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 Demystify Math, Science,
and Technology

Creativity, Innovation,
and Problem Solving
Second Edition

Dennis Adams and Mary Hamm

ROWMAN & LITTLEFIELD EDUCATION

A division of
ROWMAN & LITTLEFIELD PUBLISHERS, INC.
Lanham • New York • Toronto • Plymouth, UK
Published by Rowman & Littlefield Education
A division of Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc.
A wholly owned subsidiary of The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc.
4501 Forbes Boulevard, Suite 200, Lanham, Maryland 20706
www.rowman.com

10 Thornbury Road, Plymouth PL6 7PP, United Kingdom

Copyright © 2013 by Dennis Adams and Mary Hamm

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form or by any
electronic or mechanical means, including information storage and retrieval systems,
without written permission from the publisher, except by a reviewer who may quote
passages in a review.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication Information Available

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Adams, Dennis M.
Demystify math, science, and technology : creativity, innovation, and problem solving / Dennis
Adams and Mary Hamm.—Second edition.
pages cm
Includes bibliographical references.
ISBN 978-1-4758-0462-1 (cloth : alk. paper)—ISBN 978-1-4758-0463-8 (pbk. : alk. paper)—ISBN
978-1-4758-0464-5 (electronic)
1. Mathematics—Study and teaching (Elementary) 2. Mathematics—Study and teaching (Middle
school) 3. Science—Study and teaching (Elementary) 4. Science—Study and teaching (Middle
school) 5. Technology—Study and teaching (Elementary) 6. Technology—Study and teaching (Mid-
dle school) 7. Group work in education. I. Hamm, Mary. II. Title.
QA135.6.A329 2013
372.7—dc23
2013003780

TM
The paper used in this publication meets the minimum requirements of American
National Standard for Information Sciences Permanence of Paper for Printed Library
Materials, ANSI/NISO Z39.48-1992.

Printed in the United States of America

 Contents

Preface v

1 Creativity, Innovation, and Differentiation: Problem

Solving and Inquiry with Math, Science, and Technology 1
2 Creative and Innovative Thinking: Differentiated Inquiry,
Open-Ended Problem Solving, and Innovation 27
3 Mathematics: Problem Solving, Collaboration, Creativity,
and Communication 57
4 Science: Inquiry, Differentiation, Innovation, and the Future 85
5 Technology and Education: Powerful Tools for
Encouraging Creativity and Innovation 115

About the Authors 151

iii
 Preface

Demystify Math, Science, and Technology provides practical and proven

processes, tools, and examples that will be useful in applying the princi-
ples and strategies of a modern standards-driven math, science, and tech-
nology curriculum. It assumes that high-quality instruction in these sub-
jects can help open doors to creative and innovative thinking.
Imaginative problem solving, differentiated instruction, and collabo-
rative inquiry are viewed as important features along the path to helping
all students learn about mathematics, science, and technology. This book
also pays close attention to the social nature of learning, and suggestions
are given for sparking student interest in open-ended problem solving
and collaborative inquiry. It is written in a teacher-friendly style intended
to help individual teachers improve their practice.
Demystify Math, Science, and Technology is organized in a way that is
convenient for school districts or universities that are doing in-service
work with classroom teachers. The book might also serve as a supple-
mentary text for methods classes in curriculum and instruction. Although
there are concepts and ideas that apply to any grade, the primary focus is
on the elementary and middle school levels. However the book is used, it
offers plenty of help and advice for promoting creativity and innovation
in the math, science, and technology classroom.
We believe that in the rapidly evolving local and global economy, the
skills related to mathematical problem solving, scientific inquiry, and
technological innovation are important for success in and out of school.
Ingenuity, teamwork, and imaginative skills are closely related to the
intellectual tools associated with these subjects. This whole package of
attributes is essential for learners imagining new scenarios and future
work in areas that don’t even exist yet.
There is the age-old question about whether it is best to teach about
creativity and innovation directly or indirectly. Like many topics, one
point of view isn’t necessarily true and the other false. It can be both. The
difficulty is figuring out what is true and what is false. You can be sure
that innovation will be increasingly important to the success of any de-
veloped economy. Another certainty is that the mental discipline needed
for sustainable innovation doesn’t come about in an educational vacuum.
A major concern in this book is whether or not the thought processes
and logic being propagated by our schools help students change in a way
that supports them as they learn how to adjust to a rapidly changing

v
vi Preface

innovation-driven world. Putting thinking skills at the heart of math,

science, and technology instruction can help—especially if teachers are
able to develop lessons that meet the readiness, interests, and learning
profiles of their students.
With a differentiated approach, support structures, and a high-quality
curriculum, both teachers and students will be more able to hold a subject
or problem in their minds long enough to see it anew.
Whether high-tech or no-tech, many schools are teaching students to
apply the intellectual tools of math, science, and technology in ways that
ignite innovative behavior. Still, in some schools, the imaginative teach-
ing of these subjects is beyond the educational horizon.
There are plenty of teachers out there who are more than willing to
build problem solving, inquiry, creativity, and innovation into their daily
classroom routine. Many are going about this by connecting students
with engaging and authentic real-world tasks and experiences. To make
this happen, individual teachers must have the tools necessary to go
beyond the basics and motivate all learners to be more imaginative and
communicative.
There is now general agreement that encouraging the investigation of
the depth and breadth of subject matter is better preparation for success
in school and in life than a curriculum whose major challenge is how
much can be memorized for the short term.
Things like home environment, poverty, and class size all matter. But
when it comes to school-based learning, nothing is more important than
teachers who can work with all the available tools to develop young
minds. Experienced educators know that students need to approach
learning content in different ways. Like more than a few teachers, some
learners simply don’t like these subjects—and others think they won’t be
successful. At any level, it seems that poor attitude and poor achievement
can amplify each other.
In spite of the challenges, it is possible to appreciate strategies that
worked in the past while adapting to today’s new realities. Some schools
are very successful; the problem is reaching out to all schools across the
country.
Regardless of the condition of their school system, teachers are in-
creasingly faced with effectively dealing with students who span the en-
tire spectrum of learning. Student differences include issues like prepar-
edness, personal interests, and cultural ways of seeing and experiencing
the world. Diversity can be an advantage because innovation builds on
the social nature of learning; the more diverse the inputs, the more inter-
esting the outputs.
We do know that to build a capacity for student success you have to
identify individual strengths and weaknesses to maximize potential and
build capacity. Although there is no single formula for creating a rich
classroom environment, it is our belief that no one should be sidelined
 Preface vii

with basic skill training in a way that keeps them away from the creative
and collaborative engagement associated with problem solving, inquiry,
and the technological products of math and science.
Developing positive attitudes toward math, science, and technology
goes hand in hand with activating and engaging interest in these subjects.
The hope is that teachers will invite eager and reluctant learners to in-
quire, discover concepts, and collaboratively explore the interlinking con-
cepts. Along the way, students may even acquire the ability to imagine
and generate new ideas and collaboratively apply them.
Technology is a powerful force both in and out of school—and it has
long been linked with math and science. Also, paying attention to this
subject makes sense to mathematicians, scientists, and just about every-
one else who relies on technology-supported possibilities as they go
about doing their work. The technological products of math and science
are important on many levels, so this book pays close attention to the
instructional and innovative possibilities of these tools.
It is our belief that shining a light on mathematical, scientific, and
technological processes gives everyone involved more control over
everything that is going on around them. In a rapidly changing innova-
tion-driven world, these subjects are more important than ever. By prac-
ticing in the fields of math, science, and technology, educators can help
all students gain a better understanding of these subjects and how they
apply to the world outside of school.
It is important to recognize that teachers cannot encourage the devel-
opment of creative and innovative abilities in their students if their own
abilities in these areas are neglected. Demystify Math, Science, and Technol-
ogy recognizes this reality and tries to deepen the collective conversation,
challenge thinking, and provide some up-to-date tools for teachers so
they can help reverse the steady erosion of math and science skills in the
general population.
 ONE
Creativity, Innovation,
and Differentiation
Problem Solving and Inquiry with Math,
Science, and Technology

The future is not some place we are going to, but one we are creating.
The paths are not to be found, but made, and the activity then changes
both the maker and the destination.
—John Schaar
Instead of being predetermined, the future is something that we are all
involved in creating. There are all kinds of positive and negative possibil-
ities out there today, to say nothing of what’s just beyond the horizon.
In a rapidly changing innovation-driven world, there are plenty of
situations and problems where enhanced creativity can make a differ-
ence.
When it comes to schooling, there is so much more than helping chil-
dren move along the path to becoming employable adults. It is just as
important to challenge, inspire, and expose them to new ideas.
Without the whole package, today’s students may find themselves
serving as the worldwide information economy’s version of manual la-
bor.
From the boardroom to the classroom, academic excellence and inno-
vation are correctly viewed as keys to a productive future. Understand-
ing mathematics, science, and technology clearly matters. The same can
be said for igniting sparks of student creativity in the space surrounding
these subjects.
All of us have creative and innovative possibilities within us. Innate
skills can be amplified and new skills taught within a rich classroom
1
2 Chapter 1

environment. The next step is making sure that students make frequent
use of their abilities as they go about seeking imaginative solutions to
difficult problems. Practice does not make perfect, but it does make bet-
ter.
A childlike sense of wonder and amusement can put wind in the sail
of your thinking. The ability to create something new also has a lot to do
with imagination, knowledge, environment, and mental predisposition.
Mathematical problem solving, scientific inquiry, and the intelligent
use of technology are all more natural and enjoyable when students are
not served a “one-size-fits-all” path to understanding. Although there are
different paths to competency, questions (or problems) can be designed
in ways that nurture the innovative spirit.
Differentiated instruction (DI) has creativity and innovation built into
it because teachers who take that approach are used to making adjust-
ments for students with different learning interests, needs, and fluency. A
student or a small group may need more advanced problems, while oth-
ers may need a hands-on approach that more closely matches their learn-
ing style.
A differentiated approach to instruction is guided by the idea that
schools should extend individual potential, helping all students grow as
much and as quickly as possible.
Unlike older individualized learning approaches, differentiated in-
struction often happens in pairs or in small groups where students take
responsibility for what they are doing and help each other master content
and achieve learning goals.
DI involves recognizing how students’ varying backgrounds, knowl-
edge, readiness, and learning preferences affect their work. The next step
is making sure that there is some variation in content, process, or prod-
uct. Content involves differentiated paths for taking in information; pro-
cess allows multiple options for making sense of ideas; and product in-
cludes multiple options for expressing what has been learned.
Clearly, differentiated instruction and developing creative potential
are compatible with today’s standards-based math, science, and technol-
ogy instruction. Students’ attitudes and beliefs are crucial. So is being
able to create new ideas in the right environment.
Questioning, taking risks, and being open to new ideas are all part of the
creative/innovative package. Also, there are times when trust and patience
have to be added to the list (Estrin, 2009). Remember, the first versions of
many successful products have initially gotten poor reviews. Take the
first iPad as an example; “who would want it?” was a repeated line from
many early reviewers.
It takes a blend of tenacity, imagination, and knowledge to provide
the push needed to come up with new ideas, unique products, and inno-
vative approaches.
 Creativity, Innovation, and Differentiation 3

DIFFERENTIATED PROBLEM SOLVING, INQUIRY,

AND INNOVATION

Differentiated instruction is built on the belief that students have differ-

ent needs and that all students can imaginatively approach any subject.
Innovation might be thought of as radical or incremental changes in
thinking, processes, technologies used, or services. Promoting thinking
and innovative skills requires not treating students as passive recipients
of information. Moving in the most productive direction requires an en-
vironment in which students are active learners, decision makers, and
problem solvers.
This means that the teacher is often more of a coach or facilitator than
a lecturer in front of the class. It is also important to note that even in the
most child-centered classroom, the teacher plays an important role by
presenting new possibilities for questions and problems.
There is a time and place for individuals to work alone, in pairs, in
small groups, and as an entire class. Interdependence (sink or swim to-
gether) and individual accountability are keys to the success of a small
group. By think-pair-share, we mean making sure that individual students
have a problem or question, asking them to think about it alone for just
eight or ten seconds, and then pairing them up for a discussion.
Collaborative discussion is crucial. In a think-pair-share (groups of
two) or in small groups of three or four, students can cooperatively work
to frame and explore new problems. Finally, after a good discussion with
the partners, the partnerships share their point of view with the whole
class.
At various stages, the teacher might ask, “Is there a different way to
go about solving it?” or, after time for inquiry, “How would you change
things based on what you discovered?” There are times when a teacher
may want students to write down their responses. Also, being ready to
gear up (make harder) or gear down (simplify) a problem or question is
part of what differentiation is about. It is always good to have other
questions/problems ready in case there is time to repeat the process.
Although the most important instructional goal of math and science
instruction is to understand the content, it is also important for students
to learn about the purposes, methods, and innovative behavior associat-
ed with these subjects and their technological tools. Teaching students to
collaboratively make decisions and complete authentic investigations is
part of every lesson plan. A differentiated math/science classroom also
provides many opportunities for students to inquire into their own
understandings—while learning how to think and work like mathemati-
cians and scientists.
The advance of cognitive learning theories has led educators to realize
how important it is for learners to be more actively engaged in their own
construction of knowledge. Helping students become efficient problem
4 Chapter 1

