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MECHANICAL VIBRATIONS
AND CONDITION
MONITORING
MECHANICAL VIBRATIONS
AND CONDITION
MONITORING

JUAN CARLOS A. JAUREGUI CORREA

Autonomous University of Queretaro
Queretaro, Mexico

ALEJANDRO A. LOZANO GUZMAN

National Polytechnic Institute
Queretaro, Mexico
Academic Press is an imprint of Elsevier
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© 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
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or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system,
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This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the
Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).

Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience
broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical
treatment may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating
and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such
information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including
parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume
any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability,
negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas
contained in the material herein.
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Introduction

Conditioning monitoring is an evolution of predictive maintenance or pro-

active maintenance. The origin is difficult to define, but predictive mainte-
nance has made enormous progress over the last few decades. Nowadays, it
has been addressed as one of the most innovative solutions for anticipating
failures in machinery and is being used by a wide variety of industrial sectors.
Prediction maintenance could be applied to a large industrial sector when
the cost of vibration sensors was competitive. This advantage reduced the
cost of failures in comparison with the investment in the measurement
equipment and analysis system. In the beginning, the systems were rudimen-
tary and required specialized personnel to collect data and make the analysis.
The convergence of high-precision accelerometers and the ability to process
the Fourier transform with the FFT algorithm allowed the development of
rapid tools that can make a diagnosis on the actual condition of machines.
Previously, vibration sensors were applied in just a few types of equipment
due to their cost and the need for specialized personnel. These first concepts
were complemented with other emerging technologies such as ultrasonic,
thermography, acoustic sensors, and directional microphones.
The first application of predictive maintenance was made by the Royal
Air Force in the United Kingdom. It was found that the rate of failure
increased after the repair or inspection of machines, even following the
maintenance plans. This phenomenon was named the “Waddington
Effect,” which led to condition monitoring. It was decided to adjust the
maintenance programs and align them to the physical condition and fre-
quency of use to reduce the Waddington effect. The process required the
analysis of much data, but the launch of this program reduced the number
of failures. Conditioning monitoring systems evaluate the vibration data and
determine the condition of the machine based on the analysis of amplitude
and frequency. The original signal has raw data that have to be treated to
produce a reference baseline. Sampling the evolution of the data during
operation indicates the condition of the machine and, in the case of a failure,
the data will present significant changes. Conditioning monitoring systems
have increased the reliability of machinery because they include new sensors
while also using fast processing hardware and better algorithms for the signal
process. The application of artificial intelligent programs in conditioning

vii
viii Introduction

monitoring systems has increased the reliability of modern machinery,

allowing more extended periods between maintenance. These complex sys-
tems can anticipate failures in most of the components that constitute mod-
ern machines. The analysis data is also linked to purchasing programs and the
supply chain, enabling the reduction of spare part inventories.
Conditioning monitoring systems depend on the diagnosis of machin-
ery, equipment, and machine trains. The principal source of data for the
diagnosis comes from measuring mechanical vibrations. Traditionally, the
study of the mechanical vibrations has been considered tedious work
without an immediate application in engineering practice in the industry,
but that could not be further from reality. The vibratory phenomenon is,
practically, present in all machines and mechanical systems of any industrial
facility or structure. The force that excites any structure comes from the
movement of mechanical components. The variations in the homogeneity
of the materials are among the causes of vibrations. Other sources of
vibrations are the imperfections in the machining process, the manufactur-
ing tolerances, and the clearance for assembly of the machines. A machine
will vibrate if it operates in an overloaded state, if it is working below its
design parameters, if it lacks maintenance, or if it has excessive wear. The
intention of measuring vibrations is to have enough information to analyze
the conditions of a machine train and to keep the vibration levels of the
machines within acceptable values. Also, with proper interpretation, these
vibrations can provide a great deal of information regarding the operating
conditions of the equipment and mechanical systems.
The development of electronics, computers, and software provides great
storage capacity and information processing, which make possible the
application of vibration analysis in an industrial environment. However,
it is necessary to have an in-depth knowledge of the operating principles
of the measuring devices. The measuring systems generate large amounts
of data that must be analyzed, taking into account the theoretical back-
ground (theory of vibrations) and the analysis tools. The combination of
these elements potentializes the application of Conditioning Monitoring
Systems. Otherwise, one can easily become a “black box” user without
being able to interpret the causes and effects that mechanical vibrations have
in the different mechanical systems.
This book has two main objectives: To provide a maintenance engineer
with the necessary tools to make proper use of his/her measuring equip-
ment, and to introduce both engineering students and recently qualified
engineers in the practical implementation of vibration analysis in the
Introduction ix

predictive maintenance of machinery. The mathematical developments

highlight the principal concepts for understanding the theory, emphasizing
the ideas of the vibration theory as well as their importance in the practice of
predictive maintenance.
In particular, the book addresses the technicians and engineers who need
to apply their knowledge in a practical way to conditioning monitor a
machine train. Likewise, it will also be useful for actual technicians to sup-
port their observations and decisions theoretically concerning machinery
and equipment maintenance.

General considerations

The idea that the maintenance of the machinery is fundamental to increase

the productivity in an industrial plant is a concept that, finally, is being well
taken among engineers. This is surprising considering the number of indus-
trial executives who have ignored the impact that maintenance has in the
quality and quantity of the products they manufacture. The results are evi-
dent because the maintenance practices are increasing and improving, along
with the consequent reduction of costs and incidences in production.
Three maintenance administration techniques can be identified: The
failure of the equipment or corrective maintenance, the scheduled regular
intervals (preventive maintenance), and associating maintenance with the
analysis of the performance of the equipment (predictive maintenance).
The first of the aforementioned techniques is simple and direct: When a
machine fails, it has to be fixed. In a plant where this maintenance technique
is put into practice, money is spent only on spare parts when the machine
stops operating. However, in general it is the most expensive technique
for the costs involved due to the lack of production and the negative effects
this failure causes in the operation of the rest of the plant. In fact, a total lack
of maintenance is unusual in most companies, considering that some basic
lubrication and minor adjustment activities are made in the machines. How-
ever, this minimal maintenance also requires having the capacity to fix all
machines of the plant while also getting spare parts and technical assistance
within a minimum emergency time, which increases the costs of both the
technical advice and spare parts.
A more rational approach to plant maintenance is constituted thanks to
so-called preventive maintenance, which bases its methodology on the sta-
tistical behavior of the different pieces of equipment of industrial processes
x Introduction

or in a given mechanical system. There is a lot of information that shows that

mechanical systems, especially those in industrial plant machines, are more
susceptible to fail at the beginning of their lifespan due to installation errors
and inherent mismatches to their manufacture. This period is known as set-
tlement. Immediately, the failure rate decreases considerably.

