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vi contents

Specific dimensioning techniques • Summary of Concentricity • Summary • Review questions •

dimensioning rules • Notation • Rules for applying notes Chapter 12 problems • CAD instructions
on drawings • Summary • Review questions • Chapter 6
problems • CAD instructions CHAPTER 13: Fasteners | 485
Classifications of fasteners • Threads • Screw thread
CHAPTER 7: Sectional Views | 244 forms • Tap and die • Threads per inch (TPI) • Pitch •
Sectional views • Cutting-plane line • Direction of sight • Single and multiple threads • Right-hand and left-hand
Section lining • Multisection views • Kinds of sections • threads • Thread relief (undercut) • Screw, bolt, and stud •
Sections through ribs or webs • Holes, ribs and webs, Cap screws • Rivets • Keys and keyseats • Grooved fasteners •
spokes and keyways • Aligned sections • Fasteners and Spring pins • Fastening systems • Retaining rings •
shafts in section • Intersections in section • Summary • Summary • Review questions • Chapter 13 problems •
Review questions • Chapter 7 problems • CAD instructions CAD instructions

CHAPTER 8: Auxiliary Views | 279 CHAPTER 14: Springs | 520

Auxiliary views defined • Secondary auxiliary views • Spring classification • Helical springs • Flat springs •
Partial views • Auxiliary section • Half auxiliary views • Terminology of springs • Required spring data • Other
Oblique surfaces, viewing planes, and auxiliary view spring design layout • Standard drafting practices •
enlargements • Summary • Review questions • Section view of a spring • Summary • Review questions •
Chapter 8 problems • CAD instructions Chapter 14 problems • CAD instructions

CHAPTER 15: Cams | 535

CHAPTER 9: Descriptive Geometry | 303
Cam principle • Basic types of followers • Cam
Descriptive geometry projection • Steps used in mechanism • Cam terms • Cam motion • Laying out the
descriptive geometry projection • Notations • Fold cam from the displacement diagram • Timing diagram •
lines • Bearings, slope, and grade • Applied descriptive Dimensioning a cam • Summary • Review questions •
geometry • Topographic topics • Vectors • Summary • Chapter 15 problems • CAD instructions
Review questions • Chapter 9 problems • CAD instructions
CHAPTER 16: Gears | 551
CHAPTER 10: Patterns and
Developments | 382 Kinds of gears • Gear ratio • The involute curve • Pitch
diameter and basic terminology • Pitch diameter (D) •
Developments • Parallel line development • Radial Diametral pitch (P) • Gear blank • Pressure angle,
line development • Triangulation development • base circle, and center-to-center distance • Rack •
True-length diagrams • Notches • Bends • Summary • Gear train • Required tooth-cutting data • Measurements
Review questions • Chapter 10 problems • CAD instructions required to use a gear tooth caliper • Bevel gear • Worm
and worm gear • Materials • Design and layout of gears •
CHAPTER 11: Solid/3D Modeling: Summary • Review questions • Chapter 16 problems •
Computational Design and Analysis | 416 CAD instructions
Factors in using visualization • Understanding data •
Modeling techniques • Types of visualization images • CHAPTER 17: Assembly and Detail
Engineering visualization applications • Case study • Drawings for Design | 569

3
Summary • Review questions Technical drawings and the engineering department •
The engineering department • Systems company •
Design section • Working drawings: detail and assembly •

section 3 Title block • Numbering system • Drawing revisions:

ECRs and ECOs • Application engineering • Quotation
department • Mass production company • Design for
Design Drafting Applications manufacturability (DFM) • DFM guidelines • Design for
assembly (DFA) • DFA guidelines • Personal technical file •
CHAPTER 12: Geometric Dimensioning and Invention agreement • Patent drawings • Summary •
Tolerancing | 434 Review questions • Chapter 17 problems • CAD instructions
Summary of geometric dimensioning and tolerancing
terms • Geometric dimensioning and tolerancing defined • CHAPTER 18: Pictorial Drawings | 618
Modifiers • Feature control symbol • True position • Purpose of pictorial drawings • Oblique drawings •
Circularity (roundness) • Cylindricity • Angularity • Isometric drawings • Axonometric: drawing and projection •
Parallelism • Perpendicularity • Profile • Runout • Other oblique drawings • Perspective drawings •

Perspective view • Summary • Review questions • Machining • Special workholding devices • Heat treatment
Chapter 18 problems • CAD instructions of steels • Nontraditional machining processes •
Automation and integration (CAM and CIM/FMS) •
Computer-aided manufacturing (CAM) • Industrial
section 4 robots • CIM/FMS • Just-in-time manufacturing ( JIT) •
Manufacturing resource planning (MRPII) • Statistical
process control (SPC) • Summary • Review questions
Related Technologies,
Applications, and Processes CHAPTER 21: The Design Process and
Advanced Concepts | 728
CHAPTER 19: Welding | 658 Time • Learning the design process • The design process:
phases and steps • Design projects: routine and
Welding processes • Basic welding symbol • Size
non-routine • Modern design practices and standards •
of weld • Length of weld • Placement of weld •
Summary • Review questions • Chapter 21 problems •
Intermittent welds • Process reference • Contour
CAD instructions
symbol • Field welds • Welding joints • Types of welds •
Multiple reference line • Spot weld • Projection weld •
Seam weld • Welding template • Design of weldments • appendix A: tables. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 775
Summary • Review questions • Chapter 19 problems •
CAD instructions glossary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 810

CHAPTER 20: Modern Manufacturing: index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 859

Materials, Processes, and Automation | 682
Engineering materials • Traditional manufacturing
processes • Casting • Forging • Extruding • Stamping •

Purposes Prerequisites
Technical Drawing for Engineering Communication There are no prerequisites. The text begins at the
is intended for use in such courses as basic and most basic level and moves step by step to the
advanced drafting, engineering graphics, descriptive advanced levels.
geometry, mechanical drafting, machine drafting, It is as well-suited for students who have had no
tool and die design and drafting, and manufacturing previous experience with technical drawing as it is
drafting. It is appropriate for those courses offered for students with a great deal of prior experience.
in comprehensive high schools, area vocational
schools, technical schools, community colleges,
trade and technical schools, and at the freshman and
sophomore levels in universities.

viii

Technical Drawing for Engineering Communication Career Profiles located in the Section Opener focus
is a comprehensive teaching and learning tool that on the occupations of specific individuals. These pro-
contains several special features to promote the files were chosen as representative of the types of
student’s development and to make learning easier. jobs that students could acquire after completing an
Students and instructors can make use of the follow- education in drafting. The career profiles also relate
ing features: directly to the content covered in the section.

career profile

Jon Whitney
1
In college, Jon Whitney studied English. On a whim,
he applied to graduate school for architecture, and it

CAREER ended up being the right decision.

After the three-and-a-half-year program, he began as

PROFILE a drafter at Goshow Architects in New York City. This

meant he was responsible for turning architects’ visions
into dimensioned schematics. He would often go on- Next, Whitney and his team will create construc-
site to take measurements and then bring them back tion documents, the technical drawings that are given
to insert into the AutoCAD program. After a superior to the contractor at the start of the project. These
reviewed his drawings, Whitney served as a drafter must be as clear as possible; in fact, Whitney says,
for three years, a typical amount of time for someone this stage is never completed. One can always go one
just out of an architecture master’s program (although level deeper with detail. Therefore, you should do as
many drafters choose to keep drafting indefinitely). much as possible in the allotted time. As a drafter,
While serving as a drafter, Whitney accumulated Whitney used to work primarily in this phase. Now,
credits toward his internship development program most mornings he will spend a few hours review-
(IDP); when you get enough credits, you can begin ing drawings (done either by himself or one of his
the year-long testing process to get your architecture drafters) with a red pen, looking for everything from
license. Whitney is currently in the midst of that test- spelling errors to technical problems. He must also
ing. Now that he is a junior project manager, he is look for clarity and any misleading information. In
still drafting, but he also coordinates multiple proj- essence, the client is paying for the comprehensive
ects, each of which can be in a different stage of the and accurate packet of drawings and specifications
process. developed here.
The first stage is the schematic phase. At this pre- Next comes the bidding and contractor selection.
design stage, Whitney is likely to create a not-to-scale Once a contractor is chosen, the architect hands
schematic by hand, making bubble diagrams to give a over the construction documents, and work on the
broad, general look at the project. For instance, how project begins. In the construction administration
would a loft space look if it was adapted for office use? phase, the architect and drafters may be called in to
Often this stage is conceptual and artistic. provide clarifying drawings on an unpredicted on-
The next stage is design development, at which site issue. (The floor plan may be 40 off, or perhaps
point the drawing starts to become more technical. there is a pipe behind a wall that wasn’t noted in the
This involves refining the schematic, starting to put drawings.)
down dimensions and materials. How big will the walls Being a project manager has been a big—but
dividing offices be? Will they be made of masonry or exciting—change for Whitney. He’s gotten to step
steel? Do they need windows? Whitney may also call in outside the tunnel vision required of drafters and has
subcontractors (hazmat, mechanical engineers, land- been able to get a broader look at each project. As a
mark conservancy consultants, etc.) if necessary. result, he sees each plan go from an artistic idea to a
technical reality.