solvers has long been viewed as an important goal of mathematics in-

struction. Solving a problem involves finding a way around an obstacle
or getting past some difficulty to experience the triumph of discovery.
By engaging in a math-related task before the method of solution
becomes clear often results in the development of new knowledge. In the
differentiated math classroom, students have frequent opportunities to
formulate, work with, and solve complex problems. The process requires
a high degree of student effort, and time is needed for reflecting on their
own thinking. (There is more to come in chapter 3.)
Both problem solving and inquiry are ways for scientists and students
to investigate the world. Although science obviously pays attention to
problem solving, inquiry is paramount. Scientific inquiry can be viewed
as a process by which questions are asked, evidence is gathered, investi-
gations are carried out, explanations are proposed, and predictions are
made. Inquiry is an active problem-solving approach that uses scientific,
mathematical, and technological tools to study the natural world and
present the results to others.
By taking part in scientific inquiry, students acquire knowledge and
develop an understanding of concepts, models, and theories. Inquiry also
involves a set of interrelated processes that students and scientists can
use to investigate phenomena and creatively think about world situa-
tions. Understanding the nature of scientific knowledge, interpreting sci-
entific explanations, and generating/evaluating scientific evidence are all
part of the inquiry package. (There is more to come in chapter 4.)
The research tells us that problem solving in math and inquiry in
science can motivate and encourage creative and innovative behavior in
all types of students (Aleixandre & Erduran, 2008). It also helps learners
understand the nature of these subjects and comprehend how they im-
pact their lives.
Math and science education are dynamic fields being influenced by
new research findings, national standards, state content requirements,
technological advances, the gradual evolution of learning theories, and
advances in instructional/assessment strategies. Both subjects integrate
technology to encourage creativity and innovative behavior. In spite of
all the changes and disagreements, attending to problem solving in math
and teaching science as inquiry is supported by all the major stakehold-
ers.
Problem solving, inquiry, and creative reasoning sometimes include
students’ questioning conventional wisdom and seeking out evidence to
support their arguments. It is just as important to get students to go
beyond old and new facts to discover new ways to think about them.
Innovative ideas can be generated by encouraging a diversity of thinking
when students are engaged in authentic performance tasks that require
both self-expression and content mastery. It also helps if teachers set up
 Creativity, Innovation, and Differentiation 5

time and space for reflection, experimentation, and the collaborative gen-
eration of new ideas.
Regardless of the lesson, students must develop certain habits of the
mind, employ critical reasoning skills, and productively participate in the
process. Clearly, in the differentiated classroom, problem solving, in-
quiry, and innovation are natural allies (Bass, Contant, & Carin, 2009).
Math and science courses temper the human spirit, refine it, and make
it a tool with which one may creatively tackle any kind of material.
—Francis Perkins

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF INNOVATION

The mix of instructional approaches and skills needed to develop stu-

dents who can generate fresh ideas doesn’t fit neatly onto a PowerPoint
slide. Still, it is important to note that innovation has a lot to do with the
creation of new ideas, approaches, or things. It might also involve trans-
forming an idea or invention into a problem-solving device, process,
product, or technique. Uniqueness and novelty are key criteria (Lehrer,
2012).
Innovation requires questioning. Questioning provides room to ex-
plore. To explore is to discover new ideas. Questions can be inquisitive or
judgmental. Discovering questions convey interest. Questions such as,
“Can you explain . . .” are open-ended assumptions or hypotheses found
in mathematical problem solving and scientific inquiry. Teaching
through inquiry can provide students with many questions. They are
yearning to explore them. Students take innovative steps in authentic
investigation and problem solving.
Questioning and inquiry promote active learning in the differentiated
classroom. Questions like “Why did you . . .” express judgment, not
confidence, faith, or trust. Students can continue to question their as-
sumptions and pursue bold, broad-ranging innovation.
Trusting is another principle of innovation. As a teacher, you need to
trust your students, and students need to trust themselves, the teacher,
and each other. Trust happens when students understand that the teacher
is there to support them. Teachers in differentiated classrooms often use
small group instruction, personalized learning assignments, independent
studies, learning contracts, open discussions, and many other strategies
to make learning work for each student.
Teachers honor student voices by inviting student ideas, encouraging
student thoughts, and affirming, supporting, and responding with hon-
esty. Part of trusting is seen as being fair. Trusting yourself and others is
necessary for success.
Risking means taking a chance. Failure is part of risk taking and a part
of innovation. Accepting failure is not easy and often painful. Being able
6 Chapter 1

to give up what we passionately believe requires tolerance and patience.

Our aim is for accountability without blame. An element of risk (“Is it
going to work, or not?”) adds excitement. The eagerness to take bold yet
calculated risks is one of the basic principles of innovation.
Opening to new ideas is another basic principle of innovation. It re-
quires an open mind and an open atmosphere where everyone is encour-
aged to imagine, think broadly, and collaborate on essential questions.
Openness captures serendipity and gives learners the freedom to create.
Part of openness involves a type of curiosity that stimulates the ability to
critically evaluate data, accept input, and be ready to adapt to change.
Stimulating the imagination matters because without it innovation is
stifled, and independent self-expression and standards mastery are di-
minished. Being open to surprise and openly sharing information create
avenues for valuable feedback. Once a pair or small group of students
agrees on a problem and path of inquiry, the next step is executing a plan
and opening their minds to the possibilities.
Being patient is mandatory if innovation is to succeed. Having patience
allows ideas to ripen. Innovators need to be able to endure uncertainty, to
doubt and wait, instead of jumping at the first solution that comes along.
They must have the strength to overcome obstacles and to defend their
daring ideas. Time frames and appropriate measurement techniques help
calculate how well you are doing. There are times when you can’t tell
whether something is going to succeed. Teachers can’t have someone
looking over their shoulder saying, “How are you doing?”
There is not a predictable path to successful innovation. Historically,
half of the great innovations arise from extraordinary insights; the other
half had more to do with chance. Whether it was inspired insight or blind
luck, academic preparation, circumstance, location, and openness to new
experiences had a lot to do with it.
Differentiated instruction (DI) requires that teachers know their stu-
dents and make learning personally relevant for them. Knowing your
students opens many doors to academic success. The teacher must com-
prehend what each student knows and can accomplish at a certain time
in order to plan and alter instruction in a way that keeps students on task.
In fact, DI stands or falls based largely on the teacher’s ability to monitor
students’ nearness to content goals throughout the learning cycle. Of
course, success or failure is not just the teacher’s responsibility; it’s up to
the students to develop the ability and the inclination to monitor their
progress toward goal attainment.
Armed with assessment information and knowledge of the students,
teachers can adapt their teaching plans to ensure student readiness, inter-
est, and individual learning styles. Once teachers know what students
understand, what they can or cannot do, and what motivates them to
learn, they can try to make sure that students attain an understanding of
 Creativity, Innovation, and Differentiation 7

basic information. Teachers can also help students take charge of their
learning and take charge of their lives.

DIFFERENTIATION: ONE SIZE DOESN’T FIT ALL

Making sure that the learning is tailored to each student is another part of
promoting creativity and innovation in the classroom. Asking students to
do what they are ready to do avoids a lot of aggravation for everybody. If
work is too easy, it can prevent them from addressing the challenge. If it’s
too hard, frustration and bad attitude set in. In either case, the students’
willingness to continue when they face difficulty with math, science, or
technology vanishes. Remember, it’s just as bad to say that Jane is bored
as it is to say that Johnny can’t count.
Matching student learning with what they care about always helps.
When students know they can do the task and care about it, they will
most likely do whatever it takes to succeed. This implies that students
can express their learning in ways that will help them succeed. Many
discouraged students think they can’t complete the assignments. Meeting
students where they are in their academic achievement, interests, and
preferred learning styles allows teachers to help students reflect on their
feelings of failure.
To counteract these negative impressions and connect with their
world, it’s helpful to use graphic novels and images from the Internet
that reflect their feelings about math, science, reading, and technology.
Teachers in differentiated classrooms use small group instruction,
reading partnerships, text at different reading levels, independent stud-
ies, varied homework assignments, and personalized evaluations. Teach-
ers are flexible with work time, making learning apply for each student.
They use ongoing formative assessment practices, connecting the latest
information to curriculum instruction and DI. They constantly study
their students to understand what they need and adjust their teaching.

POWER OVER LEARNING

Letting students make responsible decisions on how to use their time is

one way to give students some power over their learning. Teachers re-
spect student ideas by inviting their opinions, encouraging participation,
and being honest (Tomlinson, Brimijoin, & Narvaez, 2008). Because dif-
ferentiated learning promotes individualization, teachers can effectively
respond to student needs and communicate in a nurturing way. Along
the way, it is important to make time for student discussions, helping
learners solve problems in small groups. Also, ask for student input in
developing classroom rules and provide opportunities for students to
review each other’s work.
8 Chapter 1

Trust and making sure that students understand what they can do
have a lot to do with empowerment. As educators, we need to meet the
broad needs, backgrounds, and learning styles of a diverse student popu-
lation. Today, we know much more about why some students have little
trouble learning and others struggle. The role of noncognitive skills like
perseverance, curiosity, and grit are now considered the equal of cogni-
tive skills (Tough, 2012). We also know more about the importance of a
student’s preparedness, learning style, interests, and confidence in learn-
ing.
As schools are adapting to an increasingly broad range of learners, it
is more important than ever to design math, science, and technology
instruction in ways that accommodate academically diverse learners. DI
can be part of the answer. With a standards-based curriculum in place in
almost every state, all students are expected to achieve at high levels. In
the past, there was a group of students who ended up being placed in
low-achieving classes. Now, we must find ways to make higher achieve-
ment available for everyone.
DI is a collection of approaches that help you direct and manage the
variety of learning needs in your classroom. DI that fosters innovation
depends on how you identify your students’ learning needs effectively
and how you offer learning opportunities that increase the probability of
student success. DI is a proven way to ensure that fewer children are left
behind and that higher levels of attainment are reached.
Teachers have always had to deal with the fact that individual stu-
dents learn things in different ways. And most realize that schools are
places where teachers learn from students and students can learn from
each other. Although differentiated math/science/technology instruction
is a more recent development, it is an easy fit for many teachers.
DI is based on the best practices in education. It puts students at the
center of learning. It allows their learning needs to help you manage your
instructional planning. The first step in differentiated learning is to begin
where you are. Differentiation does not mean throwing out your plan-
ning from past years. It means analyzing how well you’re providing
variety and challenge in learning, recognizing which students are best
served by your current plans, and altering those plans as needed so more
students can be successful.

LEARNING GOALS OF DIFFERENTIATION

Differentiated learning helps students not only master content but also
shape their learning identities. DI increases learning for all students by
involving them in activities that respond to their individual needs,
strengths, and inclinations. Differentiated goals include the following:
• Developing challenging and engaging tasks for every learner
 Creativity, Innovation, and Differentiation 9

• Creating instructional activities based on the necessary topics, con-

cepts, and skills of math, science, and technology, and providing
ways for students to display what they have learned
• Offering flexible approaches to content and instruction
• Paying attention to students’ readiness, instructional needs, and
learning preferences
• Meeting curriculum standards for each learner
Differentiated innovation involves adapting instruction to meet the needs
of students with a wide range of needs and academic abilities. It involves
recognizing the fact that individuals and small clusters of students can
use different content, processes, and products to achieve the same con-
ceptual understanding.
Differentiated responses from the teacher can be as simple as rephras-
ing a question—or as complicated as regrouping on the basis of student
interests. DI is much more than individualized learning or designing a
lesson for every student. It involves building mixed-ability group instruc-
tion around the idea that individual students (or groups of students)
learn in unique ways and at varying levels of difficulty. Assessment can
follow a similar path. And along with teacher observation, it can influ-
ence grouping decisions.
What children can do together today they can do alone tomorrow.
—Vygotsky
A good way for learning groups to connect with DI is for teachers to base
group assignments on what they know about the interests and aptitudes
of the students involved. In addition, there are times when students may
need multiple chances to demonstrate mastery. In a differentiated class-
room, you will find students doing more thinking for themselves and
working more with peers.
Self-evaluation and a gentle kind of peer assessment are both part of
the process. With DI, small collaborative groups within the class are often
working at different levels of complexity and at different rates. Math,
science, and technology lessons can be differentiated based on a students’
interest in these subjects, readiness to learn a concept, and their preferred
path to comprehension.
Language makes us human
Art and culture push the boundaries of human understanding
Science and its mathematical tools help us understand the natural
world
Technology makes us powerful
And being in community with others makes us free.
—D. Adams
10 Chapter 1

ELEMENTS THAT GUIDE DIFFERENTIATED LEARNING

The content that teachers teach and how students have access to informa-
tion are important ways for teachers to differentiate instruction. Curricu-
lum content is often determined by the school or district and reflects state
or national standards. You differentiate content when you preassess stu-
dents’ skills and knowledge, then match students with activities according to
their readiness. Student readiness is the current knowledge understanding
and skill level of a student. Readiness does not mean student ability;
rather, it reflects what a student knows, understands, and is able to do.
Interest is another way to differentiate learning. Topics students enjoy
learning about, thinking about, and doing provide a motivating link.
Successful teachers incorporate required content with students’ interests
to engage the learner. This helps students connect with new information
by making it appealing, relevant, and worthwhile.
A student’s learning profile is influenced by an individual’s preferred
learning style, “intelligence” preference, academic interests, and cultural
background. By tapping into a student’s learning profile, teachers can
extend the ways students learn best.
A differentiated learning environment enables teachers and students to
work in ways that benefit each student and the class as a whole. A flex-
ible environment allows students to make decisions about how to make
the classroom surroundings work. This gives students a feeling of owner-
ship and a sense of responsibility. Students of any age can work success-
fully as long as they know what’s expected and are held to high stan-
dards of performance.