Acknowledgments

Achieving knowledge and spreading it is perhaps one of the most significant

aspects of our society. The social impact of exchanging ideas and points of
view allowed us to create this book. We appreciate the effort and support
provided by diverse professionals, most of whom are researchers and special-
ists who helped enrich our analysis with their contributions and recommen-
dations. We must also recognize the institutional support given to us, for
welcoming and stimulating our research and scientific proposal, to the
Universidad Autónoma de Queretaro and the Instituto Politecnico
Nacional.
In particular, we express our gratitude to Luis Huerta Ishikawa for his
thoughtful comments regarding the material of the book. Likewise, to
Ricardo Santamaria Holek for his wise initiative to integrate and publish
the present work. Also, we want to thank Frank Beker Rubio for his effort
in reviewing the quality of the translation. Finally, we thank Rodolfo Vega
Hernandez for his support in translating the original material to English.

Juan Carlos A. Jauregui Correa

Alejandro A. Lozano Guzman
 CHAPTER ONE

Fundamentals of mechanical
vibrations

General considerations
The basis for most conditioning monitoring systems is the analysis of
vibration signals. Thus, a fundamental part to understand the causes and effects
of vibrations is the study of oscillatory movements and the interactions among
the different components of a machine or a set of machines. These oscillatory
movements, in the context of design and machinery analysis, are known as
mechanical vibrations or, more generically, vibrations. The essence of con-
ditioning monitoring is the analysis of the relationship between the input sig-
nal (the source of vibration) and the output response (the output signal), and
the evolution of the dynamic behavior of the machine. In most cases, the
machinery can be considered as a lineal system, although there are some par-
ticular cases that will be analyzed in other chapters, and the output signal will
be a linear response of the excitation forces. Even though a machine is a com-
plex system composed of a large number of mechanical elements, its dynamic
response can be represented as a simple lumped-mass system.
The presented approach highlights the basic concepts of mechanical
vibrations, leaving the mathematical developments for further consultation.
There are a great number of excellent textbooks devoted to the study of
mechanical vibrations, presenting solution methods for movement equa-
tions of the different cases; from these textbooks, only the essential concepts
are summarized. The material presented in this book is organized to under-
stand the basis for the application of a conditioning monitoring system and
the interpretation for the diagnosis of machinery.
At the same time, a link is established between the merely practical and
the empirical study of vibrations and the formal study of the basic concepts of
the mechanical vibrations theory. The concepts presented in this chapter
will allow the maintenance engineer to analyze and predict causes and effects
in the operation of the machines.

Mechanical Vibrations and Condition Monitoring © 2020 Elsevier Inc. 1

https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-819796-7.00001-9 All rights reserved.
2 Mechanical Vibrations and Condition Monitoring

Among the concepts presented in this chapter, the definition of mechan-

ical vibrations will be divided into deterministic and random vibrations. The
deterministic vibrations represent regular movements whose waveform can
be known in time, whereas random vibrations do not repeat regularly.
However, this chapter presents the fundamentals of the study of the mechan-
ical vibration, considering that they are deterministic, suggesting that the
movement is harmonic, that is, that it regularly repeats in time.
Random vibrations are usually found in the vibration analysis for condi-
tioning monitoring. However, through spectral analysis techniques, random
signals are studied by applying the defined concepts for the harmonic
vibrations.
In order to analyze the vibratory phenomena, it is necessary to represent
the movements so that the characteristics of the vibrations can be identified
as either deterministic or random. The simplest representation of a machine
is made by idealizing its vibratory movements as a mass in motion supported
by a spring and a viscous damper (Fig. 1.1). The mass is considered a single
particle and the spring is considered an element that obeys Hook’s law,
where k is the stiffness constant of the spring, m is the mass of the particle,
and the viscous constant c is the damping of this movement. The force gen-
erated by oscillating this spring is given by Fr ¼ kx, where x is the displace-
ment that the mass m suffers. The force generated by this damper is given by
Fa ¼ cv, where c is the damping coefficient and v is the speed of the mass
motion m. The external forces applied to the mechanical system formed
by the mass, the spring, and the damper are represented by F(t).

Fig. 1.1 Conceptual model of the vibratory system.

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Fundamentals of mechanical vibrations 3

F(t)

x(t)

mg
kx(t) ·
cx(t)
Fig. 1.2 Representation of the acting forces on a vibratory system.

The equation of motion is obtained by considering Newton’s second law

F ¼ ma and the sum of forces acting on the mass m. For this case, the acting
forces are those shown in Fig. 1.2, having:
kx  cv + F ðtÞ  mg + Fest ¼ ma (1.1)
In this formula, Fest is the force produced by the mass weight m (g, acceler-
ation of gravity), and a is the acceleration produced in the system, simplified
in such a way as:
ma + kx + cv ¼ F ðt Þ (1.2)
Considering the notation
v ¼ lim ðΔx=Δt Þ Δt ! 0; dx=dt ¼ x_
a ¼ lim ðΔv=Δt Þ Δt ! 0; dv=dt ¼ d2 =dt2 ¼ x€
The equation of motion is
mx€ + c x_ + kx ¼ F ðtÞ (1.3)
This expression is the equation of motion of one degree of freedom with
forced vibration and damping. The concept of “degree of freedom” refers
to the minimum number of coordinates necessary to define the kinematics of
a mechanical element. In this case, the system has one degree of freedom
because it is only required to know the displacement x to determine the
position of the mass m.
The solution of the second-order differential equation has two elements,
the homogenous solution and the particular solution. The homogenous
4 Mechanical Vibrations and Condition Monitoring