Chapter Objectives at the beginning of each chap- the text and is included in the glossary or index at
ter identify the skills and knowledge that students the back of the book.
will acquire from reading the material. When students Industry Application is a boxed article that
have finished the chapter, they should review the explains how the skills and knowledge discussed in
objectives to ensure that they have met each one. the chapter may be applied to a real-world job-related
The Chapter Outline lists the title of each major setting. A variety of skills will be covered, including
topic covered in the chapter. This provides a preview math, science, communications, and computers.
of the content coverage. A chapter Summary provides a recapitulation of
Key Terms, listed at the beginning of each chapter, the key topics covered in the chapter. This enables
are important words and phrases that students will students to reassess their comprehension of the
encounter as they study the chapter. Each key term material before proceeding to the end-of-chapter
is highlighted in italics at the first significant use in questions and problems.

1 Chapter
outline
Employability Skills
for Drafting and
Design Technicians

C h ap T e r O u T l i n e
Employability skills defined ● Importance of employability
K e y T e r ms skills ● Employability skills needed by drafting and design
technicians ● Job-seeking skills
Attitude Letter of
introduction
Communication C h ap T e r O b j e C T i v e s Graphic Communication and Technical Drawing Introduction 15
People skills Upon completion of this chapter, students should be able to do
Continuous
EAVE STRUT PURLIN ROOF SHEETING
improvement Personal values the following:

Critical thinking and Project work Define the term employability skills.
problem solving Explain the importance of employability skills to drafting and
Responsibility
design technicians.
Flexibility/
Résumé List the most important employability skills for drafting and
adaptability GUTTER
Soft skills design technicians.
Information
management Teamwork Demonstrate the skills necessary to secure employment in
drafting and design.
Interviewing tips Workplace safety

GIRT

WALL
SHEETING

BASE
ANGLE ANCHOR BOLT

Figure 34 Typical rigid frame section of a metal building.

DESIGN FOR MANUFACTURABILITY

industry
ApplicAtion

Metal Tech Manufacturing Company (MTM) had a reputation for high-quality products produced on time.
Unfortunately, so did its principal competitor. Both companies kept their personnel and their processes
up to date and working at peak performance levels. For years, neither company could gain a sustainable
competitive advantage over the other—not until MTM decided to adopt design for manufacturability

key terms Chapter (DFM) as a competitiveness strategy.

MTM created DFM teams for all of its products. These teams were composed of design, drafting,
and manufacturing personnel. Their charge was to develop designs that met the needs of customers but
objectives could be manufactured as efficiently and, in turn, as economically as possible. In other words, with the
DFM approach, designers had to consider not just functionality but also manufacturability. A good prod-
uct was no longer one that met the customer’s needs in terms of function. It also had to be efficiently
and economically manufactured.
The traditional attitude of “we designed it; making it is your problem” was replaced with “let’s
design it so that it works, and so that it can be efficiently produced.” With manufacturing personnel
involved in the design process, MTM’s engineers and drafters found themselves being sent back to
the drawing board frequently during the early stages of adopting DFM. Every time this happened, the
design was simplified, and the manufacturing process was streamlined as a result. Soon DFM became
second nature, and MTM saw its production costs fall by 32 percent. The company was able to pass

industry the savings along to customers and, as a result, within a year of adopting DFM had almost doubled
its sales.

application

Review Questions are written to ensure that These questions do not require a computer or
students have adequately read the chapter and drafting materials.
that they understand the material. These questions Chapter Problems contain drawing projects that
prepare students for class tests given by the instruc- allow students to test their drafting skills. Advanced
tor and for the certification test offered by the problems are marked by icons. These special icons
American Design and Drafting Association. (Visit have been placed adjacent to the advanced drawing
the American Design and Drafting Association projects to indicate the engineering and design field
website at www.adda.org to learn about the the drawing pertains to. These icons call out a spe-
certification programs and ADDA membership.) cific drafting field or discipline.

Advanced
Icon

summary

Geometric Construction chapter 4 121

numbers on the lines are elevations in feet, and A is 1009

PROBLEMS
Problem 4-3 from B in a horizontal direction. You are requested to
The following X,Y coordinates in feet for determining the determine the angle and percentage slope of the terrain
border of an oddly shaped parcel of property are as fol- between A and B.
lows: A(0,0), B(110,-30), C(190,0), D(130,40), E(130,110),
F(0,60). You are given the task of determining the area 100'
of the parcel. Suggestion: Lay out the parcel to scale, and
divide the parcel into convenient areas for calculating.

Employability Skills for Drafting and Design Technicians chapter 1 29

Structural
Problem 4-4
SUMMARY 5. Teamwork is not an important employabili- The rectangular frame shown needs a diagonal to ensure
ty skill because drafting and design technicians the frame’s rigidity. The frame is made up of 3 3 3 3 1/4
●● Employability skills are sometimes called people can work on their projects alone. structural steel angles and 1/40 steel gusset plates. A B

skills or soft skills to distinguish them from the Thirty-five frames are to be made. Your task is to lay
6. People with a positive work ethic take pride in out the frame to the dimensions given and determine
hard skills (technical skills) needed in drafting and their work and are willing to work hard, smart, the length of the diagonal based on information given
design. Employability skills are the nontechnical and long to do a good job. in the drawing. Then, assume that the standard length 00 0
34 9

0
33

70
skills needed to secure a good position in drafting of available structural angles is 209, and determine how

40
336
33
33

33
and design after completing school, perform well Answer the following questions by selecting the best many 209 lengths are required for the 35 frames. What
percentage of the structural angles will probably be
in that position, and progress up the career ladder answer.
wasted?
over the course of your career. 1. Which of the following is considered an Mechanical
1 3/4" TYP Problem 4-6
●● Employability skills are important because people employability skill for drafting and design
Calculate the volume of the notched tubular object shown
do the work of organizations, and they must work technicians? by utilizing equations for the areas of segments of a circle.
well together to get it done. Consequently, work- a. Using orthographic projection Then, calculate the weight of the object by multiplying the
1/2" BOLT X 4
ing effectively with people is important. Further, b. Creating auxiliary views of drawings 1 1/4" EDGE volume by the density of the material.
DISTANCE TYP. 3 X 3 X 1/4 TYP
organizations are more competitive when their c. Effective listening
1 1/2"
personnel work well together. d. Using geometric dimensioning and 2 3/4"

●● Employability skills needed by drafting and design tolerancing

technicians include personal skills such as hon- 2. Which of the following is a reason that employ- 5 TIMES FASTENER
DIAMETER =
esty, integrity, dependability, and loyalty; commu- ability skills are so important? 5 X 1/2 = 2 1/2" 1"
1/2"
1/4" TYP
nication (speaking, writing, and listening); critical a. Competition
thinking and problem solving; information man- b. Three-dimensional modeling 4' - 7"
2 1/4"
agement; attitude; responsibility and accountabil- c. Improved sectional views
5 1/4"
ity; flexibility and adaptability; continual improve- d. Critical to proper notation
STEEL 0.28 lb/in3
ment; workplace safety; teamwork and project 3. A summary of your qualifications relating to
work; and positive work ethic. drafting and design is called what?
●● Job-seeking skills are needed to secure a position a. Introduction Problem 4-7
in drafting and design. They include developing a b. Personal biography Construct an ellipse using the concentric circle method
résumé, developing letters of introduction, devel- c. Résumé shown in Figure 4-48. Minor diameter 5 25 mm. Major
d. Qualifications letter diameter 5 40 mm.
oping a list of references, identifying job openings, 1/4" GUSSET PLATE

and interviewing. 4. Which of the following is NOT a characteristic

of a well-written résumé? 3' - 4" Problem 4-8
a. Lengthy (usually more than five pages) STEEL FRAME Divide the work area into four equal spaces. In the upper
REVIEW QUESTIONS b. Future-oriented left-hand space, draw an inclined line 3.250 long. Bisect
this line. Show all construction lines lightly.
Mark the following statements as either true or false. c. Brief and easily read Civil
Problem 4-5 In the upper right-hand space, draw an acute angle
d. Written in the terminology of the field A ski slope designer made the sketch shown, which shows with intersecting lines, each approximately 2.750 long.
1. Employability skills can also be referred to as
5. Which of the following is an important purpose contour lines for a particular portion of a ski run. The Bisect this angle. Show all light construction lines.
people skills or soft skills.
served by a cover letter?
2. The term “hard skills” refers to such skills as
a. Summarizes all of your experience even if
communication and critical thinking.
the jobs you have had are not in drafting
3. One of the reasons employability skills are and design
important is that they help people work togeth- b. Explains your career goal
er more effectively in organizations. c. Lists your job references
4. Competition demands that drafting and design d. Tells the employer which specific job you chapter
technicians have good employability skills. are interested in
problems
ICONS