IMPORTANT PRINCIPLES OF DIFFERENTIATION

Several key principles describe a differentiated classroom. A few of them

are defined here:
• A high-quality engaging curriculum is the beginning principle. Your
first job as a teacher is to guarantee that the curriculum is consis-
tent, inviting, important, and thoughtful.
• Students’ work should be appealing, inviting, thought provoking,
and stimulating. Every student should find his or her work interesting
and powerful.
• Teachers should try to assign challenging tasks that are a little too
difficult for the student. Be sure there is a support system to assist
students’ success at a level they never thought possible.
• Use adjustable grouping. It is important for you to plan times for
groups of students to work together—and times for students to
work independently. Provide teacher-choice and student-choice
groups.
 Creativity, Innovation, and Differentiation 11

• Assessment is a formative ongoing process. Teachers often preassess

students to determine students’ knowledge and skills based on
their needs. Once you are aware of what students already know
and what they need to learn, then you can differentiate instruction
to match the needs of each student. Formative assessment allows
teachers to alter instruction while learning.
• When it comes to planning activities or assignments, we often use a
tiered approach. Tiered methods are differentiated learning ways to
teach that you develop based on your diagnosis of students’ needs.
When you use a tiered approach, you are prescribing individual
techniques to particular groups of students. Within each group, you
decide whether students do assignments alone, with a partner, or
as a collaborative learning team.
• The basic idea is to have a wide range of students learn the concept
being taught. But students can reach competency in many different
ways. The first step is to identify the key skills and concepts that
everyone must understand. All students in a class cover the same
topic, but the teacher varies materials based on students’ aptitudes
and interests.
• At least some grades should be based on growth. A struggling student
who persists and doesn’t see progress will likely become frustrated
if grade-level benchmarks seem out of his or her reach and growth
doesn’t appear to count. It is your job to support the student by
making sure (one way or another) the student masters the concepts
required. When it’s time for final assessments, it’s important to plan
several assessment strategies—for example, a quiz and a project.
When it comes to DI, teachers need to realize that differentiation is about
grouping according to the interests and social, academic, and emotional
needs of students. It’s not about ability grouping. Teachers need the abil-
ity to build motivating lessons for mixed-ability groups. And they need
to think about their craft as they practice it. Better thinking also requires
paying at least some attention to connecting theory and research to prac-
tice. If students have trouble learning math and science from the way we
teach, then we need to pay attention to their personal resources and teach
them in a way they can learn.

MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCES: ANOTHER PART

OF DIFFERENTIATED INSTRUCTION

The goal of DI is to increase the chances that students will be successful

learners. A way to achieve this is to get to know students and to under-
stand how they differ in interests, learning preferences, readiness, and
motivation. It is necessary for teachers to realize that students learn and
create in different ways. Although we know it is often best to teach to
12 Chapter 1

students’ strengths, providing them with deep learning experiences in

different domains can also enrich their “intelligence” in specific areas.
Carol Tomlinson’s idea of the differentiated classroom is based, in
part, on the work of Howard Gardner and Robert Sternberg. They con-
tributed to the awareness that students exhibit different intelligence
preferences. Gardner projected that intelligence could be thought of as a
variety of independent intelligences rather than an overall measure of
mental ability. He identified eight intelligences that represent different
ways a child may understand or explain their knowledge. These include
the following:
Linguistic: the ability to use language to express ideas.
Logical/mathematical: the ability to explore patterns and relationships
by manipulating objects or symbols in an orderly manner.
Musical: the capacity to think in music; the ability to perform, com-
pose, or enjoy a musical piece.
Spatial: the ability to understand and mentally manipulate a form or
object in a visual or spatial display.
Bodily-kinesthetic: the ability to move your body through space and use
motor skills in sports, performing arts, or art productions (particu-
larly dance or acting).
Interpersonal: the ability to work in groups; interacting, sharing, lead-
ing, following, and reaching out to others.
Intrapersonal: the ability to understand your inner feelings, dreams,
and ideas.
Naturalist: the ability to discriminate among living things (plants and
animals) as well as sensitivity to the natural world.
Sternberg suggests three intelligence preferences:
Analytic (schoolhouse intelligence)
Creative (imaginative intelligence)
Practical (contextual, street-smart intelligence)
Today, there is still discussion about what these intelligences represent or
if there are additional intelligences. Our purpose here is to develop a
broad collection of instructional activities that offer learning choices for
each of the intelligences. You may wish to use these intelligences as paths
for learning.
Students have a range of strengths and weaknesses, and the effective
teacher can put into action lessons that provide learning activities that
speak to a wide assortment of these intelligences. By doing so, the teacher
can provide the best learning opportunities for students who have differ-
ent strengths in each intelligence. Teachers are also encouraged to plan
their lesson activities with these intelligences in mind.
Gardner’s work can help you add excitement to the ways you teach
and the projects you assign. It can also help you find out more about your
 Creativity, Innovation, and Differentiation 13

students, the ways they learn best and what they like to do. The activities
in this book look at student activities using DI. We explain what differen-
tiation would look like and sound like in the classroom.

ACTIVITIES THAT REFLECT THE MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE

THEORY

1. Upper elementary and middle school students can comprehend the

multiple intelligence (MI) theory. One way to discover students’ interests
and strengths is to explain the MI theory to them and provide them with
a list of possible activities.
2. Ask your students to review the MI activities list and note which
ones they like the most. Make sure your students understand that the
purpose of this activity is to find out students’ learning strengths.

Student Actions: Using Direct Instruction

Read the lists and underline all the MI activities you enjoy doing,
presenting, or performing. Here are some possibilities:
linguistic intelligence musical intelligence
writing an article singing a rap song
developing a newscast giving a musical presentation
making a plan explaining music similarities
describing a procedure demonstrating rhythmic patterns
writing a letter performing music
writing a play
interpreting a text or a piece of spatial intelligence
writing
illustrating, sketching
conducting an interview
creating a slideshow, chart, map
debating or graph
creating a piece of art
logical-mathematical intelligence drawing, painting, videotaping
designing and conducting an
experiment
interpersonal intelligence
describing patterns
participating in a service project
making up analogies to explain
conducting a meeting
14 Chapter 1

solving a problem
teaching someone
inventing a code
consoling others
designing a website
advising a friend or fictional
character
bodily-kinesthetic intelligence
using creative movement intrapersonal intelligence
designing task or puzzle cards writing a journal entry
building or constructing something describing one of your values
bringing materials to demonstrate assessing your work
using technology to explain setting and pursuing a goal
something
reflecting on emotions
using the body to persuade or
dreaming
support others

creative
naturalist intelligence
imagining, creating
preparing an observation notebook
describing changes in the
environment analytic
caring for pets, wildlife, gardens, or reviewing basic skills
parks
using binoculars, telescopes, or
contextual
microscopes
being street smart
photographing natural objects

3. Once students have expressed their choices, have them do some

activities to help them remember the intelligences. We like having stu-
dents work with a partner and create activities.
4. Introduce various learning styles:
Mastery style learner—concrete learner using a step-by-step process;
learns sequentially.
Understanding style learner—focuses on ideas and abstractions; learns
through a process of questioning.
Self-expressive style learner—looks for images; uses feelings and emo-
tions.
 Creativity, Innovation, and Differentiation 15

Interpersonal style learner—focuses on the concrete, prefers to learn so-

cially, and judges learning in terms of its potential use in helping
others.
Encourage students to identify their preferred learning style and get to-
gether with their team to review learning preferences.
5. Build on students’ interests. When students do research either indi-
vidually or with a group, allow them to choose a project that appeals to
them. Students should also choose the best way for communicating their
understanding of the topic. In this way, students can optimize their learn-
ing by using their interests, concerns, learning styles, and intelligences.
6. Plan interesting lessons. There are many ways to plan interesting
lessons. Lesson plan ideas presented here are influenced by ideas as di-
verse as those of John Goodlad, Madeline Hunter, and Howard Gardner.

Lesson Planning
1. Set the tone of the lesson. Focus student attention and relate the
lesson to what students have done before. Stimulate interest.
2. Present the objectives and purpose of the lesson. What are students
supposed to learn? Why is it important?
3. Provide background information: what information is available?
Resources such as books, journals, videos, pictures, maps, charts,
teacher lectures, class discussions, or seat work may be listed.
4. Define procedures: what are students supposed to do? This in-
cludes examples and demonstrations as well as working direc-
tions.
5. Monitor students’ understanding. During the lesson, the teacher
may check students’ understanding and adjust the lesson if neces-
sary. Teachers invite questions and ask for clarification. A continu-
ous feedback process is always in place.
6. Provide guided practice experiences where students have a chance
to use the new knowledge presented under direct teacher supervi-
sion.
7. Offer students many opportunities for independent practice where
they can use their new knowledge and skills.
8. Evaluate and assess students’ work to show that students have
demonstrated an understanding of important concepts.

A SAMPLE MULTIPLE INTELLIGENCE LESSON PLAN

Differentiated Brain Lesson: How Neurons Work

The basic idea is to develop understanding of personal health,
changes in environments, and local challenges in science and technology.
16 Chapter 1

The human body and the brain are fascinating areas of study. The brain,
like the rest of the body, is composed of cells; but brain cells are different
from other cells. Neurons grow and develop when they are used actively,
and they diminish when they are not used.
All students must be involved in vigorous new learning or they risk
losing brain power. High interest/low vocabulary materials such as color-
ful charts are desirable when teaching new concepts to struggling learn-
ers. A chart of a neuron of the brain including cell body, dendrite, and
axon is a helpful teaching tool when introducing this concept.
This lesson focuses on the math standards of problem solving, estima-
tion, data analysis, logic, reasoning, communication, and math computa-
tions. The science standards of inquiry, life science, science and technolo-
gy, and personal and social perspectives are also part of the lesson.
Lesson Goals. The basic goal is to provide a dynamic experience with
each of the eight “intelligences” and map out a chart on construction
paper.
Procedures.
1. Divide the class into groups. Assign one type of intelligence to
each group.
2. Allow students time to prepare an activity that addresses their
intelligence. Each small group will give a three-minute presenta-
tion (with a large map) to the entire class. Let reluctant students
see, hear, touch, and write about new or difficult concepts. Use
materials that assess present learner needs. Allow the class to de-
velop their own problems.
Objective. To introduce students to the terminology of the brain and
how the brain functions, specifically how neurons function.
Grade Level. With modifications, K–8.
Materials. Paper, pens, markers, copy of a picture of the brain, the
neuron, songs about the brain, and model of the brain (recipe follows).

Brain “Recipe.”
Pour five cups of instant potato flakes, five cups of hot water, and two
cups of sand into a one-gallon ziplock bag.
Combine all ingredients; mix thoroughly. It should weigh about three
pounds and have a consistency of a real brain.
Background Information. No one understands exactly how the brain works.
But scientists know the answer lies within the billions of tiny cells, called
neurons or nerve cells, that make up the brain. All the body’s feelings and
thoughts are caused by the electrical and chemical signals passing from
one neuron to the next. A neuron looks like a tiny octopus but with many
more tentacles (some have several thousand). Neurons carry signals
 Creativity, Innovation, and Differentiation 17

throughout the brain that allow the brain to move, hear, see, taste, smell,
remember, feel, and think.
Procedure.
1. Make a model of the brain to show to the class. The teacher dis-
plays the brain and says, “The smell of a flower, the memory of a
walk in the park, the pain of stepping on a nail—these experiences
are made possible by the three pounds of tissue in our heads—The
Brain!”
2. Show a picture of the neuron and mention its various parts.
3. Have the students label the parts of the neuron and color them, if
desired.

Activity 1—Message Transmission: Explaining How the Nerve Cells (Neurons)

Work
A message traveling in the nervous system of the brain can go two
hundred miles per hour. These signals are transmitted from neuron to
neuron across synapses.
1. Instruct students to get into groups of five. Each group should
choose a group leader. Include all students, even those who seem
not interested.
2. Direct students to stand up and form a circle. Each person is going
to be a neuron. Students should be an arm’s length away from the
next person.
3. When the group leader says “Go,” have one person from the group
start the signal transmission by slapping the hand of the adjacent
person. The second person then slaps the hand of the next, and so
on until the signal goes all the way around the circle and the trans-
mission is complete. Utilize materials that address learners’ needs.
Allow the entire class to become involved in this learning exercise.
This helps underachieving learners realize they can work success-
fully and have fun with peers.
Explanation. The hand that receives the slap is the “dendrite.” The middle
part of the student’s body is the “cell body.” The arm that gives the slap
to the next person is the “axon,” and the hand that gives the slap is the
“nerve terminal.” In between the hands of two people is the “synapse.”
Inquiry Questions. As the activity progresses, questions will arise such
as, “What are parts of a neuron?” A neuron is a tiny nerve cell, one of
billions that make up the brain. A neuron has three basic parts—the cell
body, the dendrites, and the axon. Have students make a simple model by
using their hand and spreading their fingers wide. The hand represents
the “cell body,” the fingers represent “dendrites” that bring information
to the cell body, and the arm represents the “axon” that takes information
18 Chapter 1

away from the cell body. Just as students wiggle their fingers, the den-
drites are constantly moving as they seek information.
If the neuron needs to send a message to another neuron, the message
is sent out through the axon. The wrist and forearm represent the axon.
When a neuron sends information down its axon to communicate with
another neuron, it never actually touches the other neuron. The message
goes from the axon of the sending neuron by “swimming” through the
space called the synapse. Neuroscientists define learning as two neurons
communicating with each other. They say neurons have “learned” when one
neuron sends a message to another neuron (Hannaford, 2005).