solution represents the free vibration movement and the particular solution
corresponds to the forced vibration of the mass.
The characterization of the oscillatory movement of the mass m is
obtained by defining the equation of movement according to the frequency
( f ) and the amplitude (x).
The oscillation frequency is the number of times per unit of time the move-
ment repeats and its amplitude is the magnitude of the maximum displacement.
According to the previous, it can be inferred that f ¼ n/t, where n is the
number of cycles completed in an interval t. If n ¼ 1, it is said that t ¼ T is the
oscillation period, meaning that f ¼ 1/T given in cycles/second (cycles/s) or
Hertz, abbreviated with Hz. Due to the fact that a harmonic oscillation
repeats regularly, it can be represented as shown in Fig. 1.3, where it can
be seen that for a cycle to be complete, the period must be T ¼ 2π/ω. In
this expression, ω is the angular frequency, that is, the angle that runs
through the vector A per time unit. Taking into account the previously
mentioned, the relation between ω and f is given by ω ¼ 2πf.
Considering the amplitude and speed values with which the movement
(x0 y v0) starts and which are generically known as initial conditions, the
phase angle can be defined as ϕ ¼ tan1(v0/x0ω).
Fig. 1.4 Illustrates the points of reference that define the peak amplitude,
the peak to peak, the average value, and the root mean square (RMS) in a
periodic signal and a random signal (without apparent order).
The peak-to-peak value indicates the end-to-end total displacement of
the vibration. This value is required when, for example, with the maximum
force in a machine part, it is presented with the maximum amplitude. The
peak value is useful to indicate short-term impacts, without considering
the history of the vibration. When it is required to know the average value
of the vibration, the following expression is used:

Fig. 1.3 Representation of a harmonic oscillation.

Fundamentals of mechanical vibrations 5

Fig. 1.4 Definition of the peak values, peak to peak, average, and the root mean square
in a vibration signal.

ðT
xprom ¼ 1=T xdt (1.4)
0

The average of a sinusoidal function is always zero; therefore, its value has
minimum contribution for the analysis of a vibration signal, and it is useless
for a conditioning monitoring system. There is another measurement of the
average amplitude of a sinusoidal signal, namely the root mean square
(RMS), which is given by the following expression:
 ðT 1=2
xRMS ¼ 1=T x dt2
(1.5)
0

This formula is related to the evaluation of the vibration in the time and with
the energy content of the vibratory wave. For a sine wave of unitary ampli-
tude, the RMS value is 0.707 of the peak amplitude.
The simplest case is the free vibration of a particle without damping.

Free vibration
Assuming there is an undamped motion with no external excita-
tion, there would be an equation of the form mx€ + kx ¼ 0 in such a way
that:

x€ + ω2n ¼ 0 (1.6)
where
pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
ωn ¼ k=m (1.7)
6 Mechanical Vibrations and Condition Monitoring

This last expression is known as natural frequency. It is the frequency that the
mass m would oscillate after applying an excitation with minimum excitation
energy and without damping.
The solution of the differential equation is of the form

xðtÞ ¼ αeλt (1.8)

Using Euler’s numbers, the solution of this equation can be transformed into
x ¼ x0 cos ðωn t + ϕÞ (1.9)
where x0 and ϕ depend on the initial conditions.
At t ¼ 0,x ¼ x0 , x_ ¼ x_ 0 , therefore
x_ 0
tan ðϕÞ ¼  (1.10)
x0 ωn
As can be seen, the free movement of the vibratory system is harmonic.
The natural frequency, which as a damping absence is equal to the res-
onance frequency, is a fundamental characteristic of the vibratory systems.
Therefore, in a conditioning monitoring system, it is a fundamental param-
eter that can be determined from the vibration measurements because most
of the vibratory effects being presented in the machines will be associated
with the natural frequency. Even though the operating conditions of a
machine are set away from the natural frequencies, it determines the ampli-
tude response of a machine.

Damped free vibration

_
In this case, the damping of the system is considered with the term c x,
where c is the damping coefficient and x_ is the displacement speed. Consid-
ering again Fig. 1.3 and the sum of forces is:
mx€ + c x_ + kx ¼ 0 (1.11)
that can be expressed as
x€ + ðc=mÞx_ + ðk=mÞx ¼ 0 (1.12)
Using the definitions,
k=m ¼ ω2n (1.13)

ξ ¼ c=2mωn (1.14)
Fundamentals of mechanical vibrations 7

with ξ defined as the damping factor (the definition of this factor is derived
from the solution of the second-order differential equation, and it is also
known as the critical damping factor), the equation of motion remains as

x€ + 2ξω2n x_ + ω2n x ¼ 0 (1.15)

The solution of this equation depends on both the value of the damping
factor ξ and the initial conditions x(0) and x_ ð0Þ. There are three possible
solutions: overdamping (ξ > 1), underdamped (ξ < 1), and critical damping
(ξ ¼ 1).
In case the displacement and initial speed are x(0) ¼ 0 and x_ ð0Þ ¼ v0 , the
solution of the equation for the overdamped case is:

v0 h 1=2 i
ξωn t
xðtÞ ¼  1=2 e senh ξ2
 1 ωn t (1.16)
ξ2  1 ωn

Fig. 1.5 shows the variations as a function of the initial speed (Fig. 1.5A), the
natural frequency (Fig. 1.5B), and the damping factor (Fig. 1.5C).

(A) (B)

(C)
Fig. 1.5 Variations of an overdamped vibration for different values of initial speed (A),
natural frequency (B), and damping factor (C).
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Carriages, Dwarf traversing Carriages,

Traversing
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cwt. qrs. cwt. qrs. cwt. qrs. cwt. qrs. cwt. qrs.
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Fore. Hind.
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ft. cwt. qrs. ft. cwt. qrs.

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Weight and Dimensions of Mortar beds.

OLD PATTERN.

Nature of Bed Dimensions.

Weight.
Land service. Length. Breadth. Height.
cwt. qrs. lb. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in.
13 Inch Iron 35 2 22 5 5½ 3 1 2 1
10 Inch Iron 16 1 16 4 4 3 1 1 7
8 Inch Iron 7 2 27 3 3 3 1 1 3
 5½ Inch Wood 1 10 2 7 1 3 9
4⅖ Inch Wood 3 5 2 5 1 3

NEW PATTERN.

Nature of Bed Dimensions.

Weight.
Land service. Length. Breadth. Height.
cwt. qrs. lb. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in.
13 Inch Iron 35 2 20 6 1 3 2¾ 2 ½
10 Inch Iron 17 3 16 4 4 3 1 1 7
8 Inch Iron 8 3 3 3 3 3 1 1 3
The Breadth and Length of each Bed are measured from the extremities of the
traversing bolts.
 P A R T I V.

RANGE, ELEVATION, ETC., OF BRASS ORDNANCE.

SOLID SHOT. COMMON CASE SHOT.