Architectural Structural Mechanical

review Architectural Structural Mechanical

questions

Pipe Drafting Civil Electrical

Content Overview skills defined, importance of employability skills,

specific employability skills needed by drafting
Chapters 1–18 are to be used to help students and design technicians, and job-seeking skills.
develop the design and drafting skills that are
fundamental to all drafting fields. Instructors are
●● Chapter 2, Drafting Tools: Conventional, CAD,
encouraged to use all of these chapters to build a and Solid Modeling, was completely rewritten to
solid footing of design and drafting knowledge for present the types of tools drafting and design tech-
students. nicians typically use, ranging from conventional
Chapters 19–21 allow students to develop tools that are still used to CAD hardware and soft-
advanced knowledge and skills beyond the ware to solid modeling software.
fundamentals. ●● Old Chapter 10, Dimensioning and Notation,
Instructors are encouraged to use these chapters became new Chapter 6 at the request of reviewers
to help their students develop an in-depth under- to put it in a more logical order for teaching and
standing of these discipline areas: Welding; learning. In addition, the chapter was updated to
Modern Manufacturing: Materials, Processes, and reflect changes that grew out of the latest revision
Automation; and Drafting Applications: Pipe, to ANSI Y14.5.
Architectural, and Civil Engineering. ●● Chapter 12, Geometric Dimensioning and Toler
Chapter 21, The Design Process and Advanced ancing, was completely rewritten to bring it in line
Concepts, is important in preparing the student with the latest revisions to ANSI Y14.5.
for entry into the job force. The steps of the design ●● Old Chapter 21, Drafting Applications, was moved
process are defined, and the reader is taught how to the website and is available there for instructors
to be creative in analyzing and solving problems. who use it.
Modern design processes such as DFM, DFA,
●● Old Chapter 22, The Design Process, became new
rapid prototyping, and reverse engineering are
Chapter 21, The Design Process and Advanced
addressed.
Topics. The following new material was added to
this chapter: rapid prototyping, parametric design,
New Features in the Seventh Edition ISO 9000, and reverse engineering.
The Seventh Edition is based on the concept that
“less is more.” After polling a wide cross section of
Tested and Proven Features
instructors who use this textbook, the authors elimi- ●● An enhanced Instructor Companion Website con-
nated material reviewers thought was superfluous. tains electronic instructional material.
This was done so that new material could be added ●● Chapter 21, The Design Process and Advanced
where appropriate without increasing the size of the
Topics, covers modern design practices and
book and, in turn, the cost. A summary of changes
standards.
for the Seventh Edition follows:
●● Discipline-specific icons highlight the drawing
●● The name of the book was changed to reflect the
problems, enabling the reader to quickly choose
movement in the field away from the traditional
problems pertaining to his or her drawing field.
name and concept of “drafting.” Because tech-
nicians in this field prepare drawings and ●● Review questions are formatted as multiple-choice
other forms of documentation to communi- and true/false for rapid testing and grading.
cate engineering concepts and information, the ●● New drawing problems are contained in the
newly adopted title of the book for the Seventh primary drawing chapters.
Edition is Technical Drawing for Engineering ●● Boxed articles covering real-world applications
Communication. exist in all chapters. This reinforces the relevance
●● Drawings and photographs were updated through- of the chapter content to today’s job environment.
out the book as needed to reflect the most modern ●● New math problems are contained in selected
technologies and practices. chapters for additional practice.
●● Chapter 1, Employability Skills, is a new chapter ●● Step-by-step explanations of drawing procedures
that covers the following topics: employability and techniques are provided.

●● The book is written in language students will ●● Chapter Hints: Objectives and teaching hints that
understand; technical terms are defined as they provide the basis for a lecture outline that helps
are used. you to present concepts and material. Key points
●● Unique black and rust color f ormat depicts isomet- and concepts can be graphically highlighted for
ric views more clearly than “flat” black-and-white student retention.
drawings. ●● Answers to Review Questions: These solutions
●● Text and illustrations are located in direct relation- enable you to grade and evaluate end-of-chapter
ship to each other wherever possible. tests.
●● Real-world techniques are highlighted in the ●● PowerPoint® Presentation: These slides provide
Industry Application boxed articles. the basis for a lecture outline that helps you
to present concepts and material. Key points
●● Although the emphasis is on mechanical drafting,
and concepts can be graphically highlighted for
other pertinent drafting subjects are included for a
student retention.
comprehensive, well-rounded approach to techni-
cal drawing. ●● Computerized Test Bank: Over 800 questions of
varying levels of difficulty are provided in true/
●● The book contains in-depth drafting applications in
false and multiple-choice formats so you can assess
architectural, structural, civil, and piping drafting.
student comprehension.

The Learning Package Cengage Learning Testing (Clt)

The complete Instructor Companion Website supple- Powered by Cognero, CLT is a flexible, online sys-
ments package was developed to achieve two goals: tem that allows you to:
1. To assist students in learning the essential infor- ●● Author, edit, and manage test bank content from

mation needed to prepare for the exciting field multiple Cengage Learning solutions.
of drafting. ●● Create multiple test versions in an instant.

2. To assist instructors in planning and implement- ●● Deliver tests from your LMS, your classroom, or
ing their instructional programs for the most wherever you want.
efficient use of time and other resources.
Contact Cengage Learning or your local sales repre-
The Technical Drawing for Engineering Commu sentative to obtain an instructor account.
nication package was created as an integrated whole.
Supplements are linked to and integrated with the Accessing an Instructor Companion Website
text to create a comprehensive supplement package from SSO Front Door
that supports students and instructors, beginning or
veteran. The package includes: 1. Go to http://login.cengage.com and log in, using
the instructor e-mail address and password.
Instructor Companion Website—The ICW is an
2. Enter author, title, or ISBN in the Add a Title to
educational resource that creates a truly electronic
Your Bookshelf search.
classroom. The website contains tools and instruc-
tional resources that enrich your classroom and 3. Click Add to My Bookshelf to add instructor
make your preparation time shorter. The elements of resources.
the ICW link directly to the text and tie together to 4. At the Product page, click the Instructor Com
provide a unified instructional system. With the ICW, panion site link.
you can spend your time teaching, not preparing
to teach.
Features contained on the Instructor Companion
Website include:
●● Syllabus: Lesson plans created by chapter. You

have the option of using these lesson plans with

your own course information.

Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
Copyright 2016 Cengage Learning. All Rights Reserved. May not be copied, scanned, or duplicated, in whole or in part. Due to electronic rights, some third party content may be suppressed from the eBook and/or eChapter(s).
Editorial review has deemed that any suppressed content does not materially affect the overall learning experience. Cengage Learning reserves the right to remove additional content at any time if subsequent rights restrictions require it.
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acknowledgments

The authors would like to acknowledge the efforts Secretary of Education’s Award for an outstanding
of many people without whose assistance this project Vocational Program. Professor Goetsch is a widely
would not have been completed. We thank Deborah acclaimed teacher, author, and lecturer on the subject
M. Goetsch for her assistance with photography. of drafting and design. He won Outstanding Teacher of
The following individuals reviewed the manu- the Year honors in 1976, 1981, 1982, 1983, and 1984.
script and made valuable suggestions to the authors. In 1986, he won the Florida Vocational Association’s
The authors and the publisher greatly appreciated Rex Gaugh Award for outstanding contributions to
their contributions to this textbook. technical education in Florida. In 2003, Dr. Goetsch
Sharon Bagby, Texas State Technical College was selected as the University of West Florida’s
Distinguished Alumnus. In 2007, he was named one
Steven P. Bauer, The Pennsylvania State
of the University of West Florida’s top 40 alumni in
University, DuBois
its first 40 years of operation. He entered education
Glenn Frostholm, Augusta Technical College full time after a successful career in design and draft-
Jerry M. Gray, West Georgia Technical College ing in the private sector, where he spent more than
Carrie Miller, Middle Georgia Technical College eight years as a Senior Drafter and Designer for a sub-
Alicia O’Kelley, Western Dakota Technical Institute sidiary of Westinghouse Corporation. He was elected
Florida’s Outstanding Economic Development per-
son in 1992, 1996, and 2007.
About the Authors
Raymond L. Rickman is chairman
David L. Goetsch is Emeritus of the Manufacturing and Tech-
Vice President and Professor of nology Department and Professor
Design, Drafting, Quality, and of Design and Drafting at
Safety at Northwest Florida State Northwest Florida State College.
College in Niceville, Florida. His Professor Rickman has exten-
drafting and design program has sive experience in the private
won national acclaim for its pio- sector and the classroom and is
neering efforts in the area of a consultant on the subject of
computer-aided drafting (CAD). geometric dimensioning and tolerancing. He was a
In 1984, his school was selected as one of only 10 member of the ANSI Y14.5 technical committee and is
schools in the country to earn the distinguished U.S. the co-author of several career mathematics textbooks.