Activity 2—Connect the Dots

This exercise is used to illustrate the complexity of the connections of
the brain.
1. Have students draw ten dots on one side of a sheet of typing paper
and ten dots on the other side of the paper.
2. Tell students to imagine these dots represent neurons; assume each
neuron makes connections with the ten dots on the other side.
3. Then connect each dot on one side with the dots on the other side.
This is quite a simplification. Each neuron (dot) may actually make
thousands of connections with other neurons.
Another part of the activity is teaching brain songs to students: Teach a
small group of students the words and the melody of the songs. Include
struggling students in this song process. They will become the brain song
“experts.”
“I’ve Been Working on My Neurons”
(Sung to the tune “I’ve Been Working on the Railroad”)
I’ve been working on my neurons, all the livelong day.
I’ve been working on my neurons, just to make my dendrites play.
Can’t you hear the synapse snapping? Impulses bouncing to and fro,
Can’t you tell that I’ve been learning? See how much I know!
“Because I Have a Brain”
(Sung to the tune “If I Only Had a Brain” from the movie The Wizard of
Oz)
I can flex a muscle tightly, or tap my finger lightly,
It’s because I have a brain,
I can swim in the river, though it’s cold and makes me shiver,
Just because I have a brain.
I am really fascinated, to be coordinated,
It’s because I have a brain.
I can see lots of faces, feel the pain of wearing braces,
Just because I have a brain.
 Creativity, Innovation, and Differentiation 19

Oh, I appreciate the many things that I can do.

I can taste a chicken stew, or smell perfume, or touch the dew.
I am heavy with emotion, and often have the notion,
That life is never plain.
I have lots of personality, a sense of true reality,
Because I have a brain.

Activity 3—Introduce Graphic Organizers

Graphic organizers help students remember information. Mind map-
ping or webbing shows the main idea and supporting details. To make a
mind map, write an idea or concept in the middle of a sheet of paper.
Draw a circle around it. Then draw a line from the circle. Write a word or
phrase to describe the concept. Draw other lines coming from the circle.
Then have students draw pictures to represent their descriptions. Stu-
dents can start mapping by examining the skill section of their map.
Encourage students to talk about word choices and their picture crea-
tions.

Activity 4—Review the Physical Science Principles of Matter

The beginning activities on principles of matter shown here help stu-
dents reveal their exciting curiosity as they observe, manipulate, and sort
common objects and materials in their environment. They continue to
explain their ideas of the world as they work with the National Science
Education Standards.

Science Standards on the Principles of Matter

Children should be aware of the following:
• The properties of objects and materials (K–4).
• The way properties of matter change (5–8).

Ideas and Principles That Help Explain the National Science Standards
• Many things in the natural world can be observed (K–4).
• Natural things are made of many materials (5–8).
• Properties are often used to sort or group objects or materials (K–4).
• Materials come in different forms—solids, liquids, and gases (K–4).

Properties of Objects and Materials

Material objects are described by their distinctive properties. Students
investigate and classify objects in many different ways. Some objectives
follow:
20 Chapter 1

• Describing characteristics of objects as something that you can see,

hear, smell, touch, or taste
• Creating ways to describe and sort objects based on their properties
• Using descriptions and classifications to show important character-
istics of objects such as balls and buttons
Materials for each group follow:
• A variety of different buttons
• One tray to hold the buttons being observed

How Buttons Are the Same and Different

Engage. With children in a large group, present an object like a ball.
Ask students to tell what they know about the object. Using their senses
can they describe it? What is its shape and color, and what does it feel
like? Then, have them look at a large button. Have them use their senses
to observe it. In their groups, have them make observations and play a
game with lots of buttons.
Explore. Organize children into collaborative groups. Each small
group gets about fifteen different buttons on a tray. Have children ob-
serve the buttons and describe them to each other. A child describes the
button’s shape, color, and other properties like the number of holes it has.
Explain. As a class, ask “What words can you use to describe the
buttons you observed?” Tell students the scientific word used to describe
objects is property. A property refers to a characteristic of an object that
can be observed with your senses. Review other uses of the word property
with the students; emphasize its use in science.
Questioning. What are buttons used for? How do they work?
Evaluate. Have students select a button. Write as many words as you
can to describe its properties.

MORE SCIENCE AND MATH ACTIVITIES

The activities presented here, unless otherwise specified, are designed for
K-–8 students. The following activity was planned with elementary stu-
dents in mind, but with creativity, the techniques can be adapted for
middle school learners.

1. To Observe and Describe Using the Five Senses

Description. This primary activity uses the five senses. The process
skills of observing, inferring, communicating (sharing), and hypothesiz-
ing are introduced.
Planning Group. Members should arrange the classroom and materials.
Objectives.
 Creativity, Innovation, and Differentiation 21

1. Students will observe and make inferences with their senses.

2. Students will talk and share their ideas with others.
3. Students will ask questions and make hypotheses based on their
senses.
4. Struggling students will verify their thinking through personal ex-
periences.
Procedures.
1. Select several objects that are safe to touch, smell, and taste (cook-
ies, oranges, apples, and popcorn are good choices).
2. Put one object in a clean paper bag, and ask students to feel the
object without looking inside.
3. Have students describe what they feel.
4. Have students smell the object without peeking.
5. Encourage students to describe what they smell.
6. Shake the bag and invite students to describe what they hear.
7. Next, you may wish to have students taste the object and describe
it.
8. Finally, allow students to look at the object and verify their guess-
es.
It’s important to discuss with students the strategies they used in making
their guesses. Point out the invaluable role of others. Ask what they
learned from other classmates about making inferences. Experiences in
inferring and describing give students an opportunity to develop and
refine many science and math concepts.
Students may use vague or emotional terms rather than specific de-
scriptive words. It’s important to discuss the communication process,
wherein words are most effective in describing what they did. Let stu-
dents discuss which words give better descriptions. Have students relate
their everyday language to math and science language and symbols. The
following activity gives struggling students a chance to refine their skills.
Evaluation. Have students share their experiences through language
and cultural anecdotes. (Language materials designed to teach non-
English-speaking students are valuable when helping the struggling
student.)

2. What Do You See?

Description. Grades 3–4. This group center activity involves the pro-
cess skills of observing, inferring, measuring, comparing, and recording.
Objectives.
1. Students will be able to observe and record data accurately.
2. Students will use simple scientific equipment.
22 Chapter 1

3. Students will demonstrate the ability to work in groups in an orga-

nized and productive manner.
Process Skills. Measuring, comparing, inferring, ordering by distance, for-
mulating conclusions.
Planning Group. Members should arrange the classroom and materials.
Materials.
1. Five samples: a house fly, a computer disk, a flower, a piece of
fabric, and a sample of paper. (Other samples may be substituted
for those listed. It is best to keep the groups to three or four stu-
dents in size; so, if you have a larger class, you can add a category
or two or simply assign the same category to a couple of groups.)
2. Ten magnifying glasses.
3. Five rulers.
4. An observation sheet for each student.
Procedure.
1. Five stations (each including two magnifying glasses, one of the
samples listed above, and a ruler) are set up around the room.
2. Each student receives an observation sheet.
3. Students are divided into five groups of three to four students
each.
4. Each group is assigned a station. At this station, the group has ten
minutes to record as many observations about the sample as pos-
sible.
5. Each student in the group, while using the magnifying glass and
the ruler, makes an observation for the group to record. Students
take turns as time allows.
6. As a class, students compare and discuss their observations.
7. Struggling students are actively involved whether they’re the
group leader or just part of the team. If students have difficulty,
encourage them to work together as a partnership.
Evaluation. Data sheets are evaluated on organization, observation skills,
and accuracy.

DI is a proven path to principles that can guide instruction; it provides a

useful vehicle for teachers who want to modify or adapt math, science,
or technology content. Free teacher-made lessons are available at
www.sharemylesson.com. The Share My Lesson site is a place where
teachers’ needs and their colleagues’ best lessons can connect. Teacher-
created resources are organized by grade level, subject, and type of lesson
plan. We have found it to be a useful and supportive site for teachers—
especially those who are now expected to base much of what they teach
on the Common Core State Standards.
 Creativity, Innovation, and Differentiation 23

CONSTRUCTING UNDERSTANDING IN A
DIFFERENTIATED CLASSROOM

The rapid advance of cognitive learning theories helped educators realize

the need for students to be more actively involved in their own construc-
tion of knowledge. Science and its mathematical and technological tools
have a lot to tell us about the future. Literature lets us in on other pos-
sibilities—and it helps us understand who we are.
Good stories have a lot to offer every subject. Unfortunately, many
stories that connect to math or science simply tell children and young
adults what mathematicians and scientists have found out about certain
phenomena. Too many books leave out the drama of discovery and the
trial/error work it took to solve a problem. Still, teachers can build on just
about any story with a differentiated mixture of problem solving, in-
quiry, discussion, and a little extra detail.
Successful differentiated classrooms are full of energy, excitement,
and the possibility of teaching all students no matter what learning mo-
dality they prefer. Learning math and science is a process that is different
for each student. In addition to individual aptitudes, teamwork skills and
having a positive attitude matter.
So it is little wonder that many educators find DI useful in moving
students with a variety of academic strengths in the direction of viewing
education as the way to light up their future. With all the positive pos-
sibilities, teachers are coming to view DI as an important ally in meeting
the needs of students with increasingly diverse levels of prior knowl-
edge, interests, and cultural backgrounds.
DI is responsive to specific individual and small group needs—as well
as to class performance as a whole. By preparing lessons that differentiate
learning, teachers can meet the needs of every student in today’s diverse
classrooms. It has proven to be a solid asset for teachers trying to reach
students who are performing at varying levels in science and math.
DI is an organized, yet flexible, way of adjusting teaching and learn-
ing to meet students where they are and helping them accomplish more
academically. By creating a differentiated classroom, teachers can do a
better job of helping students become self-reliant and motivated learners.
Clearly, it is a good way to meet both individual and group needs in the
regular classroom.
Since students don’t all learn at the same rate, it is important to con-
sider the pacing of math, science, and technology instruction when figur-
ing out the differentiated options. While building on group cooperation,
you can provide different individual paths for learning math and science.
When it comes to innovation, there is real power in coupling teamwork
with individual accountability.
By having the opportunity to collaboratively explore ideas, even un-
motivated students tend to respond to appropriate challenges and enjoy
24 Chapter 1

learning about science and math. Flexible grouping and pacing, tiered
assignments, performance assessment, and other factors associated with
DI can inject fresh energy into math, science, and technology instruction.
Teachers often find that it is a good idea to make sure students have
access to more good ideas and problems than they can work on. This
leaves more room for choice and serendipity; the ideas that have been set
aside can inspire students to creatively rethink whatever it is they are
focusing on. In a differentiated classroom, teachers often encourage stu-
dents to bring ideas forward without fear of premature evaluation. Not
every idea is good, but when students feel they aren’t being listened to,
they tend to go silent.
Students’ personal interests, learning profiles, and curiosity about a
specific topic or skill are major considerations in differentiated problem
solving and inquiry activities. An added advantage to such an approach
is that teachers often report that they enjoy teaching more (Sutman,
Schmuckler, & Woodfield, 2008).
Experience has shown that widespread changes in curriculum and
instruction are most successful where there are good relationships among
teachers, principals, and parents. Local school districts, policymakers,
and professional associations are natural allies in the effort to differen-
tiate and improve instruction.
Teachers have always been able to do a lot on their own, but systemic
restructuring is easier and more sustainable when there is an arrange-
ment for consultation between the major stakeholders.
Sometimes teachers have to proceed on their own. Rather than wait-
ing for a compelling vision from on high, educators may have to compose
and make the final edit of their own narrative.