Med. 12 Pr. Light 12 Pr. Med. 12 Pr. Light 12 Pr.

Elevation. 9 Pr. Ditto 6 Pr. Elevation. 9 Pr. Ditto 6 Pr.
Long 6 Pr. Heavy 3 Pr. Long 6 Pr. Heavy 3 Pr.
degrees. yards. yards. degrees. yards. yards.
P. B. 300 200 P. B. 150 100
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1½ 850 700 1½ 300 250
1¾ 925 750 1¾ 325 275
2 1000 800 2 350 300
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·8 4½ 1050 ·9 5⅝ 2 6·25 600 ·9
·95 5⅜ 1200 1·1 6⅞ 2·5 5·5 600 ·75
1·1 6¼ 1350 1·35 8¼ 2 8·5 800 1·2
1·3 7¼ 1500 1·6 9¾ 2·5 6·25 800 1·
1·5 8¼ 1650
1·75 9⅜ 1800 1 34·5 1170
2· 10½ 1950 2 34·5 2010
2·3 11¾ 2100
2·6 13 2250 3 5 900
3· 14⅜ 2400 3 10 1200
3·4 15¾ 2550 3 15 1930
3·9 17¼ 2700

32 Pr. Brass Howitzer.

Common Common Shrapnell Common Common Shrapnell
Range. Range.
Case. Shell. Shell. Case. Shell. Shell.
Elev- Elev- Elev- Elev- Elev- Elev-
Yards. Fuze. Fuze. Yards. Fuze. Fuze.
ation. ation. ation. ation. ation. ation.
200 PB 1150 4⅜ ·8 4¼
300 1° 1200 4⅞ ·9 4⅝ ·8
400 2° ¾ ·2 PB 1250 5½ ·9 5°
450 ⅞ ·2 ¼ ·2 1300 .. .. ·9 5¼ ·9
500 1° ·2 ½ 1350 .. .. 1·0 5⅝
550 1¼ ·3 1° 1400 .. .. 1·0 6° 1·0
600 1⅜ ·3 1¼ 1450 .. .. 1·1 6¼
650 1½ ·3 1⅝ ·3 1500 — 7½ 1·1 6⅝
700 1¾ ·4 2° 1550 1·2 7°
750 2° ·4 2¼ 1600 1·3 7¼
800 2¼ ·5 2½ ·4 1650 1·4 7⅝
850 2½ ·5 2¾ 1700 1·5 8°
900 2¾ ·6 3° ·5 1750 1·6
950 3° ·6 3¼ 1800 — 9½ 1·7
1000 3¼ ·7 3½ ·6 1850 1·8
1050 3⅝ ·7 3¾ 1900 1·9
1100 4° ·8 4° ·7 2000 2·0
 Range, Elevation, &c., of Brass Ordnance.
SHRAPNELL SHELLS.

12 Pr. Medium. 9 Pr. Light 6 Pr.

Shell filled 10 lb. 13¼ oz. Shell filled 8 lb. 1¼ oz. Shell filled 5 lb. 7¼ oz.
Shell empty 5 lb. 10 oz. Shell empty 4 lb. 9½ oz. Shell empty 3 lb. 2 oz.
Number of Balls 63 Number of Balls 41 Number of Balls 27
Letter & Eleva- Range. Letter & Eleva- Range. Letter & Eleva- Range.
Length tion. Length tion. Length tion.
of Fuze. from to of Fuze. from to of Fuze. from to
in.10ths. deg. yds. yds. in.10ths. deg. yds. yds. in.10ths. deg. yds. yds.
B ·2 1⅜ 660 960 B ·2 1⅜ 640 920 1 380 640
C ·3 1⅞ 820 1110 C ·3 1⅞ 800 1060 B ·2 1¼ 570 800
D ·4 2¼ 960 1230 D ·4 2¼ 930 1180 C ·3 1⅝ 720 930
E ·5 2¾ 1080 1340 E ·5 2¾ 1050 1290 D ·4 2¼ 845 1045
·6 3¼ 1195 1445 ·6 3¼ 1160 1390 E ·5 2⅞ 955 1145
·7 3¾ 1301 1545 ·7 3¾ 1260 1480 ·6 3⅜ 1060 1240
·8 4⅜ 1415 1645 ·8 4⅜ 1360 1570 ·7 4 1160 1330
·9 5⅛ 1520 1740 ·9 5⅛ 1455 1655 ·8 4⅝ 1255 1415
1 · 5¾ 1620 1830 1 · 5¾ 1550 1740 ·9 5¼ 1345 1500
1 ·1 6⅜ 1720 1920 1 ·1 6⅜ 1640 1820 1 · 5⅞ 1430 1580
1 ·2 7 1815 2005 1 ·2 7 1725 1895 1 ·1 6⅝ 1510 1655
1 ·3 7⅝ 1905 2085 1 ·3 7⅝ 1805 1965 1 ·2 7¼ 1585 1725
1 ·4 8¼ 1990 2160 1 ·4 8¼ 1885 2035 1 ·3 7⅝ 1655 1785
1 ·5 8⅞ 2070 2230 1 ·5 8¾ 1960 2100 1 ·4 8¼ 1720 1840
1 ·6 9⅜ 2140 2290 1 ·6 9⅜ 2030 2160 1 ·5 8⅞ 1780 1890
1 ·7 10 2200 2340 1 ·7 10 2095 2215 1 ·6 9⅝ 1835 1940
1 ·8 10¾ 2165 2275 1 ·7 10¼ 1885 1980
1 ·8 11 1953 2020

SHRAPNELL SHELLS.

Part 2 of 2

24 Pr. Howitzer. 12 Pr. Howitzer.

S. filled 21 lb. 4 oz. S. filled 10 lb. 13¼ oz.

 S. empty 11 lb. 1 oz. S. empty 5 lb. 10 oz.
No. of Balls 129 No. of Balls 63
Letter & Eleva- Letter & Eleva-
Length tion. Range. Length tion. Range.
of Fuze. of Fuze.
in.10ths. deg. yds. in.10ths. deg. yds.
·1 1 450 ·1 1¼ 450
·1½ 1¼ 500 ·1½ 1½ 500
B ·2 1½ 550 B ·2 1¾ 550
·2½ 1¾ 600 ·2½ 2 600
C ·3 2 650 C ·3 2¼ 650
·3½ 2¼ 700 ·3½ 2½ 700
D ·4 2½ 750 D ·4 2¾ 750
·4½ 2¾ 800 ·4½ 3 800
E ·5 3 850 E ·5 3¼ 850
·5½ 3¼ 900 ·5½ 3½ 900
·6 3½ 950 ·6 3¾ 950
·6½ 3¾ 1000 ·6½ 4 1000
·7 4 1050 ·7 4¼ 1025
·7½ 4¼ 1100 ·7½ 4½ 1050
·8 4½ 1125 ·7¾ 4¾ 1075
·8½ 4¾ 1150 ·8 5 1100
·9 5 1175 ·8¼ 5¼ 1125
·9½ 5¼ 1200 ·8½ 5½ 1150
·8¾ 5¾ 1175
·9 6 1200
 Ricochet Practice with Brass Ordnance.
Chg. = Charge.
Ele. = Elevation.