Basics

1 Employability Skills

2 rafting Tools: Conventional,

D
CAD, and Solid Modeling

3 ketching and Lettering for

S
Engineering Communication

4 Geometric Construction

Jon Whitney
1
In college, Jon Whitney studied English. On a whim,
he applied to graduate school for architecture, and it
ended up being the right decision.
After the three-and-a-half-year program, he began as
a drafter at Goshow Architects in New York City. This
meant he was responsible for turning architects’ visions
into dimensioned schematics. He would often go on- Next, Whitney and his team will create construc-
site to take measurements and then bring them back tion documents, the technical drawings that are given
to insert into the AutoCAD program. After a superior to the contractor at the start of the project. These
reviewed his drawings, Whitney served as a drafter must be as clear as possible; in fact, Whitney says,
for three years, a typical amount of time for someone this stage is never completed. One can always go one
just out of an architecture master’s program (although level deeper with detail. Therefore, you should do as
many drafters choose to keep drafting indefinitely). much as possible in the allotted time. As a drafter,
While serving as a drafter, Whitney accumulated Whitney used to work primarily in this phase. Now,
credits toward his internship development program most mornings he will spend a few hours review-
(IDP); when you get enough credits, you can begin ing drawings (done either by himself or one of his
the year-long testing process to get your architecture drafters) with a red pen, looking for everything from
license. Whitney is currently in the midst of that test- spelling errors to technical problems. He must also
ing. Now that he is a junior project manager, he is look for clarity and any misleading information. In
still drafting, but he also coordinates multiple proj- essence, the client is paying for the comprehensive
ects, each of which can be in a different stage of the and accurate packet of drawings and specifications
process. developed here.
The first stage is the schematic phase. At this pre- Next comes the bidding and contractor selection.
design stage, Whitney is likely to create a not-to-scale Once a contractor is chosen, the architect hands
schematic by hand, making bubble diagrams to give a over the construction documents, and work on the
broad, general look at the project. For instance, how project begins. In the construction administration
would a loft space look if it was adapted for office use? phase, the architect and drafters may be called in to
Often this stage is conceptual and artistic. provide clarifying drawings on an unpredicted on-
The next stage is design development, at which site issue. (The floor plan may be 40 off, or perhaps
point the drawing starts to become more technical. there is a pipe behind a wall that wasn’t noted in the
This involves refining the schematic, starting to put drawings.)
down dimensions and materials. How big will the walls Being a project manager has been a big—but
dividing offices be? Will they be made of m asonry or exciting—change for Whitney. He’s gotten to step
steel? Do they need windows? Whitney may also call in outside the tunnel vision required of drafters and has
subcontractors (hazmat, mechanical engineers, land- been able to get a broader look at each project. As a
mark conservancy consultants, etc.) if necessary. result, he sees each plan go from an artistic idea to a
technical reality.

OUT L IN E
Graphic communication ● Drawings described ● Types of
KEY TE RM S drawings ● Types of technical drawings ● Purpose of technical
drawings ● Applications of technical drawings ● Regulation
of technical drawings ● What students of technical drawing,
Axonometric Graphic
projections communication drafting, and CAD should learn ● Technical drawing and quality/
competitiveness ● Summary ● Review questions ● Introduction
Cabinet Oblique projections problems
Cavalier Orthographic
projections
Design for OB JEC T IV ES
manufacturability Parallel projection
Upon completion of this introduction, students should be able to
Design process Perspective projections do the following:
Drafters Projection Explain the concept of graphic communication.
Drafting Projector Define the term drawing.

Drafting technicians Technical drawing Differentiate between artistic and technical drawings.
List and explain the types of technical drawings.
Drawing
Explain the purpose of technical drawings.
Explain the different applications of technical d
rawings.
Explain the concept of the regulation of technical drawings.
Describe the role of design and drafting in promoting quality
and competitiveness.

Graphic Communication In order to understand an artistic drawing, it is

sometimes necessary to first understand the artist.
Graphic communication involves using visual mate- Artists often take a subtle or abstract approach in
rial to relate ideas. Drawings, photographs, slides, communicating through their drawings. This gives
transparencies, and sketches are all forms of graphic rise to the various interpretations often associated
communication. Most children are able to draw before with artistic drawings.
they are able to write. This is graphic communication.
When one person sketches a rough map in giving Technical Drawings
another directions, this is graphic communication. Any
The technical drawing, on the other hand, is not subtle
medium that uses a graphic image to aid in conveying a
or abstract. It does not require an understanding of its
message, instructions, or an idea is involved in graphic
creator, but only an understanding of technical draw-
communication. One of the most widely used forms of
ings. A technical drawing is a means of clearly and con-
graphic communication is the drawing.
cisely communicating all of the information necessary
to transform an idea or a concept into reality. Therefore,
Drawings Described a technical drawing often contains more than just a
A drawing is a graphic representation of an idea, graphic representation of its subject. It also contains
a concept, or an entity that actually or potentially dimensions, notes, and specifications.
exists in life. The drawing itself is: (1) a way of The mark of a good technical drawing is that it
communicating all necessary information about an contains all of the information needed by individu-
abstraction, such as an idea or a concept, or (2) a als for converting the idea or concept into reality.
graphic representation of some real entity, such as a The conversion process may involve manufacturing,
machine part, a house, or a tool, for example. assembly, construction, or fabrication. Regardless
Drawing is one of the oldest forms of communica- of the process involved, a good technical drawing
tion, dating back even farther than verbal communi- allows the conversion process to proceed without
cation. Cave dwellers painted drawings on the walls having to ask designers or drafters for additional
of their caves thousands of years before paper was information or clarification.
invented. These crude drawings served as a means of Figures 1 and 2 contain samples of technical
communicating long before verbal communications mechanical drawings that are used as guides by the
had developed beyond the grunting stage. In later people involved in various phases of manufacturing
years, Egyptian hieroglyphics were a more advanced the represented parts. Notice that the drawings con-
form of communicating through drawings. tain a graphic representation of the part, dimensions,
The old adage “one picture is worth a thousand material specifications, and notes.
words” is still the basis of the need for technical
Illustrations or Renderings
drawings.
Illustrations or renderings are sometimes referred to
Types of Drawings as a third type of drawing because they are neither
completely technical nor completely artistic; they
There are two basic types of drawings: artistic and combine elements of both, as shown in Figures 3, 4,
technical. Some experts believe there are actually 5, and 6. They are technical in that they are drawn
three types: the two mentioned and another type that with mechanical instruments or on a computer-aided
combines these two. The third type is usually referred drafting system, and they contain some degree of
to as an illustration or rendering. technical information. However, they are also artistic
in that they attempt to convey a mood; an attitude; a
Artistic Drawings status; or other abstract, nontechnical feelings.

Artistic drawings range in scope from the simplest

line drawings to the most famous paintings.
Types of Technical Drawings
Regardless of their complexity or status, artistic Technical drawings are based on the fundamental
drawings are used to express the feelings, beliefs, principles of projection. A projection is a drawing or
philosophies, or abstract ideas of the artist. This representation of an entity on an imaginary plane or
is why the layperson often finds it difficult to planes. This projection plane serves the same pur-
understand what is being communicated by a work pose in technical drawing as is served by the movie
of art. screen in a theater.

Figure 1 Technical drawing (mechanical).

As shown in Figure 7, a projection involves four Parallel Projection

components: (1) the actual object that the drawing or
projection represents, (2) the eye of the viewer look- Parallel projection is divided into the following three
ing at the object, (3) the imaginary projection plane categories: orthographic, oblique, and axonometric
(the viewer’s drawing paper or the graphics display projections.
in a computer-aided drafting system), and (4) imagi- Orthographic projections are drawn as multiview
nary lines of sight called projectors. drawings that show flat representations of
Two broad types of projection, both with several principal views of the subject (Figure 8). Oblique
subclassifications, are parallel projection and per- projections actually show the full size of one view
spective (converging) projection. and are of three varieties: cabinet (half-scale),
cavalier (full-scale), and general (between half- and
full-scale). Figures 9 and 10 show cavalier and
cabinet projections. Axonometric projections are
three-dimensional drawings and are of three differ-
ent varieties: isometric, dimetric, and trimetric, as
shown in Figures 11, 12, and 13.

Perspective Projection
Perspective projections are drawings that attempt to
replicate what the human eye actually sees when
it views an object. That is why the projectors in a
perspective drawing converge. There are three types
of perspective projections: one-point, two-point,
and three-point projections, as shown in Figures 14,
15, and 16.

Purpose of Technical Drawings

To appreciate the need for technical drawings, one
must understand the design process. The design
process is an orderly, systematic procedure used in
Figure 2 Technical drawing (mechanical). accomplishing a needed design.

Figure 3 Rendering.

Figure 4 Rendering.

Any product that is to be manufactured, fabricated, The Design Process

assembled, constructed, built, or subjected to any other
type of conversion process must first be designed. For The design process is an organized, step-by-step proce-
example, a house must be designed before it can be dure in which mathematical and scientific principles,
built. An automobile must be designed before it can be coupled with experience, are brought to bear in order
manufactured. A printed circuit board must be designed to solve a problem or meet a need. The design process
before it can be fabricated. has five steps. Traditionally, these steps have been:

Figure 5 Mechanical illustration (Courtesy Ken Elliott).

Figure 6 Mechanical illustration (Courtesy Ken Elliott).

(1) identification of the problem or need, (2) devel- to computer-aided drafting (CAD). For these com-
opment of initial ideas for solving the problem, panies, the expensive, time-consuming fourth step
(3) selection of a proposed solution, (4) development in the design process—the making and testing of
and testing of models or prototypes, and develop- actual models or prototypes—has been substantially
ment of working drawings (Figure 17). altered as shown in Figure 18. This fourth step has
The age of computers has altered the design pro- been replaced with three-dimensional computer
cess slightly for those companies that have converted models that can be quickly and easily produced on a

PROJECTORS

VIEWER'S
EYE

OBJECT BEING
VIEWED
PROJECTION
PLANE THE PROJECTION
OR DRAWING

Figure 7 The projection plane.

1.50

Ø.75 THRU

1.00

TOP VIEW

FRONT VIEW 1.00 RIGHT-SIDE VIEW

3.00 2.00

Figure 8 Orthographic multiview drawing.