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

Teachers and students can profit by looking for specific problems and
inquiry paths that are likely to prompt certain intellectual tools. The basic
idea is to encourage the development of imaginative mathematical, scien-
tific, and technological ideas. In the classroom, this means encouraging
intellectual curiosity and helping students develop the kind of thinking
skills they need to approach both predictable and unpredictable situa-
tions and problems.
It is usually important for students to efficiently finish what they start.
But they need to know that there are times when it is best to leave an
unsolvable problem and move forward. (Often what’s left behind simply
fades into irrelevancy.) A good example: 80 percent of a problem can be
solved—and it may not be worth the time or trouble to deal with the
remaining 20 percent. Just get on with it. Tenacity may be a key to suc-
cess, but obsession dissipates productive energy.
 Creativity, Innovation, and Differentiation 25

When it comes to promoting creativity and innovation, working

smarter can be better than working harder. Tapping into your natural
creative resources gives you the power to get over obstacles and open up
new opportunities. Also, multiple experiences in different contexts, at
different levels of complexity, seem to lend themselves to the develop-
ment of an innovative spirit (Michalewicz & Michalewicz, 2008).
In the classroom, creativity and innovation can also be fostered by
encouraging students to express themselves using multiple media—espe-
cially when learners engage in tasks that require open-ended problem
solving, collaborative inquiry, and the application of reasoning skills.
Some of the intellectual tools that support innovative mathematicians,
scientists, and technology innovators may also be appropriate for chil-
dren and young adults. Also, mathematical problem solving, scientific
inquiry, and technological tools can motivate and encourage all students
to ask thoughtful questions.
Learning is amplified when students comprehend the nature of the
subjects being studied and how they are relevant to their lives. In the
classroom, the process is helped along when teachers encourage a diver-
sity of creative approaches that foster connection and conversation.
Although it is possible to get at critical and creative thinking directly,
it may sometimes be better to integrate them into the context of mathe-
matical and scientific situations so that students see the relevancy to basic
content.
Creative and innovative behavior can be stimulated when students
learn how to connect prior knowledge to observations. The next step is
using evidence to increase personal knowledge about how the world
works. Differentiation comes into play because abilities related to prob-
lem solving, inquiry, and innovative approaches develop over time and
at different rates.
When it comes to good math, science, and technology instruction one
of the keys to quality is building the investigative skills and the inventive
habits of the mind into the daily classroom routine.
In school and in life, it is not always what you know that counts but
rather how rapidly you can learn and if you can make good use of your
imagination. Creativity and innovation are not magic; there are many
things you can do to increase the odds that new ideas and approaches
will come up.
There are innovative possibilities in everything from the classroom to
the living room. Some new ideas work out, some don’t. Learn to build on
the inevitable failures. And remember, creative ideas and approaches are
renewable resources that can be accessed at any time (Seelig, 2012).
Ingenuity is not the exclusive property of creative types like artists
and inventors. All of us have creative potential. The same can be said for
groups, organizations, and even entire societies.
26 Chapter 1

When it comes to schooling, we need to offer students a vision that is

both realistic and inspiring. And that vision needs to be ambitious
enough to win against the world’s best in mathematics, science, technolo-
gy, and culture.
We are all inventers of our own future.
And creativity is at the heart of invention.
—Tina Seelig

REFERENCES

Aleixandre, M., & Erduran, S. (2008). Argumentation in science education: Perspectives

from classroom-based research. Dordrecht, Netherlands: Springer.
Bass, J., Contant, T., & Carin, A. (2009). Activities for teaching science as inquiry (7th ed.).
Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Estrin, J. (2009). Closing the innovation gap: Reigniting the spark of creativity in a global
economy. New York: McGraw-Hill.
Hannaford, C. (2005). Smart moves: Why learning is not all in your head. Salt Lake City,
UT: Great River Books.
Lehrer, J. (2012). Imagine: How creativity works. Boston, New York: Houghton Mifflin
Harcourt.
Michalewicz, Z., & Michalewicz, M. (2008). Puzzle-based learning: An introduction to
critical thinking, mathematics, and problem solving. Melbourne, Australia: Hybrid Pub-
lishers.
Seelig, T. (2012). inGenius: A crash course on creativity . New York: HarperCollins.
Sutman, F., Schmuckler, J., & Woodfield, J. (2008). The science quest: Using inquiry/
discovery to enhance student learning, grades 7 – 12. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Tomlinson, C., Brimijoin, K., & Narvaez, L. (2008). The differentiated school: Making
revolutionary changes in teaching and learning. Alexandria, VA: Association for Super-
vision and Curriculum Development.
Tough, P. (2012). How children succeed: Grit, curiosity, and the hidden power of character.
New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt.

RESOURCES AND SUGGESTED READINGS

Carr, N. (2009). The big switch: Rewiring the world, from Edison to Google. New York:
W.W. Norton.
City, E. A., Elmore, R. F., Fiarman, S. E., & Teitel, L. (2009). Instructional rounds in
education: A network approach to improving teaching and learning. Cambridge, MA:
Harvard Education Press.
Costantino, P., De Lorenzo, M., & Kobrinski, E. (2006). Developing a professional teaching
portfolio: A guide for success (2nd ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon (Pearson Education).
Drapeau, P. (2004). Differentiated instruction: Making it work. New York: Teaching Re-
sources (Scholastic).
Gardner, H. (2006). Multiple intelligences: New horizons. New York: Basic Books.
Helprin, M. (2009). Digital barbarism: A writer’s manifesto. New York: HarperCollins.
Marzano, R. J. (2007). The art and science of teaching: A comprehensive framework for
effective instruction. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum
Development.
Restak, R. M. (2009). Think smart: A neuroscientist’s prescription for improving your brain’s
performance. New York: Riverhead Books.
 TWO
Creative and Innovative Thinking
Differentiated Inquiry, Open-Ended Problem Solving,
and Innovation

Imagination is the beginning of creation

You imagine what you desire
You will what you imagine
You create what you will
—George Bernard Shaw
Creative and innovative thinking are included in any recipe for coming
up with new ideas that have value. Another ingredient is the ability to
generate original ideas and imaginative responses to problems or situa-
tions. Creative expression in a world of constant flux also has a lot to do
with original insight, self-expression, and communication.
Definitions vary, but academic thinking skills involve the mental pro-
cesses that are needed to organize, understand, and apply certain princi-
ples of complex subjects like math, science, and technology. Critical
thinking is an intellectually disciplined way of actively and skillfully con-
ceptualizing, analyzing, synthesizing, and applying information.
Here special attention is given to creative thinking, mathematical
problem solving, scientific inquiry, and technology-related innovation—
innovation thought of as a place where thinking meets up with problems
and inquiry to do new things and old things in new ways. The process is
usually collaborative and success has a lot to do with the quality of the
group.
Different types of thinking and imaginative processes frequently over-
lap and reinforce each other. The human mind has a natural ability to
figure out what kind of creativity and thought processes are needed to

27
28 Chapter 2

solve a particular problem. Whatever the mix of reasoning skills, the

development of powerful new ideas has a lot to do with being able to
challenge the conventional approaches employed to make sense of the
world.
Observation, calculation, experiences, reflection, reasoning, and com-
munication can all serve as a guide to understanding, belief, and creative
action. Ideas and concepts from one field often lead to new approaches in
another. The process is helped along when knowledge, experience, and
disposition connect to the reality surrounding a topic or situation.
As far as the classroom is concerned, it is up to teachers to create
opportunities for students to make connections between concepts and
come up with new ideas. When it comes to promoting thoughtful prob-
lem solving and inquiry, it makes sense to encourage learners to ask
questions, investigate, and use evidence to come up with imaginative
answers.
Problem solving is at the heart of mathematics; inquiry is equally impor-
tant to science education. Both are compatible with developing highly
refined reasoning skills. And both subjects are more likely to thrive when
differentiated learning is used as an instructional framework for encour-
aging creativity and innovative ideas in the classroom.
Differentiated instruction (DI) is an approach that can help teachers
figure out how to teach. Subject matter standards are more likely to sug-
gest what should be taught. DI involves making subjects more accessible
to a wider array of student interests, needs, and learning styles. It recog-
nizes the fact that learners have views, perspectives, preferences, and
strengths that need to be taken into account.
When teachers combine opportunities for choice and discovery with
intelligent risk taking, the result is often the bubbling up of innovative
energy and imaginative ideas. The lesson: if we can imagine it and gather
the strength of will to sustain it, then we can create it.

THOUGHTFUL PROBLEM SOLVING AND INQUIRY

Creative and innovative thinking are important skills needed to meet the
challenges of living and succeeding in the twenty-first century (Robinson,
2011). These skills should be near the center of education; they amplify
enthusiasm for learning and generate new solutions for the most pressing
problems of today and tomorrow.
An education that ignores new realities and imaginative approaches is
incomplete. Viewing math, science, and technology as creative subjects
amplifies subject matter competency, thinking skills, and innovative ten-
dencies.
Creative and innovative thinking is now such an important part of
analytical problem solving in math and collaborative inquiry in science
 Creative and Innovative Thinking 29

that it can’t be ignored. The worth of the ideas created has a lot to do with
how the problem being explored is defined.
Standards-based activities are designed to help students open new
doors to thinking and learning possibilities in math, science, and technol-
ogy. Along with content, there is emphasis on thinking, not telling stu-
dents what to think.
Although content standards and research-based activities are impor-
tant, teachers need to pay close attention to learning targets and explain
them to students. Student goal setting, self-assessment, and higher order
thinking skills can be helped along by differentiating instructional con-
tent (Moss & Brookhart, 2012).
In a differentiated classroom, a student’s readiness, interests, learning
profile, and teamwork skills all matter. Collaborative thoughtfulness
goes hand in hand with intellectual curiosity and open-minded persis-
tence.
Effective teachers know that it is possible to respond to differing
needs even when students are working with a partner or in small groups.
This is especially true if lessons are designed so that they are meaningful
for every individual. Also, the creative and critical imagination is am-
plified by appealing to different interests in a community of responsible
and reflective learners.
Teachers who choose to differentiate lessons begin where students are
and build on the belief that students learn in quite different ways. The
basic idea is that varying the speed and complexity of instruction helps
each individual reason and learn as deeply and as efficiently as possible.
To increase student motivation, teachers often encourage students to
put thinking skills to work in analyzing and solving problems that are
part of the world within which they live. Whether it’s in or out of school,
innovation does not occur in a vacuum; rather, it draws on the ability to
acquire knowledge and apply it in new situations.
Annoying speed bumps are one of the costs of innovation. At any age,
innovators must trust themselves to push through roadblocks to achieve
their vision; at the same time, they must balance being open to new ideas
and continual self and peer assessment. Throughout the process of iden-
tifying needs, asking good questions, and trying out new ideas, self-
confidence without sufficient questioning is a recipe for disaster.
Nurturing the idea that twenty-first-century innovation involves risk
and effort is part of helping students come up with fresh answers to the
questions posed and the data collected. Teachers can promote creativity
by making collaboration a normal part of the daily routine and encourag-
ing students to express themselves using multiple media.
The fact that the basic skills of one generation may prove inadequate
for the next makes it difficult for teachers, parents, communities, and the
students themselves. Many factors that influence thinking are generated
far from the educational and family worlds.
30 Chapter 2

Popular culture may be an oxymoron, but children who grow up in a

nonlinear world of television, computers, iPads, video games, and related
Internet associates may have an advantage over adults in adapting to the
chaotic world of technological change.
Will the future place a higher value on the length of a person’s atten-
tion span or on their ability to do many things at the same time? With a
multitasking tidal wave crashing over today’s youngsters, it seems un-
likely they will be as able as their elders when it comes to sustaining the
more linear aspects of thoughtful inquiry. However this all gets sorted
out, you can be sure that creativity and innovation will be part of the
basic skill fabric needed for success in the world of tomorrow.
In a rapidly changing innovation-driven world, economic develop-
ment comes from new techniques and processes that are fueled by the
imagination. As Americans discovered after World War II, big invest-
ments in innovation, research, and education (human capital) led to the
dissemination and commercialization of new ideas. Why turn stingy
many decades later?
Math, science, technology, and fresh ideas are more than ever the keys
to a productive future. Another thing that hasn’t changed in the twenty-
first century is that a nation’s growth and prosperity depend on some
combination of natural resources, ideas, and innovation.

THE SOCIETAL IMPACT ON CREATIVE AND CRITICAL THINKING

Thinking skills, particularly those related to innovation, extend over time

and have a lot to do with originality, adaptiveness, and accomplishment.
New curriculum standards and teaching methods pay closer attention
than ever to problem solving and inquiry related to the world outside of
school (Schliemann, Carraher, & Brizuela, 2007).
One of the ways of doing this is by encouraging student thought
processes that are similar to those used by mathematicians, scientists, and
technology experts as they go about designing real-world applications.
The basic approach is to collect data, select out information, and reflect
on what it might mean for the natural world.
Developing a deep understanding of a subject or process naturally
leads to application. Along the way, it is important that neither science
nor its mathematical and technological tools be separated from human-
ism. And remember, many people are systematically too confident. For
example, there is often a tendency to put too much weight on information
you like and too little on data that contradicts your assumptions.
Often breakthroughs come from those who are well prepared in fields
that are different from where the discovery takes place. But whether it is
a professional from another field—or an amateur—the results are usually
 Creative and Innovative Thinking 31

best when there is some kind of interaction with professionals in the

subject (Holt, 2012).
As students develop critical thinking skills, it becomes more natural to
approach a task in a realistic way, while leaving room for unconvention-
al, spontaneous, flexible, and original ideas. Sometimes this is done with-
in a preexisting paradigm; sometimes it means breaking out of conven-
tional boundaries.
Creative and innovative thinking are constructed by the mind and
strongly influenced by personal experience. Various attributes of
thoughtfulness (like intelligence, personality, and values) can naturally
develop along with math, science, and technology skills. Science, for ex-
ample, teaches respect for evidence, doubt, and opposing points of view.
The quality of an individual’s thinking is also influenced by his or her
personal, academic, and cultural backgrounds.
Various elements of thoughtfulness develop along with other attrib-
utes of functional intelligence and personality. Using math, science, and
related technological tools forces us to change ourselves by making us
think and rethink what we know. As students go about this process, they
grow better at reasoning inductively and deductively across the curricu-
lum (Brandt, 2009).
Being good at thinking means being able to form alternative explana-
tions and demonstrate intellectual curiosity in a manner that is flexible,
elaborate, and novel to the thinker. As part of their responsibility to the
future, teachers must respect the unique ideas developed by children and
encourage the development of thinking skills. It seems clear that many
future problems will be solved by people who are flexible, open, original,
and creatively productive.
Good creative and innovative thinking activities encourage students
to analyze underlying assumptions that influence meanings and interpre-
tations of information. Such intellectually demanding thinking leads chil-
dren to identify, clarify, problem solve, and become more innovative.
The questions explored can be as general as “Are there limits to how
much of the physical universe we can understand?” and “How secure are
the foundations of knowledge in science and mathematics?” Questions
can be as specific as “How did you figure that one out?” or “What does it
mean?” The wording may be changed, but children are never too young
to analyze the underlying assumptions that influence meanings. And
they are never too young to question the interpretation of findings and
participate in the act of knowledge creation.
There is always the danger of weakening creative and innovative pos-
sibilities. We undermine our chances by getting caught up in what David
Whyte calls “the eddies and swirls of everyday existence. I turned my
face for a moment and it became my life.”
Reasoning, criticism, logical analysis, searching for supporting evi-
dence, and evaluating outcomes might all be considered part of critical
32 Chapter 2

thinking. Activities that support this involve clarifying problems, consid-

ering alternatives, strategic planning, problem solving, and analyzing the
results. Creative thinking may be viewed as fluency, flexibility, original-
ity, and elaboration.
Skills developed in this area would result in the creation of unique
expressions, original conceptions, novel approaches, and demonstrations
of the ability to see things in imaginative and unusual ways. Problem
solving and implementation are part of the fabric of all thinking skills.
Enriching the minds of our students involves encouraging them to devel-
op skills that lead to high-quality creative and innovative thinking/appli-
cation.