Solid Shot. Common Shells.

12 Pr. 9 Pr. 24 Pr. 12 Pr. 5½ in. 5½ in. 4⅖ in.

Howitzer
Medium Gun. Howitzer Howitzer Mortar Mortar
heavy
Range Shell, 16 Shell, 8 Shell, 16 Shell, 16
in Gun. Shell, 8 lb.
lb. lb. lb. lb.
yards.
Chg. Ele. Chg. Ele. Chg. Ele. Chg. Ele. Chg. Ele. Chg. Ele. Chg. Ele.
lb. lb.
oz. deg. oz. deg. deg. oz. deg. deg. oz. deg. oz. deg.
oz. oz.
6 7½
400 9 4¾ 12 5 8 14½ 5 14½
8 4 8 8
6 6½ 7 5 8 9 12 7
5 7 6 6¼ 10 7½
5 6¾ 11 6 10 9
500 12 5¼ 8 11
14 5
7 6½ 9 7¾ 6 7
1
600 6 7½ 12 6½ 8 6 6¾

1
5 9½ 4¾ 10 5 12 9

Note.—When Shot are fired from the 24 Pounder and 12 Pounder Howitzers, the Elevation
must be about half a degree more than when Shells are used.

CHARGES FOR THE ROYAL NAVY.

For Boats.
lb. oz.
{ 24 Pounder 2 8
Cartridges
{ Howitzer { Heavy 2 0
{ 12 Pounder
filled with { { Light 1 4
Powder { Gun { 1 8
6 Pr. Light
{ { 0 4
{ Carronade 12 Pounder 1 0
 Charges for the Royal Navy.
High; Medium; Low: equivalent to Distant; Full;
Reduced.
Gun. High. Medium. Low. Proof.
cwt. lb. lb. lb. lb.
18-Pounder. 42 6 4½ 3 15
” ” 38 6 4½ 3 15
” ” 22 3 2 7
” ” 20 3 2 7
” ” 15 2 — 5
24-Pounder. 50 8 6 4 18
” ” 48 8 6 4 18
” ” 33 6 4 12
” ” 20 2½ — 6
32-
64 10 8 6 21½
Pounder*.
” ” 58 10 8 6 21½
” ” 56 10 8 6 21½
” ” 46 8 6 — 21½
” ” 48 }
8 6 5 21½
” ” 50 }
” ” 50 A 8 6 4 18
” ” 45 B 8 7 5 16
” ” 42 C 6 4 2½ 14
” ” 41 6 4 2½ 12
” ” 40 6 4 2½ 12
” ” 32 5 3 and 4 2½ 10
” ” 25 4 2½ 9
” ” 25 4 2½ 9
42-Pounder. 84 14 10 5 25
” ” 75 14 10 5 25
” ” 67 — 10 6 23
 56-Pounder. 98 16 10 5 28
” ” 87 14 10 5 25
68-Pounder. 112 20 10 5 30
” ” 95 16 12 8 28
” ” 87 14 10 6 25
8-Inch Gun. 65 10 8 5 20
” ” 60 10 8 5 20
” ” 52 8 — 5 16
” ” 50 — 8 5 14
10-Inch
112 16 — — 25
Gun.
” ” 86 12 — 6 20
* Charge of powder, for firing 32-pounder shells, 8 lb.

In changing the charge from Distant to Full, add ¼ degree

elevation as far as 1000 yards,
and half a degree beyond that range.
Double Shotting.—Double shotting may be employed with 32-
pounder guns of
56 cwt. charge 6 lb. up to 400 yards.
42 ” ” 4 lb. ” 300 ”
25 ” ” 2½ lb. ” 200 ”

With double shot and reduced charge, give double the elevation,
and half a degree additional,
for the reduced charge.
 Range, Charge, Elevation, &c., of Iron Ordnance.

P.B. = Point Blank

Diam. = Diameter
Diam.
Charge Range in yards.
of
Nature. Weight. Length. of
the
powder. P.B. 1° 2° 3° 4° 5° 6°
bore.
GUNS. cwt. ft. in. in. lb. oz.
42 Pr. 85 10 9·60 14 400 940 1340 1620 1840 2050 2250
32 Pr. 63 9 7 6·41 10 10½ 380 760 1130 1455 1730 1950 2160
56 9 6 6·41 10 10½ 380 760 1130 1455 1730 1950 2160
48 8 6·41 8 330 680 1015 1300 1540 1740 1840
40 7 6 6·35 6 340 675 985 1260 1500 1700 1800
* 32 6 6 6· 3 5 330 670 945 1210 1450 1640 1730
* 25 6 6· 3 4 225 485 735 995 1260 1500 1630
25 5 4 6· 3 4 225 485 735 995 1260 1500 1630
24 Pr. 50 9 6 5·82 8 360 755 1125 1417 1670 1850 2000
48 9 5·82 8 360 755 1125 1417 1670 1850 2000
40 7 6 5·82 8 340 730 1080 1377 1620 1800 1950
33 6 6 5·82 6 260 530 805 1082 1350 1560 1760
18 Pr. 42 9 5·29 6 360 730 1080 1377 1600 1780 1960
38 8 5·29 6 340 710 1075 1347 1560 1730 1900
12 Pr. 34 9 4·62 4 360 720 1075 1337 1540 1700 1850
29 7 6 4·62 4 340 710 1040 1307 1500 1650 1800
9 Pr. 26 7 6 4· 2 3 330 685 1015 1278 1460 1600 1730
6 Pr. 17 6 3·66 2 320 655 985 1238 1400 1520 1610
CARRONADES.
68 Pr. 36 6 4 8·05 5 10½ 270 540 812 1042 1240 1420 1570
42 22 4 6 6·84 3 8 240 515 810 983 1180 1350 1880
32 17 4 6·25 2 10 235 485 705 905 1100 1260 1400
24 13 3 9 5·68 2 225 435 650 826 1000 1150 1300
18 10 3 4 6·16 1 8 220 430 620 787 950 1100 1250
12 6 2 8 4·62 1 205 375 580 738 880 1000 1100
* Bored-up guns.
 Carronades.