DEPTH—HALF SCALE DEPTH—FULL SCALE

FULL FULL
SIZE SIZE
CABINET OBLIQUE CAVALIER OBLIQUE

Figure 9 Oblique projection (cabinet). Figure 10 Oblique projection (cavalier).

CAD system using the database built up during the document the design process. Creating technical
first three phases of the design process (Figure 19). drawings to support the design process is called draft-
Whether in the traditional design process or the ing. People who do drafting are known as drafters,
more modern computer version, working drawings drafting technicians, or CAD technicians (computer-
are an integral part of the design process from start aided drafting technicians). The words “draftsman”
to finish. The purpose of technical drawings is to or “draughtsman” are no longer used.

All these persecutions could not stop the crowd of Christians who repaired to Jerusalem, the sight of
the Holy City sustaining their courage as it heightened their devotion. There were no evils, no outrages,
that they could not support with resignation, when they remembered that Christ had been loaded with
chains and had died upon the cross in the places they were about to visit. The Christians of Palestine,
however, enjoyed some short intervals of security during the civil wars of the Mussulmans. The dynasty
of the Omayyads, which had established the seat of the Moslem empire at Damascus, was always
odious to the ever-formidable party of the Alids, and employed itself less in persecuting the Christians
than in preserving its own precarious power. Merwan II, the last caliph of this house, was the most cruel
towards the disciples of Christ; and when he, with all his family, sank under the power of his enemies,
the Christians and the infidels united in thanks to heaven for having delivered the East from his tyranny.
The Abbasids, established in the city of Baghdad which they had founded, persecuted and tolerated
the Christians by turns. The Christians, always living between the fear of persecution and the hope of a
transient security, saw at last the prospect of happier days dawn upon them with the reign of Harun ar-
Rashid, the greatest caliph of the race of Abbas. Under this reign the glory of Charlemagne, which had
reached Asia, protected the churches of the East. His pious liberality relieved the indigence of the
Christians of Alexandria, of Carthage, and Jerusalem. The two greatest princes of their age testified
their mutual esteem by frequent embassies: they sent each other magnificent presents; and, in the
friendly intercourse of two powerful monarchs, the East and the West exchanged the richest
productions of their soil and their industry. There was no doubt policy in the marks of esteem which
Harun lavished upon the most powerful of the princes of the West. He was making war against the
emperors of Constantinople, and might justly fear that they would interest the bravest among Christian
people in their cause. To take from the Franks every pretext for a religious war, which might make them
embrace the cause of the Greeks, and draw them into Asia, the caliph neglected no opportunity of
obtaining the friendship of Charlemagne; and caused the keys of the Holy City and of the Holy
Sepulchre to be presented to him.
Whilst the Arabians of Africa were pursuing their conquests towards the West, whilst they took
possession of Sicily, and Rome itself saw its suburbs and its churches of St. Peter and St. Paul invaded
and pillaged by infidels, the servants of Jesus Christ prayed in peace within the walls of Jerusalem. To
the desire of visiting the tomb of Jerusalem was joined the earnest wish to procure relics, which were
then sought for with eagerness by the devotion of the faithful. All who returned from the East made it
their glory to bring back to their country some precious remains of Christian antiquity, and above all the
bones of holy martyrs, which constituted the ornament and the riches of their churches and upon which
princes and kings swore to respect truth and justice. The productions of Asia likewise attracted the
attention of the people of Europe.
In short, the Christians of Palestine and the Moslem provinces, the pilgrims and
[860-1050 a.d.] travellers who returned from the East, seemed no longer to have any persecutions
to dread, when all at once new storms broke out in the East. The children of Harun
soon shared the fate of the posterity of Charlemagne, and Asia, like the West, was plunged into the
horrors of anarchy and civil war. The gigantic empire of the Abbasids crumbled away on all sides, and
the world, according to the expression of an Arabian writer, was within the reach of him who would take
possession of it. The Greeks then appeared to rouse themselves from their long supineness, and sought
to take advantage of the divisions and the humiliation of the Saracens. Nicephorus Phocas took the field
at the head of a powerful army, and recaptured Antioch from the Moslems. Deprived of the powerful
stimulus of fanaticism, Nicephorus found among the Greeks more panegyrists than soldiers, and could
not pursue his advantages against the Saracens. His triumphs were confined to the taking of Antioch,
and only served to create a persecution against the Christians of Palestine.
Zimisces resolved to avenge the outrage inflicted upon religion and the empire. On all sides
preparations were set on foot for a fresh war against the Saracens. The nations of the West were no
strangers to this enterprise, which preceded, by more than a year, the first of the Crusades. After having
defeated the Mussulmans on the banks of the Tigris, and forced the caliph of Baghdad to pay a tribute,
Zimisces penetrated, almost without resistance, into Judea, took possession of Cæsarea, of Ptolemais,
of Tiberias, Nazareth, and several other cities of the Holy Land.
After this first campaign, the Holy Land appeared to be on the eve of being delivered entirely from
the yoke of the infidels, when the emperor died poisoned. His death at once put a stop to the execution
of an enterprise of which he was the soul and the leader. The Christian nations had scarcely time to
rejoice at the delivery of Jerusalem, when they learned that the Holy City had again fallen into the
hands of the Fatimite caliphs, who, after the death of Zimisces, had invaded Syria and Palestine. Hakim,
the third of the Fatimite caliphs, signalised his reign by all the excesses of fanaticism and outrage.
Unfixed in his own projects, and wavering between two religions, he by turns protected and persecuted
Christianity.
The inconstancy of Hakim, in a degree, mitigated the misfortunes of Jerusalem, and he had just
granted liberty to the Christians to rebuild their churches, when he died by the hand of the assassin. His
successor, guided by a wiser policy, tolerated both pilgrimages and the exercise of the Christian religion.
The church of the Holy Sepulchre was not entirely rebuilt till thirty years after its destruction; but the
spectacle of its ruins still inflamed the zeal and the devotion of the Christians. In the eleventh century
the Latin church allowed pilgrimages to suffice instead of canonical penitences; sinners were
condemned to quit their country for a time, and to lead a wandering life, after the example of Cain.
There existed no crime that might not be expiated by the pilgrimage to Jerusalem. Even the weak and
timid sex was not deterred by the perils of a long voyage.b

CHARACTER OF THE PILGRIMS

Though pilgrimages were generally considered acts of virtue, yet some of the
[1000-1050 a.d.] leaders of the church accounted them useless and criminal. Gregory, bishop of
Nyssa, in the fourth century, dissuades his flock from these journeys. They were not conscientious
obligations, he said, for in the description of persons whom Christ had promised to acknowledge in the
next world the name of pilgrim could not be found. A migratory life was dangerous to virtue, particularly
to the modesty of women.
The necessity of making a pilgrimage to Rome and other places was often urged by ladies, who did
not wish to be mewed in the solitary gloom of a cloister, “chaunting faint hymns to the cold fruitless
moon.” In the ninth century, a foreign bishop wrote to the archbishop of Canterbury, requesting, in very
earnest terms, that English women of every rank and degree might be prohibited from pilgrimising to
Rome. Their gallantries were notorious over all the continent. “Perpaucæ enim sunt civitates in
Longobardia, vel in Francia, aut in Gallia, in qua non sit adultera vel meretrix generis Anglorum: quod
scandalum est, et turpitudo totius ecclesiæ.” Muratori, Antiquitates Italiæ Med. Ævi, Dissert. 58, vol. V.,
p. 58. “There are few cities in Lombardy, in France, or in Gaul, in which there is not an English adultress
or harlot, to the scandal and disgrace of the whole church.” Morality did not improve as the world grew
older. The prioress in Chaucer, demure as she is, wears a bracelet on which was inscribed the sentence,
“Amor vincit omnia.” The gallant monk, in the same pilgrimage, ties his hood with a true-lover’s knot.
Horror at spectacles of vice would diminish with familiarity, and the moral principle would gradually be
destroyed. Malice, idolatry, poisoning, and bloodshed disgraced Jerusalem itself; and so dreadfully
polluted was the city that, if any man wished to have a more than ordinary spiritual communication with
Christ, he had better quit his earthly tabernacle at once than endeavour to enjoy it in places originally
sacred, but which had been since defiled. Some years after the time of Gregory, a similar description of
the depravity at Jerusalem was given by St. Jerome, and the Latin father commends a monk who,
though a resident in Palestine, had but on one occasion travelled to the city. The opinions of these two
venerable spiritual guides could not stem the torrent of popular religion. The coffers of the church were
enriched by the sale of relics, and the dominion of the clergy became powerful in proportion to the
growth of religious abuses and corruptions. Pilgrims from India, Ethiopia, Britannia, and Hibernia went
to Jerusalem; and the tomb of Christ resounded with hymns in various languages. Bishops and teachers
would have thought it a disgrace to their piety and learning if they had not adored their Saviour on the
very spot where his cross had first shed the light of his Gospel.
The assertion, that “the coffers of the church were enriched by the sale of
relics,” requires some observations; because the sale of one relic in particular
encouraged the ardour of pilgrimages, and from the ardour the Crusades
arose. During the fourth century, Christendom was duped into the belief that
the very cross on which Christ had suffered had been discovered in Jerusalem.
The city’s bishop was the keeper of the treasure, but the faithful never offered
their money in vain for a fragment of the holy wood. They listened with
credulity to the assurance of their priests that a living virtue pervaded an
inanimate and insensible substance, and that the cross permitted itself every
day to be divided into several parts, and yet remained uninjured and entire.
Thus Erasmus says, in his entertaining dialogue on pilgrimages, that “if the
fragments of the cross were collected, enough would be found for the building
of a ship.” It was publicly exhibited during the religious festivities of Easter, and
Jerusalem was crowded with pious strangers to witness the solemn spectacle.
But after four ages of perpetual distribution, the world was filled with relics,
and superstition craved for a novel object. Accordingly, the Latin clergy of
Palestine pretended that on the vigil of Easter, after the great lamps in the
church of the Resurrection had been extinguished, they were relighted by God
himself. People flocked from the West to the East in order to behold this act of
the Divinity, and to catch some portion of a flame which had the marvellous
property of healing all diseases, mental as well as bodily, if those who received A Pilgrim and Shrine
it had faith.c
The inclination to acquire holiness by the journey to Jerusalem became at length
[1050-1076 a.d.] so general that the troops of pilgrims alarmed by their numbers the countries
through which they passed, and although they came not as soldiers they were designated “the armies
of the Lord.” In the year 1054, Litbert, bishop of Cambray, set out for the Holy Land, followed by more
than three thousand pilgrims from the provinces of Picardy and Flanders.
Ten years after, seven thousand Christians set out together from the banks of the Rhine. This
numerous caravan, which was the forerunner of the Crusades, crossed Germany, Hungary, Bulgaria, and
Thrace, and was welcomed at Constantinople by the emperor Constantine Ducas. After having visited
the churches of Byzantium, the pilgrims of the West traversed Asia Minor and Syria without danger; but
when they approached Jerusalem, the sight of their riches aroused the cupidity of the Bedouin Arabs,
undisciplined hordes, who had neither country nor settled abode, and who had rendered themselves
formidable in the civil wars of the East. The Arabs attacked the pilgrims of the West, and compelled
them to sustain a siege in an abandoned village; and this was on a Good Friday. The emir of Ramala,
informed by some fugitives, came happily to their rescue, delivered them from the death with which
they were threatened, and permitted them to continue their journey. After having lost more than three
thousand of their companions, they returned to Europe, to relate their tragical adventures, and the
dangers of a pilgrimage to the Holy Land.