THINKING ACROSS SUBJECTS IN EVERYDAY LIFE

One way to look at modes of thought across disciplines is through sym-

bolic, imagic, and affective thinking. Symbolic includes using words, num-
bers, and other symbol systems. Imagic is visual, spatial, tonal, and kines-
thetic. It involves the kind of imagery used by mathematicians and archi-
tects; sound relationships explored by musicians; and the movement
found in sports and dance. Affective thinking works with emotions and
feeling to direct inquiry. All three modes of thinking build on reasoning
and intuiting to connect the analytic to the intuitive.
As Microsoft founder Bill Gates suggested, “You need to understand
things in order to invent things beyond them.” The power of inquiry in
math, science, and technology lies in its possibility for building on alter-
native ways of knowing. Along with open-ended problem solving, in-
quiry also encourages diversity of thought and increases the chances of
making creative connections. Creativity might be changing how a partic-
ular subject is studied or changing some of the elements of personal life.
An innovative mathematician might change the way mathematics is
applied to scientific and technological problems. In our personal lives, for
example, this could mean changing day-to-day practices to allow for an
hour of exercise to improve the general quality of life. An example that is
more relevant to children and young adults at school would be clever
hypothesis formation.
Effective instruction in mathematics, science, and technology pro-
vokes students to create their own questions and think of innovative
applications in the world outside of school. As students become inter-
ested in such intellectual invention, it is important that the teacher hold
off on their judgments and let the evidence itself be the judge.
Mathematicians, scientists, and technology workers use the tools of
science and mathematics to collect, examine, and think about the data.
Conclusions are formulated and outcomes explained. Like scientists, stu-
 Creative and Innovative Thinking 33

dents can reason, analyze, criticize, and advocate—while avoiding dan-

gerous materials and problems that are developmentally inappropriate.
They can also learn to think spontaneously, flexibly, and originally.
An understanding of the physical and biological universe is most solid
when it builds on a child’s own experiences and discoveries. By modeling
thoughtful behavior, teachers can help students become self-confident
enough to resolve inconsistencies and uncover truths in mathematics,
science, and technology.
Developing methods that extend creative, critical, and innovative
thinking across the curriculum strategy should be supported by subject
matter standards. Making thinking skills part of math and science in-
struction involves developing the ability to assess information and make
creative and critical judgments.
Some teachers integrate thinking skills into each subject in the curricu-
lum. Others directly teach children thinking skills and strategies. Using
metacognitive (thinking about thinking) strategies is a second approach.
Another conceptual framework synthesizes all three and adds the heavy
use of visual images to soften the boundaries of subject matter and en-
courage thinking across disciplines. Of course, many teachers pragmati-
cally borrow from all the available possibilities to tailor their own lessons
for interdisciplinary inquiry in mathematics, science, and technology.

MULTIPLE THINKING POINTS TO KNOWLEDGE

Recognizing thinking skills as directly involved in successful learning

throughout the curriculum doesn’t come as a surprise to most teachers.
There is, however, a tendency to think of the scientific method and math-
ematics problem solving as clear and clean: you formulate hypotheses,
organize experiments, collect data, analyze, and interpret the findings.
As scientists, mathematicians, and engineers who are doing original
work will tell you, the reality is far less clear-cut and tidy. There are many
false starts and detours as they work through alternatives to discover
relationships and invent new perspectives. What makes it satisfying for
many scientists is the sheer power of searching at the frontiers of knowl-
edge. This passion for inquiry and feeling outward into space for new
experiences is just as important for children.
Creative and critical thinkers tend to be reflective, to think problems
through, to be flexible in considering original solutions, and to be curious
enough to pose and expand new questions. The research evidence sug-
gests that giving students multiple perspectives and entry points into
subject matter increases thinking and learning (Dean et al., 2012). The
implication here is that ideas about how students learn a subject need to
be pluralized.
34 Chapter 2

Almost any important concept can be approached from multiple di-

rections—emphasizing understanding and making meaningful connec-
tions across subjects. This means making available learning possibilities
and resources (human and technological) that might appeal to pupils
with very different learning styles and cultural backgrounds.
Tomorrow’s schools will need to incorporate frameworks for learning
that build on the multiple ways of thinking and representing knowledge.
By organizing lessons that respect multiple entry points to knowledge,
teachers can enhance thoughtfulness and make the school a home for
inquiry. If many of today’s dreams, possibilities, and admired models are
going to be put into widespread practice, then we all must be more cou-
rageous in helping move good practice from the margins into the schools,
the media, and the home.
A child’s thinking ability evolves through a dynamic of personal abil-
ities, social values, academic subjects, and out-of-school experiences. We
are all involved, directly or indirectly, in the education of children. Revi-
talizing the educational process means recognizing the incomplete mod-
els of how the world works that children bring to school with them. From
birth, children are busy making sense of their environment. They do this
by curiously grappling with the confusing, learning ways of understand-
ing, developing schemes for thinking, and finding meaning.
As they enter school, children can sing songs, tell stories, and use their
own processes of reasoning and intuiting to understand their surround-
ings. By the time they reach first grade, they have already developed a
rich body of knowledge about the world around them. The best begin-
ning can be extended in school when the teacher cultivates a broad dispo-
sition to critical thinking throughout the year. Working with natural
rhythms is important, but it takes learning-centered instruction to contin-
ue the process of developing mature thinkers.

CONSTRUCTIVISM: JOINING THINKING, CONTENT,

AND EXPERIENCE

By viewing individual reality as building on real-life experiences, this

book borrows heavily from the constructivists. Briefly, constructivism is a
learning theory that suggests knowledge is most effectively acquired by
evoking personal meaning in the learner. Although there are differences
in terminology, there are many similarities with Piagetian theory.
Math, science, and technology lessons may begin with real materials,
invite interactive learning, and allow children to explore the various di-
mensions of thoughtfulness, subject matter, and real-world applications.
The goal is to help children construct a new set of expectations and estab-
lish a new state of understanding.
 Creative and Innovative Thinking 35

When students make sense of something by connecting to a set of

personal everyday experiences, constructivists may call it “viable knowl-
edge.” Whether or not they are familiar with the terms being tossed
about, good teachers have always connected academic goals to practical
problem solving and students’ life experiences. Using such a real-world
base embeds thinking skills into the curriculum so that students are in-
tensely involved in reasoning, elaboration, hypothesis formation, and
problem solving. Such inquiry-based learning can’t be isolated within
rigid disciplinary boundaries.
Developing mature thinkers who are able to acquire and use knowl-
edge means educating minds rather than training memories. Sometimes
the acquisition of enhanced thinking skills can be well structured and
planned; at other times, it’s a chance encounter formed by a crazy colli-
sion of elements. The ability to raise powerful interdisciplinary questions
about what’s being read, viewed, or heard is a dimension of thinking that
makes a powerful contribution to the construction of meaning.
When motivated to reason intelligently, children come up with good
decision-making options and elaborations. Out of this come insightful
creations that suggest possibilities for action. As all of these elements
come together, they form the core of effective thinking and learning.

DIMENSIONS OF THINKING

Complex sequences of thinking are required to explore the physical and

biological universe. Really proficient learners almost automatically inte-
grate elements of efficient thinking into their repertoire of techniques for
meaning making. Students who know the subject and can reason well are
less likely to get caught up in scientific misconceptions.
For those who don’t find critical and creative thinking quite so auto-
matic, there is good news. Most of these skills can be developed and
amplified by effective instruction. There is strong evidence that many
students—especially the youngest and lower achievers—need explicit
and sustained instruction to become skilled in thinking and monitoring
their own thinking processes.
In addition to teaching about specific thinking skills, students need
guidance in how to apply these skills to science/math inquiry. Mental
autonomy, creative expression, and critical thinking develop most fully
when connected to the child’s home and school environment. Good intel-
lectual habits and arousing a passion for math, science, and technology
are the best antidotes for the many flavors of pseudoscience.
Content knowledge, critical thinking skills, and a certain clarity of
logic have proven to be the best guards against innumeracy and parasci-
ence. Thinking processes can help us sort out the real from the unreal.
36 Chapter 2

They can also help us as we move toward the acquisition of scientific

knowledge.
Key indicators of teaching for thoughtfulness include the following:
1. Students are given sufficient time to think before being required to
answer questions.
2. Interaction focuses on sustained examination of a few topics rather
than superficial coverage of many.
3. The teacher presses students to clarify or justify their opinions
rather than accepting and reinforcing them indiscriminately.
4. Interactions are characterized by substantive coherence and conti-
nuity.
5. The teacher models the characteristics of a thoughtful person. This
means showing interest in students’ ideas and their suggestions for
solving problems, modeling problem-solving processes rather than
just giving answers, and acknowledging the difficulties involved
in gaining a clear understanding of problematic topics.
6. Students generate original and unconventional ideas in the course
of the interaction.
Workshops on critical and scientific thinking often focus on four or five
dimensions. Many focus on the positive learning attitudes toward and
the thinking that leads to the acquisition and integration of knowledge.
This way, content is tied to the teaching of thinking.
The basic idea is to work toward developing the thinking involved in
refining and extending knowledge, productive habits of the mind, and
the thoughtful use of knowledge. Regardless of the approach, the six
steps shown above have proven popular with math and science educa-
tors. This is partly because they are compatible with content, collabora-
tive interaction, and what teachers are learning about mathematical rea-
soning, scientific processes, problem solving, and real-world applica-
tions.

THE DIMENSIONS OF GOOD THINKING

AND STAFF DEVELOPMENT

Implementing new approaches to learning about mathematics, science,

and technology depends on teachers who are open to new ideas and
purposely invite reflective thinking. This means that both prospective
and practicing teachers need some practical experiences in problem solv-
ing and inquiry. Workshops, conferences, and university-level classes
can help. This is especially true if they provide a way for teachers to learn
how to apply mathematical and science concepts within a context similar
to the one they will use with their students.
 Creative and Innovative Thinking 37

When carried out over time, professional development activities have

proven useful in helping teachers organize instruction to accommodate
new ways of representing and imparting knowledge. Clearly, the result
of good pre- and in-service work expands horizons and organizational
possibilities.
Critical and creative thinking are natural human processes that can be
amplified by awareness and practice. Creative, critical, and innovative
thinking makes use of core thinking skills. Classroom instruction and
guided practice in the development of these skills will include the follow-
ing:
1. Focusing Skills—attending to selected chunks of information. Some
focusing skills include defining, identifying key concepts, recog-
nizing the problem, and setting goals.
2. Information-Gathering Skills—becoming aware of the substance or
content needed. Observing, obtaining information, forming ques-
tions, and clarifying through inquiry are some skills of information
gathering.
3. Remembering Skills—involving information storage and retrieval.
Encoding and recalling are thinking skills that have been found to
improve retention. These skills involve strategies such as rehearsal,
mnemonics, visualization, and retrieval.
4. Organizing Skills—arranging information so it can be understood
or presented more effectively. Some of these organizing skills con-
sist of comparing, classifying (categorizing), ordering, and repre-
senting information.
5. Analyzing Skills—classifying and examining information of compo-
nents and relationships. Analysis is at the heart of critical thinking.
Recognizing and articulating attributes and component parts, fo-
cusing on details and structure, identifying relationships and pat-
terns, grasping the main idea, and finding errors are elements of
analysis.
6. Generating Skills—using prior knowledge to add information be-
yond what is known or given. Connecting new ideas, inferring,
identifying similarities and differences, predicting, and elaborating
add new meaning to information. Generating involves such higher
order thinking as making comparisons, constructing metaphors,
producing analogies, providing explanations, and forming mental
models.
7. Integrating Skills—putting things together, solving, understanding,
forming principles, and composing and communicating. These
thinking strategies involve summarizing, combining information,
deleting unnecessary material, graphically organizing, outlining,
and restructuring to incorporate new information.
38 Chapter 2

8. Evaluating Skills—assessing the reasonableness and quality of ide-

as. Skills of evaluation include establishing criteria and proving or
verifying data (Marzano, Pickering, & Pollock, 2004).
Students have to be able to do more than find information. They also
have to be able to evaluate information in a rapidly changing technologi-
cal environment. Whether it is a website or book, the first step is ques-
tioning the source. It is important to build knowledge based on quality
information. When using Wikipedia, for example, it is important to know
that anyone with access to the Internet can contribute.
Eventually, someone corrects false information, but students need to
critically question what they read. Regardless of the source, it is impor-
tant to verify what’s found by checking several other sources before seri-
ously considering information.
For teachers to build a solid base of thinking skills into daily math,
science, and technology lessons, they must consciously question and re-
flect on the best approach. Introspective questions about the characteris-
tics of effective instruction help—for example, “How can I get students to
focus their thinking, ask questions, retrieve new information, and gener-
ate new ideas for analysis?”
To generate ideas, try the following: Think of something and combine
it with something else. Adapt whatever you came up with in a way that
changes it. Put it to some other use. Eliminate some small part and go on
to reverse or rearrange it. What new or innovative ideas emerge?