68
Nature 42 32 24 18 12
Pr.
lb. lb. lb.
lb. oz. lb. lb.
Charge oz. oz. oz.
5 8 3 8 2 10 2 1 8 1
yards.
P. B. 450 400 330 300 270 230

1
650 600 560 500 470 400
Degree

2 ” ” 890 860 830 780 730 580

3 ” ” 1000 980 900 870 800 740

4 ” ” 1100 1020 970 920 870 810

5 ” ” 1280 1170 1080 1050 1000 870

Range, &c., of Iron Ordnance.

SHRAPNELL SHELLS.

68 Pr.Carronade. 8 in. Howitzer. 24 Pr. Gun. 18 Pr. Gun.

lb. oz. lb. oz. lb. oz. lb. oz.
Charge 4 0 Charge 4 0 Charge 5 0 Charge 4 8
S. filled 61 4 S. filled 61 13 S. filled 21 5 S. filled 15 11
S. S. S. S.
32 2 32 2 11 0 8 6
empty empty empty empty
No. of Balls No. of Balls No. of Balls No. of Balls
337 337 128 90
Elevation. Fuze. Elevation. Fuze. Elevation. Fuze. Elevation. Fuze. Range.
deg. tenths. deg. tenths. deg. tenths. deg. tenths. yards.
2½ 4 2¾ 3½ 1¼ 2 1¼ 2 650
3½ 6 3 6 1¾ 3½ 2 4 900
5 8½ 6 10 2½ 5 3 5¾ 1100
 Range, Elevation, &c., of 12, 10, and 8 inch Guns, 32 Pr. Carronade Gun, and 10,
and 8 inch Iron Howitzers.
P. B. = Point Blank.
Elevation in degrees; Range in yards; Flight in
Nature of seconds.
Length. Weight. Charge.
Ordnance.
P.B. 1° 2° 3° 4° 5° 6° 7°
feet. in. cwt. qrs. lb. oz.
12 in. Gun
8 4 90 3 12 240 540 790 1020 1250 1400 1550
(Hollow shot)
{ 7 6 57 3 7 210 460 720 935 1160 1350 1500
10 Do. (H.
{ 8 4 62 1 8 250 570 810 1030 1230 1400
S.)
{ 9 4 84 12 325 630 930 1200 1460 1700
8 Do. (H.
6 8½ 50 7 210 320 570 830 1130 1300
S.)
8 Do.
8 6 60 9 7 340 640 960 1190 1300 1500
(Solid shot)
8 Do. } 9 65 10 300 580 940 1220 1480 1700 1880 2120
Time of Flight } ¾” 2” 3” 4¼” 5½” 7” 8” 8¾”
Ditto.
{ 9 65 12 370 700 1050 1230 1540 1700 1831 1980
(Hollow shot)
Time of Flight { 1” 2¼” 3” 4¼” 6” 6½” 7¾” 8”
32 Pounder
5 25 4 200 470 730 960
Carronade Gun
10 inch iron
5 40 7 600 1200 1320
Howitzer
8 inch Ditto. 4 21 4 450 730 975

Range, Elevation, &c., of 12, 10, and 8 inch Guns, 32 Pr. Carronade Gun, and 10,
and 8 inch Iron Howitzers.
(Part 2 of 2)
Elevation in degrees; Range in yards; Flight in
Nature of seconds.
Length. Weight. Charge.
Ordnance.
8° 9° 10° 11° 12° 13° 14° 15°
feet. in. cwt. qrs. lb. oz.
12 in.
Gun
8 4 90 3 12
(Hollow
shot)
{ 7 6 57 3 7
 10 Do.
{ 8 4 62 1 8
(H. S.)
{ 9 4 84 12
8 Do.
6 8½ 50 7
(H. S.)
8 Do.
8 6 60 9 7
(Solid shot)
8 Do. } 9 65 10 2290 2430 2510 2710 2930 2990 3140 3250
Time of
} 9¾” 10½” 11½” 12¼” 12½” 13” 13½” 14”
Flight
Dittoo.
(Hollow { 9 65 12 2090 2310 2400 2510 2720 2830 2870 2220
shot)
Time of
{ 8¾” 10” 10½” 11½” 12½” 13½” 14” 15½”
Flight
32
Pounder
5 25 4
Carronade
Gun
10 inch
iron 5 40 7 1500 1926 2078
Howitzer
8 inch
4 21 4 1227 1506 1725
Ditto.
The above Ranges for the 12 and 10 inch Guns are with hollow shot, weighing respectively 112 lb.
and 84 lb.
The 8 inch Gun carries either hollow shot, plugged, 48 lb.; or shell, 46 lb.
Vide also Naval Gunnery. Table of Tangent Practice, 8 inch Gun.
 56 Pounder Gun, and 68 Pounder Gun.
Weight, Ranges, &c.
Above
Gun. Shot. Charge. P B 1° 2° 3° 4° 5° 6° 8° 10° 12°
Plane.
cwt. lb. lb. yds. yds. yds. yds. yds. yds. yds. yds. yds. yds. feet. in.
56
98 SS 16 490 930 1340 1720 2000 2200 2400 2740 3040 3320 5
Pr.
87 SS 14 380 900 1310 1660 1940 2100 2310 2580 2940 3270 8
68
112 SS 20 400 980 1400 1760 1980 2240 2480 2840 3130 3400 8
Pr.
95 SS 15 310 700 1070 1430 1710 1930 2130 2520 2890 3180 5 4
95 Shell 16 350 850 1250 1560 1840 2100 2350 2690 3000 3300 5 4
87 SS 14 300 680 1050 1360 1650 1900 2140 2490 2820 3150 8
87 Shell 14 310 710 1080 1350 1610 1850 2080 2450 2800 3140 8
 8 Inch Gun.
Length, 9 feet; Weight, 65 cwt.; Height of gun above
the plane, 5 feet 7 inches.
Time Number
Nature Charge. Eleva- First Flight. Second Extreme
of of
of
tion. graze. graze. range. flight. grazes.
shot.
lb. Degrees. Yards. Sec. Yards. Yards. Sec.
Solid 10 P. B. 315 1” 901 3207 20” 23
10 1° 660 2” 1006 2803 19” 18
10 1½° 818 3” 1240 2433 16” 13
9 P. B. 343 1” 776 2683 17” 12
9 1° 615 2” 970 2483 15” 10

RICOCHET FIRING.

