will have k of the xi ’s and (n − k) of
the yi ’s as factors? As each term consisting of k of the xi ’s and (n − k) of the yi ’s
corresponds
to a choice of a group of k from the n values x1 , x2 , . . . , xn , there are
n
such terms. Thus, letting xi = x, yi = y, i = 1, . . . , n, we see that
k
n
n
n
(x + y) = xk yn−k
k
k=0
társadalomgazdasági pazarlás.
A munkabér.