THE TURKS IN POWER

New perils and the most violent persecutions at this period threatened both the
[1076-1088 a.d.] pilgrims of the West and the Christians of Palestine. Asia was once again about to
change masters, and tremble beneath a fresh tyranny. During several centuries the
rich countries of the East had been subject to continual invasions from the wild hordes of Tatary. The
Turks, issuing from countries situated beyond the Oxus, had rendered themselves masters of Persia.
Palestine yielded to the power of the Turks. The conquerors spared neither the Christians nor the
children of Ali, whom the caliph of Baghdad represented to be the enemies of God. The Egyptian
garrison was massacred, and the mosques and the churches were delivered up to pillage. The Holy City
was flooded with the blood of Christians and Mussulmans.
Other tribes of Turks, led by Suleiman, penetrated into Asia Minor. They took possession of all the
provinces through which pilgrims were accustomed to pass on their way to Jerusalem. The standard of
the prophet floated over the walls of Edessa, Iconium, Tarsus, and Antioch. Thousands of children had
been circumcised. Everywhere the laws of the Koran took the place of those of the Evangelists and of
Greece. The black or white tents of the Turks covered the plains and the mountains of Bithynia and
Cappadocia, and their flocks pastured among the ruins of the monasteries and churches. The Greeks
had never had to contend against more cruel and terrible enemies than the Turks. In the midst of
revolutions and civil wars, the Greek Empire was hastening to its fall.
Whilst the empire of the East approached its fall and appeared sapped by time and corruption, the
institutions of the West were in their infancy. The empire and the laws of Charlemagne no longer
existed. Nations had no relations with each other; and mistaking their political interests, made wars
without considering their consequences or their dangers, and concluded peace without being at all
aware whether it was advantageous or not. Royal authority was nowhere sufficiently strong to arrest the
progress of anarchy and the abuses of feudalism. At the same time that Europe was full of soldiers and
covered with strong castles, the states themselves were without support against their enemies, and had
not an army to defend them.
Ten years before the invasion of Asia Minor by the Turks, Michael Ducas, the successor of Romanus
Diogenes, had implored the assistance of the pope and the princes of the West. He had promised to
remove all the barriers which separated the Greek from the Roman church, if the Latins would take up
arms against the infidels. Gregory VII then filled the chair of St. Peter. The hope of extending the
religion and the empire of the holy see into the East made him receive kindly the humble supplications
of Michael Ducas. Excited by his discourses, fifty thousand pilgrims agreed to follow Gregory to
Constantinople, and thence to Syria; but the affairs of Europe suspended the execution of his projects.
Every day the power of the popes was augmented by the progress of Christianity, and by the ever-
increasing influence of the Latin clergy. Rome was become a second time the capital of the world, and
appeared to have resumed, under the monk Hildebrand, the empire it had enjoyed under the cæsars.
Armed with the two-edged sword of Peter, Gregory loudly proclaimed that all the kingdoms of the earth
were under the dominion of the holy see, and that his authority ought to be as universal as the church
of which he was the head. These dangerous pretensions, fostered by the opinions of his age, engaged
him immediately in violent disputes with the emperor of Germany. He desired also to dictate laws to
France, Spain, Sweden, Poland, and England; and thinking of nothing but making himself acknowledged
as the great arbiter of states, he launched his anathemas even against the throne of Constantinople,
which he had undertaken to defend, and gave no more attention to the deliverance of Jerusalem.
After the death of Gregory, Victor III, although he pursued the policy of his predecessor and had to
contend against the emperor of Germany and the party of the anti-pope Guibert (Clement III), did not
neglect the opportunity of making war against the Mussulmans. The Saracens, inhabiting Africa,
disturbed the navigation of the Mediterranean, and threatened the coast of Italy. Victor invited the
Christians to take arms, and promised them the remission of all their sins if they went to fight against
the infidels. The inhabitants of Pisa, Genoa, and several other cities, urged by their zeal for religion and
their desire to defend their commerce, equipped fleets, levied troops, and made a descent upon the
coasts of Africa, where, if we are to believe the chronicles of the time, they cut in pieces an army of one
hundred thousand Saracens.b

PETER THE HERMIT

The true story of the first Crusade is, as Kuglerd says, sufficiently marvellous. It
[1088-1095 a.d.]
was a vast awakening in which religion, adventure, and design forced the European
peoples out of their narrow lines of life and brought the West and East again in contact, and it grows in
strangeness as we trace the story in detail. But monkish, uncritical writings which record the vague
traditions of that great uprising have not rested satisfied with the marvellous truth: they have added
much that is legendary. Among the legends that have failed to stand the test of recent scholarship, is
the famous one which made Peter the Hermit the originator of the first Crusade. We may now feel sure
that it was not Peter but Urban II who set going the great impetus; but the legend of Peter the Hermit
has grown into the story of the first Crusade, and won its place in history from the belief of centuries.
The reader must, however, be aware, as he reads it, that we have no authentic account of Peter’s
preaching before the Council of Clermont. He was probably one of the preachers who scattered the
enthusiasm of that council in northeastern France. His preaching was likely limited to the land where he
could be understood in the vernacular, and his real influence is rather to be estimated by the rabble that
followed him and Walter the Penniless, to leave their bones by the Danube or Bosporus. So much
prefaced, let us turn to the story.
As the legend runs, Peter, an obscure hermit, came from his retreat, and followed into Palestine the
crowd of Christians who went to visit the holy places.a The sight of Jerusalem excited him much more
than any of the other pilgrims, for it created in his ardent mind a thousand conflicting sentiments. In
the city, which exhibited everywhere marks of the mercy and the anger of God, all objects inflamed his
piety, irritated his devotion and his zeal, and filled him by turns with respect, terror, and indignation.
After having followed his brethren to Calvary and the tomb of Christ he repaired to the patriarch of
Jerusalem. The white hairs of Simeon, his venerable figure, and above all the persecution which he had
undergone, bespoke the full confidence of Peter, and they wept together over the ills of the Christians.
The patriarch resolved to implore, by his letters, the help of the pope and the princes of Europe, and
the hermit swore to be the interpreter of the Christians of the East and to rouse the West to take arms
for their deliverance.
After this interview, the enthusiasm of Peter knew no bounds; he was persuaded that heaven itself
called upon him to avenge its cause. One day, whilst prostrated before the Holy Sepulchre, he believed
that he heard the voice of Christ, which said to him: “Peter, arise! hasten to proclaim the tribulations of
my people; it is time that my servants should receive help, and that the holy places should be
delivered.” Full of the spirit of these words, which sounded unceasingly in his ears,
and charged with letters from the patriarch, he quitted Palestine, crossed the seas,
landed on the coast of Italy, and hastened to cast himself at the feet of the pope.
The chair of St. Peter was then occupied by Urban II, who had been the disciple and
confidant of both Gregory and Victor. Urban embraced with ardour a project which
had been entertained by his predecessors; he received Peter as a prophet,
applauded his design, and bade him go forth and announce the approaching
deliverance of Jerusalem.