1. When adopted in the field, the guns should seldom be elevated

above 3 degrees, as the objects fired at are generally cavalry and
infantry, and the lower the angle the longer will the shot preserve its
force, and have effect.
2. In the ricochet of a fortification of any kind, the elevation
should seldom exceed 10 degrees to throw the shot over the parapet
a little higher than the level of the battery; and, on the whole, the
best elevation to enfilade a work is from 6 to 9 degrees, measured
above the crest of the parapet with corresponding charges.
3. The charge, and elevation being known for any range, when the
gun and parapet are on the same level, the same charge, and
elevation may be used so long as the difference of level does not
exceed one-twentieth of the horizontal distance between them, the
elevation being given by the tangent scale, and the gun laid at the
parapet, whether above or below its own level.
 Ricochet Practice with Iron Ordnance.

Round Shot.

68 Pr. 24 Pr. Gun, 18 Pr. Gun, 12 Pr. Gun,

Carronade.* 9 Feet. 8 Feet. 8½ Feet.
Range in Eleva- Eleva- Eleva- Eleva-
Charge. Charge. Charge. Charge.
yards. tion. tion. tion. tion.
lb. oz. deg. lb. oz. deg. lb. oz. deg. lb. oz. deg.
400 12 6¼ 9 6½ 8 4½
10 7¾ 6 6½
8 11
600 1 12 7 6 6 1 5¼ 12 4¾
1 8 8¾ 1 8 4 12 7 10 6
1 6½ 8 7¾
800 2 3¾ 1 8 4¼ 1 4½
1 8 5½ 1 7 12 6½
* Note.—When Shells are fired from the 68 Pounder Carronade,
the Elevation must be decreased about half a degree.

Part 2 of 2

Common Shell.

10-inch Howitzer 8-inch Howitzer 24 Pr. Howitzer

Shell, 92 lb. Shell, 46 lb. Shell, 16 lb.
Range in Eleva- Eleva- Eleva-
Charge. Charge. Charge.
yards. tion. tion. tion.
lb. oz. deg. lb. oz. deg. lb. oz. deg.
400 2 8 6¼ 1 8 6 9 4¾
2 8½ 1 9½ 6 7½
600 3 6½ 1 8 8¼ 1 4¾
2 8 8¼ 1 4 10 12 5¼
 9 7½
800 4 6¼ 2 8 6¼
3 8 7½ 2 6½
 MORTARS.

Practical rules.
To find the Charge for a given Range at 45° elevation.
13 inch Mortar.—To the range, in yards, add half the range,
multiply the sum by ·03 for the charge, in ounces.
10 inch Mortar.—When the range is under 1350 yards, add to the
range 160, and multiply by ·02; and if the range is over 1350 yards,
add one-fifth of the range, and multiply by ·02 for the charge, in
ounces.
8 inch Mortar.—To the range, in yards, add 20, and the sum
multiplied by ·015 will give the charge, in ounces.
5½ inch Mortar.—To the range in yards, add 150, and multiply by
·08, for the charge, in ounces.
4⅖ inch Mortar.—To the range in yards add 300, and multiply by
·06, for the charge, in drams.
To find the Time of flight, the range being given. Divide the square
root of the range, in feet, by 4·5 for the time of flight, in seconds.
To find the Range, the Time of flight being given. Multiply the time
of flight, in seconds, by 4·5, and square the product for the range, in
feet.
To find the length of Fuze,[8] for a given range. Multiply the time
of flight, in seconds, by ·22, for the 13, and 10 inch mortars, and by
·24 for 8, 5½, and 4 ⅖ inch mortars, for the length of fuze, in
tenths.
 Mortar Practice at 15°, 25°, and 45° Elevation. 1838.
13 INCH IRON. 10 INCH IRON. 8 INCH IRON.
Weight 36 cwt. Weight 16 cwt. 2 qrs. Weight 8 cwt. 1 qr.
*Shell filled 200 lb. Shell filled 92 lb. Shell filled 46 lb.
Burst. powder 6 lb. 12 oz. Burst. powder 2 lb. 10 oz. Burst. powder 1 lb. 14 oz.
Blowing Blowing Blowing
2 oz. 1½ oz. 1 oz.
powder powder powder
Eleva- Eleva- Eleva-
Charge. Fuze. Range. Charge. Fuze. Range. Charge. Fuze. Range.
tion. tion. tion.
degs. lb. oz. in. yds. degs. lb. oz. in. yds. degs. lb. oz. in. yds.
45 2 1½ 1·9 450 45 1 ½ 1·9 450 15 14 ·8 500
2 3 2· 500 1 2 2· 500 1 1· 550
2 4¾ 2·1 550 1 3¼ 2·1 550 1 2 1·1 600
2 6 2·2 600 1 4¾ 2·2 600 45 9½ 1·9 450
2 7¾ 2·3 650 1 6 2·3 650 10¾ 2· 500
2 9½ 2·4 700 1 7½ 2·4 700 12½ 2·1 550
2 11¾ 2·45 750 1 9 2·45 750 13¾ 2·2 600
2 14 2·5 800 1 10 2·5 800 14½ 2·3 650
3 ½ 2·55 850 1 11 2·55 850 15½ 2·4 700
3 3 2·6 900 1 12 2·6 900 1 2·45 750
3 5½ 2·65 950 1 13 2·65 950 1 ½ 2·5 800
3 8 2·7 1000 1 14 2·7 1000 1 1¼ 2·55 850
3 10 2·75 1050 1 15¼ 2·75 1050 1 2 2·6 900
3 12 2·8 1100 2 ½ 2·8 1100 1 2¾ 2·65 950
3 14 2·85 1150 2 1¾ 2·85 1150 1 3½ 2·7 1000
4 2·9 1200 2 3 2·9 1200 1 4 2·75 1050
4 5 3· 1300 1 4¾ 2·8 1100
4 15 3·2 1500 1 5¼ 2·85 1150
5 10 3·4 1700 1 6 2·9 1200
* The Shells were filled with sand.