MULTIPLE WAYS OF THINKING AND APPLYING

Beyond using manipulatives in math and science inquiry, teachers are

bringing these subjects to life by setting thoughtful application problems
in real-life contexts. Knowledge is particularly useful when it can be ap-
plied or used to create new knowledge. Students need opportunities to
use their knowledge to compose, make decisions, solve problems, and
conduct research to discover more. As teachers facilitate activities built
on multiple ways of reasoning, doors are opened to the physical and
biological universe.
The infusion of creative and innovative thinking into the math and
science curriculum goes hand in hand with the basic principles students
must learn to be competent in these subjects. Solid reasoning supports
the foundation of interdisciplinary inquiry, real-world applications, and
the production of new knowledge.
In our efforts to bring science and math to life by making it relevant to
students’ daily lives, it is important to leave spaces where students and
teachers can reflect on what they are doing and figure out where they
will use the skills they are learning. Creativity and innovation have as
 Creative and Innovative Thinking 39

much to say to government, business, and education as they do to crea-

tive fields like the arts and sciences.
People who think creatively have the ability to produce and consider
many alternatives—creating or elaborating on original ideas. Creative
and innovative thinkers have the ability to see multiple solutions. Devel-
oping and expressing emotional awareness is also a part of creative
thinking. This is frequently done by perceiving and creating images that
are vivid, strong, and alive from both internal and external vantage
points.
Making use of imagination, movement, and sound in playful and use-
ful ways is another element of creative thinking. Overcoming limitations
and creating new solutions, using humor, predicting consequences, and
planning ahead are other elements. While mathematics and science can
lead you toward truth, only imagination can lead you to meaning.
Students will learn elements of creative and innovative thinking from
interpersonal communication behaviors. These are developed in a variety
of ways: listening, speaking, arguing, problem solving, clarifying, and
creating (Berry, 2011). Pairs of students can argue an issue with other
pairs and then switch sides.
The chaos and dissonance of group work can help foster thinking and
imaginative language development. This way, students learn to work
creatively with conflicts, viewing them as possibilities for improving lit-
eracy. Hopefully, some of this will carry over to conflict resolution and
peer resolution of other disputes.
Thinking does not thrive in a threatening and intimidating environ-
ment where either adult or peer pressure impedes independence. Class-
rooms organized for creative math and science group work can easily
learn to function as a community that respects and supports individual
learners.
Good teachers support diverse thinking styles and collaboration, help-
ing all students to think and step outside of subject matter and experience
boundaries to construct meaning. This means that the teacher and stu-
dents open themselves up to suggestions, styles of thinking, connections,
and ambiguities previously unexamined. The potential for imaginative
action grows out of this process. As Aristotle suggested, there are two
steps to doing anything: Make up your mind, and Do it!

ENCOURAGING THE DEVELOPMENT OF THINKING SKILLS

The test of a first-rate intelligence is the ability to hold two opposed

ideas in the mind at the same time, and still function.
—F. Scott Fitzgerald
For the twenty-first century, the ability to do a whole host of compli-
cated tasks at the same time (multitasking) may prove crucial. For those
40 Chapter 2

who have trouble even walking and chewing gum at the same time, there
is trouble ahead. The multidimensional search for meaning is made easi-
er when there is a supportive group climate for generating questions and
investigating possibilities.
Critical and creative thinking questions may also come into play after
solutions are put forward. Ask students to analyze problems they have
solved. As they examine how underlying assumptions influence interpre-
tations, children can be pulled more deeply into a topic. And by evaluat-
ing their findings on the basis of logic, there arise other learning possibil-
ities.
The following encourage the development of thinking skills:
• Provide opportunities for students to explore different viewpoints
and domains of information that arouse frustration or outrage.
• Conduct debates and discussions on controversial issues that some-
how connect to science, mathematics, and technology. Students
work in groups to present an argument on a topic and present their
view to another group. Sides can then be switched, the opposite
view defended, and different routes to a better social order ex-
plored.
• Have students role-play historical events or current news happen-
ings from conflicting viewpoints. Examine some of the more ques-
tionable television news images or odd points made about current
events on a website where the power may be palpable but whose
connection to reality is tenuous.
• Encourage students to explore Internet websites that present differ-
ent viewpoints. For homework, you might have them watch a
newscast or program on TV (e.g., those that interview individuals
with differing perspectives on a problem).
• Have students write letters to a newspaper editor, TV producer,
member of Congress, popular journal, or website expressing their
stance on an issue of importance.
These suggestions open up the possibility for developing thinking by
practicing argumentative thinking skills in small groups. The basic goal is
to stimulate and encourage a wide range of collaboration, divergent
thinking, and discussion. By arguing important moral dilemmas in sci-
ence, medicine, technology, politics, literature, art, music, or sports, stu-
dents can learn content, reason possibilities, and extend ethical concepts.
To have power over the story that dominates one’s life in these tech-
nologically intensive times means having the power to retell it, decon-
struct it, joke about it, and change it as times change. Without this power,
it is more difficult to think and act on new thoughts and open the doors
to deep thinking.
Beyond specific teaching strategies, the climate of the classroom and
the behavior of the teacher are very important. Teachers need to model
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
 VII
POSSIBILITÉ DE FAIRE FORTUNE
PAR LE JEU

Les déceptions du monde inclineront ton esprit à des réflexions

amères. Vers cette époque, longeant le fleuve d’or, de billets de
théâtre et d’amours qui coule entre la Madeleine et la Porte Saint-
Martin, tu rencontreras un ami peu connu de toi, qui te tutoiera et
t’offrira de te protéger. Tu lui raconteras tes ennuis et il rira, te
tapera sur l’épaule en t’affirmant qu’il peut te faire gagner beaucoup
d’argent. Il te conduira dans des cercles. En ne jouant que sur
certains coups sûrs, l’homme patient et qui a de la volonté gagne
sans aucun risque, te dira-t-il.
Tu glisseras, plein d’anxiété sur son sort, une pièce de cinq francs
sur un de ces coups. Un hasard très rare voudra justement que tu
perdes malgré toutes ses prévisions. Une somme plus importante
confiée à ton nouvel ami partant pour les courses, disparaîtra de la
même manière, contrairement au calcul et à la raison.
Cela vaut mieux. Seuls, peuvent vivre du jeu, des personnages
passagers, sans autre but précis que celui d’avoir de l’argent, sans
foi en eux-mêmes. Tu n’es pas de ceux-là. Ne regrette ni l’illusion du
luxe que donne le cercle, ni le dîner qui ne coûte rien, mais qu’il faut
payer de conversations avec des vieillards, épaves de tous les
mondes, que l’on ne trouve que là.
Renonce au salon solennel où il y a tous les journaux illustrés, à
l’orgueil d’être connu par des domestiques en uniforme.
Les cartes à jouer ont un double visage. Pour avoir tes quelques
sous, elles te tendent des billets de banque. Ne te laisse pas prendre
à cette ruse grossière.
 VIII
LES PETITES ANNONCES :
EMPRUNTS, BEAUX MARIAGES,
MAITRESSES DÉSINTÉRESSÉES

En lisant le journal, un samedi, tu découvriras que la vie est riche

et qu’elle s’offre à toi dans son infinie variété.
Petites annonces du journal, vous êtes le paradis des
espérances ! Après t’être émerveillé de l’extraordinaire prospérité du
commerce des vieux dentiers, tu liras avec allégresse l’offre d’un
monsieur qui offre à n’importe qui de prêter n’importe quelle somme
d’argent.
Paris est plein de philanthropes qui ne demandent pas mieux que
de favoriser de jeunes écrivains comme moi, te diras-tu. Le tout est
d’être en relation avec eux ; le journal est pour cela un commode
intermédiaire.
Ce philanthrope habite très loin, dans un faubourg. Sa maison est
une misérable maison ouvrière. C’est sa femme qui vient ouvrir la
porte et elle regarde anxieusement celui qui arrive comme si on
venait l’arrêter. Le philanthrope est derrière un petit bureau ; il est
mal vêtu et mal rasé ; il demande sévèrement au visiteur ce qu’il
veut.
 Tu crains de t’être trompé, tu balbuties, tu parles confusément
d’un emprunt possible. Alors l’homme sourit ; il a vu d’un coup d’œil
que tu es honorable, il comprend que tu as de l’avenir ; il demande
de quelle somme tu as besoin. Tu dis un chiffre ; cinq cents francs
par exemple. Il rit aussitôt parce que c’est une toute petite somme
très facile à prêter.
Tu le suis des yeux ; l’argent est là dans un tiroir, il va te le
donner tout de suite. Quel philanthrope !
Il te promet en effet de te le donner, mais dans trois jours
seulement. Il a une absolue confiance en toi mais les affaires sont
les affaires. Il faut qu’il ait d’ici là une fiche de renseignements ; c’est
une simple formalité, l’usage de la maison. Les frais de cette fiche
que donne une agence sont à la charge de l’emprunteur, bien
entendu. Tu trouves cela trop légitime et tu lui donnes avec joie une
somme qui varie entre trois et quinze francs. Vous vous quittez les
meilleurs amis du monde et il doit t’écrire le surlendemain.
Tu n’en entends plus jamais parler. Si tu en conçois quelque
regret, console-toi en songeant que le philanthrope prêteur d’argent
n’aurait peut-être pas dîné ce soir-là, ainsi que sa femme et ses
enfants, sans l’argent de ta fiche. Et il ne t’a trompé en somme qu’à
demi. Il a des renseignements sur toi ; il sait désormais que tu es un
jeune homme honorable. Celui qui vous offre à dîner n’est-il pas
toujours honorable ?
Il y a aussi dans les petites annonces, de beaux mariages et des
maîtresses désintéressées. Tu pourras te dire, qu’en effet, une foule
d’admirables jeunes filles sans relations, d’étrangères aux yeux
langoureux, de femmes désireuses de nouveauté mettent des
annonces dans le journal.
Cette distraction est inoffensive. Elle ne coûte qu’une boîte de
papier à lettre élégant, des timbres, des démarches à la poste
restante. Tu iras dans des kiosques d’omnibus, tenant à la main soit
un bouquet de fleurs, soit un numéro du journal, comme signe de
reconnaissance. Il t’arrivera d’y trouver une femme ayant passé la
cinquantaine qui te fera fuir aussitôt. Il t’arrivera de te tromper,
d’aller parler à des dames qui attendent simplement l’omnibus et
d’être fort mal accueilli. Il t’arrivera d’être en butte à la moquerie de
plusieurs jeunes gens, auteurs des lettres que tu auras reçues et qui
seront venus guetter ta déconvenue.
Peut-être un jour, sur l’offre d’une dot de plusieurs millions, iras-
tu dans une agence matrimoniale. Mais quand une personne âgée,
en te regardant bien en face, te demandera combien tu gagnes par
an, tu te troubleras, tu diras qu’il ne s’agit pas de toi, que tu viens
de la part d’un de tes amis fort riche et tu t’en iras en maudissant les
petites annonces, ce marché trompeur de l’espoir, à un franc
soixante-quinze la ligne.
 XI
FAUT-IL AVOIR UNE SITUATION ?

Tu chercheras une situation et voilà le plus grand danger qui te

guette, ta vie ou ta mort, selon ton étoile bonne ou mauvaise.
Sur les dix personnes auxquelles tu te seras adressé, amis de ton
père, députés de ton pays, vieilles dames qui ont beaucoup de
relations, il y en aura neuf qui te promettront de faire des
démarches et de décrire bientôt et dont tu n’entendras plus parler.
Tu n’en seras qu’à demi fâché, l’état de celui qui cherche une
situation est agréable parce qu’il est au bord de l’imprévu.
Mais la dixième personne, un homme bienveillant, oisif et
protecteur, sera saisi pour toi d’une mystérieuse activité, d’un
inquiétant désir de te voir casé. De quelle reconnaissance ne devras-
tu pas être chargé à l’égard de ce terrible ami ! Il fera des visites
avec toi, écrira des lettres élogieuses sur ton compte, et cela sans
raison, à cause de la sympathie personnelle que tu lui auras inspirée.
Il t’annoncera enfin qu’il a trouvé une situation sérieuse, un poste
sûr.
C’est alors qu’il te faudra un grand courage.
Ce poste sûr tu dois le refuser, si quelque espérance est en toi, si
quelque vertu t’anime. Mieux vaut déjeuner encore pour quelques
sous, être un sujet de colère pour ta repasseuse, courir dans la rue
lorsqu’il fait trop froid, ne plus revoir l’ami de ton père actif et bon.
 Tout jeune homme qui vient à Paris trouve cette situation. C’est
une machine quelconque aux rouages inexorables, société
industrielle, grande maison d’édition, compagnie d’assurances où il
est jeté et broyé pour cent cinquante francs par mois avec la
certitude d’en avoir deux cents dans dix ans.
N’accepte pas, meurs plutôt.
Surtout ne te dupe pas toi-même en acceptant à titre d’essai
pour deux ou trois mois. La servitude dans laquelle tu tomberais,
l’amitié de tes compagnons médiocres, les petits bonheurs du
dimanche feraient rapidement de toi un lâche dont les désirs sont
bornés. Tu perdrais l’habitude de l’effort véritable, qu’on accomplit
pour soi-même, librement. Peut-être finirais-tu par croire que tes
sept heures d’écriture constituent un louable travail. Tu serais invité
dans de petits appartements par d’autres employés où des femmes
laides mais laborieuses font le ménage, préparent le dîner. Le
charme de la pauvreté propre et honnête te saisirait. Tu te trouverais
des prétextes pour attendre les cent cinquante francs du mois
suivant. Il te faudrait plus de force pour vaincre l’espérance
misérable de cent cinquante francs, qu’il ne t’en a fallu pour vaincre
ta province coalisée et venir à Paris.
N’accepte que des situations incertaines. Les nouveaux journaux,
les théâtres qui se fondent, les cabinets des ministres, si cela t’est
possible, doivent être plus désignés à ton ambition, parce qu’ils sont
passagers par leur nature. Tes maîtres n’exigeront pas trop de toi
pour que tu n’exiges pas trop d’eux-mêmes. Ce seront des hommes
dans ton genre avec quelques années de plus.
Ne prête pas d’attention au mépris apparent que pourront te
témoigner des médiocres, parce que tu ne gagnes pas un argent
régulier.
Si tu rencontres un ami arrivé, jadis semblable à toi, aujourd’hui
bon fonctionnaire, richement marié et s’il te prend en pitié à cause
de ton état instable, appuie-toi pour résister à son hypocrite
sympathie, sur l’amour de toi-même, comme sur une colonne de
marbre. Pardonne-lui l’excès de bonté qu’il te témoigne puisqu’il ne
soupçonne même pas quelle hauteur tu veux atteindre.
 X
LA RICHESSE QUE DONNE L’AMITIÉ

Tâche d’avoir des amis.