A Hermit of the
Middle Ages
Peter the Hermit traversed Italy, crossed the Alps,
[1095-1096 a.d.] visited all parts of France, and the greatest portion
of Europe, inflaming all hearts with the same zeal
that consumed his own. He travelled mounted on a mule, with a crucifix
in his hand, his feet bare, his head uncovered, his body girded with a
thick cord, covered with a long frock, and a hermit’s hood of the
coarsest stuff. The singularity of his appearance was a spectacle for the
people, whilst the austerity of his manners, his charity, and the moral
doctrines that he preached caused him to be revered as a saint
wherever he went.
He went from city to city, from province to province, working upon the
courage of some and upon the piety of others; sometimes haranguing
from the pulpits of the churches, sometimes preaching in the high-roads
or public places. His eloquence was animated and impressive, and filled
with those vehement apostrophes which produce such effects upon an
uncultivated multitude. He described the profanation of the holy places,
and the blood of the Christians shed in torrents in the streets of
Jerusalem. He invoked, by turns, heaven, the saints, the angels, whom
he called upon to bear witness to the truth of what he told them. He
apostrophised Mount Zion, the rock of Calvary, and the Mount of Olives,
which he made to resound with sobs and groans. When he had
exhausted speech in painting the miseries of the faithful, he showed the
spectators the crucifix which he carried with him; sometimes striking his
breast and wounding his flesh, sometimes shedding torrents of tears.
The people followed the steps of Peter in crowds. The preacher of the
holy war was received everywhere as a messenger from God.

THE APPEAL OF THE EMPEROR ALEXIUS

In the midst of this general excitement, Alexius Comnenus, who was

threatened by the Turks, sent ambassadors to the pope, to solicit the
assistance of the Latins. “Without the prompt assistance of all the
Christian states,” he wrote, “Constantinople must fall under the most
frightful domination of the Turks.” He reminded the princes of
Christianity of the holy relics preserved in Constantinople, and conjured
them to save so sacred an assemblage of venerated objects from the
profanation of the infidels. After having set forth the splendour and the
riches of his capital, he exhorted the knights and barons to come and
defend them; he offered them his treasures as the reward of their
valour, and painted in glowing colours the beauty of the Greek women,
whose love would repay the exploits of his liberators. Thus, nothing was
spared that could flatter the passions or arouse the enthusiasm of the
warriors of the West.

COUNCILS OF PLACENTIA AND CLERMONT

In compliance with the prayers of Alexius and the wishes of the

faithful, the sovereign pontiff convoked a council at Placentia, in order
there to expose the dangers of the Greek and Latin churches in the
East. The preachings of Peter had so prepared the minds and animated
the zeal of the faithful, that more than two hundred bishops and
archbishops, four thousand ecclesiastics, and thirty thousand of the laity
obeyed the invitation of the holy see. The council was so numerous that
it was obliged to be held in a plain in the neighbourhood of the city. The
Council of Placentia, however, came to no determination upon the war
against the infidels. The deliverance of the Holy Land was far from being
the only object of this council: the declarations of the empress Adelaide,
who came to reveal her own shame and that of her husband,
anathemas against the emperor of Germany and the anti-pope Guibert,
occupied, during several days, the attention of Urban and the assembled
fathers.
A new council assembled at Clermont, in Auvergne. Before it gave up
its attention to the holy war, the council at first considered the reform of
the clergy and ecclesiastical discipline; and it then occupied itself in
placing a restraint upon the license of wars among individuals. In these
barbarous times even simple knights never thought of redressing their
injuries by any other means than arms. It was not an uncommon thing
to see families, for the slightest causes, commence a war against each
other that would last during several generations; Europe was distracted
with troubles occasioned by these hostilities. In the impotence of the
laws and the governments, the church often exerted its salutary
influence to restore tranquillity; several councils had placed their
interdict upon private wars during four days of the week, and their
decrees had invoked the vengeance of heaven against disturbers of the
public peace. The Council of Clermont renewed the Truce of God, and
threatened all who refused “to accept peace and justice” with the
thunders of the church. One of its decrees placed widows, orphans,
merchants, and labourers under the safeguard of religion. They
declared, as they had already done in other councils, that the churches
should be so many inviolable sanctuaries, and that crosses, even, placed
upon the high-roads, should become points of refuge against violence.
Humanity and reason must applaud such salutary decrees; but the
sovereign pontiff, although he presented himself as the defender of the
sanctity of marriage, did not merit the same praises when he
pronounced in this council an anathema against Philip I. But such was
then the general infatuation, that no one was astonished that a king of
France should be excommunicated in the very bosom of his own
kingdom. The sentence of Urban could not divert attention from an
object that seemed much more imposing, and the excommunication of
Philip scarcely holds a place in the history of the Council of Clermont.
The faithful, gathered from all the provinces, had but one single
thought; they spoke of nothing but the evils the Christians endured in
Palestine, and saw nothing but the war which was about to be declared
against the infidels. Enthusiasm and fanaticism, which always increase in
large assemblies, were carried to their full height. Urban at length
satisfied the impatience of the faithful—impatience which he, perhaps,
had adroitly excited, and which was the surest guarantee of success.
The council held its tenth sitting in the great square or place of
Clermont, which was soon filled by an immense crowd. Followed by his
cardinals, the pope ascended a species of throne which had been
prepared for him; at his side was Peter the Hermit, clad in that
whimsical and uncouth garb which had everywhere drawn upon him the
attention and the respect of the multitude. Urban, who spoke after
Peter, represented, as he had done, the holy places as profaned by the
domination of the infidels.
As Urban proceeded, the sentiments by which he was animated
penetrated to the very souls of his auditors. When he spoke of the
captivity and the misfortunes of Jerusalem, the whole assembly was
dissolved in tears; when he described the tyranny and the perfidy of the
infidels, the warriors who listened to him clutched their swords, and
swore in their hearts to avenge the cause of the Christians. Urban
redoubled their enthusiasm by announcing that God had chosen them to
accomplish his designs, and exhorted them to turn those arms against
the Moslems which they now bore in conflict against their brothers. They
were not now called upon to revenge the injuries of men, but injuries
offered to divinity; it was now not the conquest of a town or a castle
that was offered to them as the reward of their valour, but the riches of
Asia, the possession of a land in which, according to the promises of the
Scriptures, flowed streams of milk and honey.
“Christian warriors,” he exclaimed, “who seek without end for vain
pretexts for war, rejoice, for you have to-day found true ones. You who
have been so often the terror of your fellow-citizens, go and fight
against the barbarians, go and fight for the deliverance of the holy
places; you who sell for vile pay the strength of your arms to the fury of
others, armed with the sword of the Maccabees, go and merit an eternal
reward. If you triumph over your enemies, the kingdoms of the East will
be your heritage; if you are conquered, you will have the glory of dying
in the very same place as Jesus Christ, and God will not forget that he
shall have found you in his holy ranks. This is the moment to prove that
you are animated by a true courage; this is the moment in which you
may expiate so many violences committed in the bosom of peace, so
many victories purchased at the expense of justice and humanity. If you
must have blood, bathe your hands in the blood of the infidels. I speak
to you with harshness, because my ministry obliges me to do so:
soldiers of hell, become soldiers of the living God! When Jesus Christ
summons you to his defence, let no base affections detain you in your
homes; see nothing but the shame and the evils of the Christians; listen
to nothing but the groans of Jerusalem, and remember well what the
Lord has said to you: ‘He who loves his father and his mother more than
me, is not worthy of me; whoever shall abandon his house, or his father,
or his mother, or his wife, or his children, or his inheritance, for the sake
of my name, shall be recompensed a hundredfold, and possess life
eternal.’”
At these words the auditors of Urban displayed an enthusiasm that
human eloquence had never before inspired. The assembly arose in one
mass as one man, and answered him with a unanimous cry, “It is the
will of God! It is the will of God!”[46] Pity, indignation, despair, at the
same time agitated the tumultuous assembly of the faithful; some shed
tears over Jerusalem and the fate of the Christians; others swore to
exterminate the race of the Moslems; but, all at once, at a signal from
the sovereign pontiff, the most profound silence prevailed. Cardinal
Gregory, who afterwards occupied the chair of St. Peter under the name
of Innocent II, pronounced, in a loud voice, a form of general
confession, the assembly all fell upon their knees, beat their breasts,
and received absolution for their sins. All the faithful decorated their
garments with a red cross. From that time, all who engaged to combat
the infidels were termed “bearers of the cross,”[47] and the holy war
took the name of “Crusade.” The faithful solicited Urban to place himself
at their head; but the pontiff, who had not yet triumphed over the anti-
pope Guibert, who was dealing out at the same time his anathemas
against the king of France and the emperor of Germany, could not quit
Europe without compromising the power and the policy of the holy see.
He refused to be chief of the crusade, and named the bishop of Puy
apostolic legate with the army of the Christians.