Part 2 of 2
5½ INCH BRASS. 4⅖ INCH BRASS.
Weight 1 cwt. 1 qr. 10 lb. Weight 3 qrs. 19 lb.
Shell filled 16 lb. Shell filled 8 lb.
Burst. powder 10 oz. Burst. powder 5 oz.
Blowing powder ½ oz. Blowing powder ½ oz.
Eleva- Eleva-
Charge. Fuze. Range. Charge. Fuze. Range.
tion. tion.
degs. lb. oz. in. yds. degs. lb. oz. in. yds.
15 6 ·7 350 15 4 8 ·8 450
7 ·75 400 4 12 ·85 500
7 8 ·8 450 25 4 1·1 540
8 ·85 500
25 5 8 1·1 480
45 4 8 300 45 2 6 1·65 300
4 12 350 2 9 1·7 350
5 1·75 400 2 12 1·75 400
5 4 1·8 450 3 1·8 450
5 8 1·85 500 3 4 1·85 500
5 12 1·9 550 3 8 1·9 550
6 1·95 600 3 12 1·95 600
 Greatest Charges, and Ranges.

lb. oz. yds.

13 Inch, Sea 20 0 4200
10 ” 10 8 4000
13 Inch, Land 9 0 2900
10 ” 4 0 2400
8 ” 2 0 2000
5½ ” 9 1200
4⅖ ” 4·5 1000
Distance from the parapet of a battery, the parapet being 8 feet
high, for Mortars at the following elevations:—

Elevation 45 30 20 15 10 degrees.
Distance 12 13 21 30 40 feet.
 P A R T V.
STORES, IMPLEMENTS, COMBUSTIBLES, ETC.,
REQUIRED IN BATTERIES.[9]

BALLS, LIGHT.

Light Balls are thrown from mortars at night, to discover the

operations of the enemy’s working parties, &c.
Light balls burn from 10 to 20 minutes.

Composition.
lb. oz. lb. oz.
Saltpetre, pulverized 6 4 Rosin, pounded 1 14

Sulphur, ground 2 8 Linseed oil, boiled 0 7

½
BALLS, SMOKE.

Smoke balls are fired from mortars to suffocate the men in mines,
&c., or to prevent them continuing their work. They are also used to
conceal manœuvres, &c., from an enemy.
Smoke balls burn from 25 to 30 minutes.

Composition.
lb. oz. lb. oz.
Corned mealed powder 5 0 Swedish pitch 2 0
Saltpetre, pulverized 1 0 Tallow 0 8
Sea coal 1 8
 To construct hollow Globes, or Cases for Light Balls, &c.
The canvas, or paper, may be formed in the following manner,
viz.:—With radius of half the intended calibre, describe the circle a b
c d (vide Figure 20, Practical Geometry), and divide the same into
four equal parts. From b with radius a b describe arc a e, from a with
radius a b describe arc b e, and from e with radius e a describe arc a b.
Eight pieces, as e a b, will form a ball nearly, the edges being brought
close together.
CARCASSES.

Carcasses, a species of shell, are filled with composition, the flame

from which is extremely powerful, and nearly unextinguishable. They
are much used in bombardments of towns, setting fire to shipping,
&c., and are discharged from guns, mortars, and howitzers, similarly
to common shells; from which, however, they differ, in being made
thicker, to enable them to withstand the intensity of fire; and in
having three fuze holes instead of one.
Carcasses burn from 8 to 10 minutes.
Common shells may be made to produce effects similar to
carcasses, by filling them with a proportion of Valenciennes
composition, and bursting powder.
All carcasses have three holes; and, from guns and howitzers, are
fired with sabots.

Carcass Composition. Valenciennes Composition.

lb. oz. lb. oz.
Saltpetre, pulverized 6 4 Saltpetre, pulverized 6 4
Sulphur, sublimated 2 8 Sulphur, sublimated 2 8
Rosin, pounded 1 14 Rosin, pounded 1 4
Antimony, pounded 0 10 Antimony, pounded 0 10
Tallow 0 10 Linseed oil, 6 oz. 14 drams.
Turpentine 0 10
 Weight, and Dimensions of Carcasses.

Nature of Carcass. Exterior Weight, Weight,

Land Service. Diameter. empty. filled.
inches. lb. oz. lb. oz.
13 Inch 12·84 220 0 234 8
10 Inch 9·84 97 0 104 0
8 Inch 7·86 52 4 57 0
5½ Inch 5·59 15 8 17 1
4⅖ Inch 4·45 8 4 9 1
42 Pr. 6·85 28 14 30 10
32 Pr. 6·1 23 3½ 24 8
24 Pr. 5·54 15 6 16 9½
18 Pr. 5·04 13 12 14 7½
12 Pr. 4·4 8 6 8 13
 CARTRIDGES FOR GUNS, HOWITZERS, ETC.

Charge Dimensions.
Nature of Ordnance. of Circumference.
powder. Length.
Superior. Inferior.
GUNS, IRON. lb. oz. ft. in. ft. in. ft. in.
68 Pounder 18 1 8·6 1 1
56 20 1 10· 1 3· 1 3·
” 16 1 10· 1 1
” 14 1 10· 11·3 11·3
” 10 1 10· 9· 9·
” 6 1 10· 7·2 7·2
42 14 1 11·1 1 9·4 1 9·4
32 10 1 9·8 1 7·9 1 7·9
24 8 1 6·3 1 5·6 1 5·6
18 6 1 7· 1 4·5 1 4·5
12 4 1 4·5 1 2·5 1 2·5
9 3 1 2·2 1 1· 1 1·
6 2 1 1·1 1 1·5 1 1·5
12 Inch 12 1 6·5 1 6·5 1 2·
10 12 1 5·5 1 3· 1
8 10 1 7· 1 1·5 10·
GUNS, BRASS.
{Medium 4 1 4·5 1 2·5 1 2·5
12 Pr.
{Light 3 1 1·5 1 2·5 1 2·5
9 2 8 1 1·1 1 1· 1 1·
{Heavy 2 1 2·2 11·5 11·5
6
{Light 1 8 11·2 11·5 11·5
{Heavy 1 9·7 9· 9·
3
{Light 12 9· 9· 9·
HOWITZERS.
{10 Inch 7 1 1·8 1 3·8 9·7
Iron.
{ 8 4 1 1·7 1 1·2 7·