On les acquiert d’abord par son visage bienveillant, la facilité
qu’on a à saluer des gens peu connus, à serrer des mains qui se
tendent. Le goût des conversations sympathiques, l’amour qu’on a
des autres et de soi-même font vite que beaucoup de gens ont du
plaisir à vous voir.
Mais ce n’est pas assez. Il faut choisir. Ne laisse pas au hasard
d’une rencontre, à un voisinage, le soin de te donner des amis.
Une fois que tu auras élu un ami dans ton cœur ne crains pas de
l’importuner par des visites inattendues, des politesses excessives.
Ne te laisse pas rebuter par sa froideur. Tu lui apportes, avec la
prédilection de ta sympathie, une immense richesse, la même que tu
attends de lui. Il comprendra forcément à la longue quel avantage
vous avez tous deux à ce commerce idéal.
Ce n’est jamais une aide matérielle que tu dois attendre de
l’amitié. Garde-toi par exemple d’emprunter de l’argent à ton ami,
même si tu l’as entendu déclarer plusieurs fois que l’argent est une
chose méprisable, que lorsque l’un en a, l’autre doit en avoir, etc. On
ne sait jamais jusqu’où plongent les racines de l’intérêt. Observe une
semblable réserve si ton ami est très riche.
 Les biens de l’amitié sont plus précieux que n’importe quelle
somme d’argent. Ils sont le sentiment que l’effort est partagé, que
l’action solitaire qu’on accomplit est agrandie par la sympathie de
l’ami, que l’injure qu’on reçoit, l’échec qu’on éprouve est diminué,
rendu insignifiant ou plaisant par les commentaires favorables qu’en
fait l’ami.
Rends avec soin ce qui t’es donné dans ce domaine. Intéresse-toi
aux moindres faits de la vie de ton ami, au récit de ses amours, aux
détails de son budget, à ses souvenirs de service militaire.
Ne dis jamais de mal de lui, car tout se sait. Surtout n’en pense
pas quoi qu’il fasse. Aie pour lui la même indulgence que pour toi.
S’il a une maîtresse, ne lui fais pas la cour. Elle se hâterait de l’en
prévenir, en amplifiant ton audace, en transformant en perfidie ton
goût naturel des femmes. Ne va pas non plus être trop froid à son
égard, ne la regarde pas avec une complète indifférence. Elle te
considérerait alors comme un mortel ennemi, elle t’accuserait de
vouloir la faire rompre avec son amant et il lui serait très aisé de te
brouiller avec lui ; l’amour a toujours le pas sur l’amitié.
Fais donc entendre une bonne fois à cette maîtresse par quelque
parole à double sens que c’est elle que tu aurais aimée si l’amitié
sacrée ne vous avait pas séparés irrévocablement. N’en parle plus
jamais ensuite. Sa vanité sera satisfaite et elle attribuera tes
indifférences pour elle à un scrupule sublime.
N’attends aucun service de tes amis. Quand ils demanderont
quelque chose pour toi ce ne ne seront que des choses très
modestes, bien au-dessous de ta valeur. Tu t’étonneras que des
êtres qui t’aiment, dont tu as éprouvé les sentiments, te
méconnaissent ainsi, ne te jugent digne que d’avantages tellement
médiocres que tu ne pourrais les accepter sans honte.
Cela tient à ce qu’ils ne te situent pas dans la vie. L’amitié leur a
révélé tes faiblesses. Ce sont elles qu’ils voient, plutôt que tes
qualités.
Seuls, des hommes que tu connais à peine oseront te rendre de
vrais services. Tu auras à leurs yeux le prestige d’un talent qu’ils
ignorent, dont ils ne savent pas les petits côtés.
Tes amis ne peuvent t’offrir que la douceur de la main tendue,
des projets qu’on fait ensemble, des espérances qu’on partage, le
plaisir inestimable de se raconter l’un à l’autre…
Et c’est bien assez.
Mais, crois-moi, garde-toi de t’enorgueillir d’amitiés puissantes ou
illustres. Ta force est dans les liens qui t’unissent à ceux qui sont
semblables à toi, seraient-ils plus humbles même, à la troupe
famélique de ceux que la vie n’a pas favorisés, aux poètes des hôtels
garnis à deux francs, aux écrivains qui habitent au sixième une
chambre parmi les bonnes du premier étage, aux auteurs
dramatiques qui se font comédiens pour vivre.
Sache bien que ces modestes compagnons avec leurs redingotes
usées, leurs bottines où passe l’eau, leurs cheveux longs, ont une
influence plus véritable que tous les hommes arrivés avec leurs
paroles conventionnelles. Car leur désintéressement les précède et
les défend, car seuls les cris qui partent d’en bas peuvent monter
très haut et être entendus très loin.
 XI
FORCE DE L’HOMME JOYEUX

Il faut une grande force d’âme pour sentir, quand il fait froid, les
bouffées chaudes des cafés devant lesquels on passe, où il y a des
nappes blanches, des boissons qui miroitent et où l’on ne peut pas
s’arrêter.
Il est ennuyeux de ne pas manger à sa faim, dans le petit
restaurant où l’on paie, d’être privé de dessert comme quand on
était enfant et qu’on était puni, de regretter les vingt centimes que
le café coûte en supplément.
Il est ennuyeux de répondre à ses amis qui s’en vont en bande à
Bullier qu’on est fatigué, qu’on a mal à la tête, alors qu’on a une
envie folle de participer aux élégances de ce lieu, parce qu’on ne
peut disposer de la petite somme que coûte l’entrée.
Réclamations du propriétaire et du tailleur, papier qu’apporte
l’employé de Dufayel, serviettes trouées, bottines ressemelées,
odeurs de bois moisi, vous brisez le courage des cœurs les mieux
trempés !
O jeune homme, développe en toi ton allégresse, ta gaieté, sois,
en dépit des événements et de la mauvaise fortune, un homme
joyeux.
 L’homme joyeux est fort, même s’il est laid et mal vêtu, parce
qu’il rit de celui qui est beau et élégant. L’homme joyeux regarde
bien en face, serre la main très fort et fait comprendre tout de suite
qu’il est joyeux.
Lorsqu’il va dîner dans la maison du riche, il n’est pas sensible à
l’ironie discrète, mais réelle, du laquais rasé qui prend
obséquieusement son pardessus et qui en regarde la doublure
déchirée, parce que, par son geste, par son attitude il a montré qu’il
savait bien que la doublure était déchirée, que cela lui était égal,
qu’il en riait, et que par-dessus le marché il riait du laquais rasé et
de son pauvre métier.
L’homme joyeux n’a pas de fausse honte ; si le riche offre de lui
prêter de l’argent, même s’il le fait à la manière habituelle des
riches, d’une façon ostensible, humiliante, comme une aumône, il
accepte et il a raison, car il sait que ce riche est un médiocre oisif,
tandis que lui travaille de sa pensée. Il considère que c’est là un
bienfait général que cette richesse, au lieu d’être jouée aux cartes,
au lieu de payer des livrées, des tapis, des bijoux, au lieu de servir à
entretenir un luxe criard, lui permette d’acheter des livres, un
chapeau, des souliers, de donner vingt francs à une petite femme
qui passe et qui n’a pas d’argent et il rit de l’humiliation qui lui est
imposée par ce passage de la richesse d’une main dans l’autre, qui
est une forme de la justice.
Il n’aura qu’à se souvenir de Baudelaire et de ses créanciers, de
Verlaine dans les cafés du quartier latin. Il pourra se dire, en voyant
passer des voitures élégantes, que les biens les plus charmants, la
lumière, la richesse des visages, la beauté de la ville sont à tous,
qu’on voit mieux Paris quand on est à pied. Ainsi il ne connaîtra pas
de la vie seulement la forme extérieure, la surface ; il pénétrera
jusqu’à son cœur par les ruelles tortueuses où il y a plus d’hommes
qui vivent à mesure qu’elles deviennent plus étroites. Il saura plus
de choses parce qu’il aura eu moins d’argent.
L’homme joyeux rira de l’avarice des puissants, de leur soif de
garder jalousement ce qu’ils ont acquis ; il rira des conventions
modernes, des efforts immenses vers des buts mesquins, des
décorations, des honneurs, de la gloire dérisoire d’être directeur de
quelque chose, préfet ou ministre, il rira des poètes officiels, des
cuistres assermentés, des gérontes orgueilleux, des académiciens,
des pontifes, de tous les mornes adorateurs de la médiocrité, de tout
ce qui est immobile, figé, esclave.
 XII

Y a-t-il une fin à ta course ? Le petit appartement que tu

conquerras par bien des efforts, les meubles de Dufayel, les livres
achetés un à un, les portraits d’actrices dans des cadres à bon
marché, résisteront-ils à l’assaut des créanciers, ou seront-ils
emportés et dispersés ? Ne seras-tu pas débordé par l’étrenne de la
concierge, la feuille bleue de l’impôt, le fiacre imprudemment offert,
le prix du pétrole et du charbon ? Ne sentiras-tu pas, un soir, un
immense écœurement pour la nourriture des bouillons Chartier, ton
escalier où il y a des pots de lait à chaque étage, ton logis mal
éclairé et trop étroit ?
As-tu vraiment du talent ? Chacun le saura-t-il un jour ? Ou ta
maîtresse et un ou deux amis qui fondent avec toi des revues, en
seront-ils seuls persuadés ? Cette théorie est-elle bien vraie, qui dit
que la chance passe tôt ou tard pour chacun et qu’il suffit de
l’attendre et de l’aider ? Trouveras-tu ton repas quotidien, loup de la
fable ? Ne regretteras-tu pas le collier du chien ? Atteindras-tu le but,
coureur ?
O jeune homme, ô mon frère, ici s’arrête ce que je sais ?
Plusieurs fois déjà je t’ai vu passer, je t’ai guetté et suivi dans la
rue, afin de presser ta main. Et j’avais envie de m’élancer vers toi et
de te dire :
« Je sais. Comme la mienne autrefois, ta lampe fume à cause de
la mèche qu’une femme de ménage négligente mouche mal. Il y a
des cendres sur le foyer, une légère odeur de suie, une déchirure
dans le tapis et peut-être aussi redis-tu, le soir, comme je l’ai fait,
ces vers admirables :

La maîtresse a quitté l’amant

A cause de l’appartement.

« Mais va, il y a des poèmes meilleurs encore et plus joyeux et

une foule de tapis neufs dans les grands magasins. Du reste, la
meilleure beauté n’est pas plus dans le luxe de l’endroit où l’on vit
que dans le regard d’une maîtresse. Une belle lumière peut briller,
même si la femme de ménage n’a pas nettoyé la lampe et si la
mèche fume, tachant de poussière noire les portraits aimés… »
Mais je n’ai pas osé. Devant toi, jeune homme pauvre, une
grande timidité m’a saisi. Je me serais nommé et tu m’aurais dit :
Qui êtes-vous ?
Et puis, par la puissance d’une invraisemblable espérance,
n’aurais-tu pas souri de mes paroles ?
Et puis, quand je t’aurais dit la nécessité d’un effort patient et
quotidien pour résister à tous tes protecteurs et ne pas obtenir les
palmes académiques, peut-être, écartant ton pardessus et me
montrant ta boutonnière, m’aurais-tu répondu avec orgueil.
Je les ai.
Aussi je t’ai regardé t’éloigner, chétif et mince, parmi les omnibus
terribles, les maisons immenses. Tu n’avais pas l’air de connaître ta
petitesse ; tu tenais ta canne comme une épée. Et j’ai admiré avec
quelle autorité peut résonner sur le pavé de la rue une bottine où il y
a un trou.
 TABLE

Pages
I. — De l’hôtel garni 7
II. — La question d’argent 13
III. — Importance des habits 21
IV. — Les maîtresses 25
V. — Manière de se conduire avec les hommes influents 31
VI. — Le prestige du monde 37
VII. — Possibilité de faire fortune par le jeu 43
VIII. — Les petites annonces : Emprunts, beaux mariages,
maîtresses désintéressées 47
IX. — Faut-il avoir une situation 53
X. — La richesse que donne l’amitié 59
XI. — La force de l’homme joyeux 65
XII. 71

Imp. Bonvalot-Jouve, 15, rue Racine, Paris.

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