THE FRENZY OF EUROPE

He promised to all who assumed the cross the entire remission of

their sins. Their persons, their families, their property, were all placed
under the protection of the church and of the apostles St. Peter and St.
Paul. The council declared that every violence exercised upon the
soldiers of Christ should be punished by anathema, and recommended
its decrees in favour of the bearers of the cross to the watchful care of
all bishops and priests. It regulated the discipline and the departure of
those who had enrolled themselves in the holy ranks, and for fear
reflection might deter any from leaving their homes, it threatened with
excommunication all those who did not fulfil their vows.
It might be said that the French had no longer any other country than
the Holy Land, and that to it they were bound to sacrifice their ease,
their property, and their lives. This enthusiasm, which had no bounds,
was not long in extending itself to the other Christian nations; the flame
which consumed France was communicated to England, still disturbed
by the recent conquest of the Normans; to Germany,
troubled by the anathema of Gregory and Urban; to
Italy, agitated by its factions; to Spain, even,
although it had to combat the Saracens on its own
territory.
The devotion for pilgrimages, which had been
increasing during several centuries, became a
passion and an imperative want for most Christians;
everyone was eager to march to Jerusalem, and to
take part in the crusade, which was, in all respects,
an armed pilgrimage. The situation in which Europe
was then placed no doubt contributed to increase the
number of pilgrims. “All things were in such disorder,”
says William of Tyre, “that the world appeared to be
approaching to its end, and was ready to fall again
into the confusion of chaos.” Everywhere the people
groaned under a horrible servitude; a frightful
scarcity of provisions, which had during several years
desolated France and the greater part of the
kingdoms of the West, had given birth to all sorts of
brigandage and violence; and these proving the
destruction of agriculture and commerce increased
still further the horrors of the famine. Villages, towns Monks of the Middle
Ages
even, became void of inhabitants, and sank into
ruins. The people abandoned a land which no longer
nourished them, or could offer them either repose or security: the
standard of the cross appeared to them a certain asylum against misery
and oppression. According to the decrees of the Council of Clermont, the
crusaders were freed from all imposts, and could not be pursued for
debts during their voyage. At the name of the cross the very laws
suspended their menaces, tyranny could not seek its victims, nor justice
even the guilty, amidst those whom the church adopted for its
defenders. The assurance of impunity, the hope of a better fate, the love
of license, and a desire to shake off the most sacred ties, actuated a
vast proportion of the multitude which flocked to the banners of the
crusade.
Many nobles who had not at first taken the cross, and who saw their
vassals set out, without having the power to prevent them, determined
to follow them as military chiefs, in order to preserve some portion of
their authority. It was known that two or three hundred Norman pilgrims
had conquered Apulia and Sicily from the Saracens. The lands occupied
by the infidels appeared to be heritages promised to knights whose
whole wealth consisted in their birth, their valour, and their sword.
We should nevertheless deceive ourselves if we did not believe that
religion was the principle which acted most powerfully upon the greater
number of the crusaders. In ordinary times men follow their natural
inclinations, and only obey the voice of their own interest; but in the
times of the Crusades, religious fever was a blind passion which spoke
louder than all others. Religion permitted not any other glory, any other
felicity to be seen by its ardent defenders, but those which she
presented to their heated imagination. Love of country, family ties, the
most tender affections of the heart, were all sacrificed to the ideas and
the opinions which then possessed the whole of Europe. Moderation was
cowardice, indifference treason, opposition a sacrilegious interference.
The power of the laws was reckoned as nothing amongst men who
believed they were fighting in the cause of God. Subjects scarcely
acknowledged the authority of princes or lords in anything which
concerned the holy war; the master and the slave had no other title
than that of Christian, no other duty to perform than that of defending
his religion, sword in hand.
They whom age or condition appeared to detain in Europe, and whom
the council had exempted from the labours and perils of the crusade,
caused the heaven which called them to the holy war to speak aloud.
Women and children imprinted crosses upon their delicate and weak
limbs, to show the will of God. Monks deserted the cloisters in which
they had sworn to die, believing themselves led by a divine inspiration;
hermits and anchorites issued from forests and deserts, and mingled
with the crowd of crusaders. What is still more difficult to believe,
thieves and robbers, quitting their secret retreats, came to confess their
crimes, and promised, whilst receiving the cross, to go and expiate them
in Palestine.
Europe appeared to be a land of exile, which everyone was eager to
quit. Artisans, traders, labourers, abandoned the occupations by which
they subsisted; barons and lords even renounced the domains of their
fathers. The lands, the cities, the castles, for which they had but of late
been at war, all at once lost their value in the eyes of their possessors,
and were given up, for small sums, to those whom the grace of God had
not touched, and who were not called to the happiness of visiting the
holy places and conquering the East.
Contemporary authors relate several miracles which assisted in
heating the minds of the multitude. Stars fell from the firmament; traces
of blood were seen in the heavens; cities, armies, and knights decorated
with the cross were pictured in the clouds. We will not relate all the
other miracles reported by historians, which were believed in an age in
which nothing was more common than prodigies, in which, according to
the remark of Fleury, the taste for the wonderful prevailed greatly over
that for the true. Our readers will find quite enough of extraordinary
things in the description of so many great events for which the moral
world, and even nature herself, seemed to have interrupted their laws.
What prodigy, in fact, can more astonish the philosopher, than to see
Europe, which may be said to have been agitated to its very
foundations, move all at once, and like a single man march in arms
towards the East?
The Council of Clermont, which was held in the month of November,
1095, had fixed the departure of the crusaders for the festival of the
Assumption of the following year. During the winter nothing was thought
of but preparations for the voyage to the Holy Land. As soon as the
spring appeared, nothing could restrain the impatience of the crusaders,
and they set forward on their march to the places at which they were to
assemble. The greater number went on foot; some horsemen appeared
amongst the multitude; a great many travelled in cars; they were
clothed in a variety of manners, and armed, in the same way, with
lances, swords, javelins, iron clubs, etc. The crowd of crusaders
presented a whimsical and confused mixture of all ranks and all
conditions; women appeared in arms in the midst of warriors,
prostitution not being forgotten among the austerities of penitence. Old
age was to be seen with infancy, opulence next to misery; the helmet
was confounded with the frock, the mitre with the sword. Around cities,
around fortresses, in the plains, upon the mountains, were raised tents
and pavilions; everywhere was displayed a preparation for war and
festivity. Here was heard the sound of arms or the braying of trumpets;
whilst at a short distance the air was filled with psalms and spiritual
songs. From the Tiber to the ocean, and from the Rhine to the other
side of the Pyrenees, nothing was to be seen but troops of men marked
with the cross, who swore to exterminate the Saracens, and were
chanting their songs of conquest beforehand. On all sides resounded the
war-cry of the crusaders: “It is the will of God! It is the will of God!”
Families, whole villages, set out for Palestine, and drew into their
ranks all they met with on their passage. They marched on without
forethought, and would not believe that he who nourishes the sparrow
would leave pilgrims clothed with the holy cross to perish with want.
Their ignorance added to their illusion, and lent an air of enchantment
to everything they saw; they believed at every moment they were
approaching the end of their pilgrimage. The children of the villagers,
when they saw a city or a castle, asked if that was Jerusalem. Many of
the great lords, who had passed their lives in their rustic donjons, knew
very little more on this head than their vassals; they took with them
their hunting and fishing appointments, and marched with their falcons
on their wrists, preceded by their hounds. They expected to reach
Jerusalem enjoying themselves on the road, and to exhibit to Asia the
rude luxury of their castles.
In the midst of the general delirium, no sage caused the voice of
reason to be heard; nobody was then astonished at that which now
creates so much surprise. These scenes so strange, in which everyone
was an actor, could only be a spectacle for posterity.b

FOOTNOTES

[46] Dieu le veut was pronounced in the language of the times

Dieu le volt, or Diex le volt.
[47] The cross which the faithful wore in this crusade was of cloth,
and sometimes even of red-coloured silk. Afterwards they wore
crosses of different colours. The cross, a little in relief, was sewed
upon the right shoulder of the coat or mantle, or else fastened on the
front of the helmet, after having been blessed by the pope or some
bishop. The prayers and ceremonies used on this occasion are still to
be found in the Romish ritual. On returning from the Holy Land, they
removed this mark from the shoulder and placed it on the back, or
else wore it at the neck.

CHAPTER II. THE FIRST CRUSADE

There, armed and mounted, goes the pilgrim knight,
To meet the Saracen on Acre’s field:
The Cross is on his shoulders and his shield,
And on his banner and his helmet bright:
He knoweth not to truckle or to yield,
But valiantly for his dear Lord to fight;
For on his heart is this high purpose sealed,—
To see Jerusalem; O glorious sight!
To quench his thirst at Siloa’s sacred fount;
To bathe in Jordan’s stream without control;
To stand on Calvary’s thrice honoured mount,
And there the standard of the Cross unroll;
On that blest spot those sufferings to recount
Which He endured who died to save his sinful soul.

—John Holland.

The 15th of August had been fixed in the Council

[1096-1147 a.d.] of Clermont for the departure of the pilgrims; but
the day was anticipated by the thoughtless and
needy crowd of plebeians. Early in the spring, from the confines of
France and Lorraine, above sixty thousand of the populace of both
sexes, flocked round the first missionary of the Crusades, and pressed
him with clamorous importunity to lead them to the Holy Sepulchre. The
hermit, assuming the character, without the talents or authority, of a
general, impelled or obeyed the forward impulse of his votaries along
the banks of the Rhine and Danube. Their wants and numbers soon
compelled them to separate, and his lieutenant, Walter the Penniless, a
valiant though needy soldier, conducted a vanguard of pilgrims, whose
condition may be determined from the proportion of eight horsemen to
fifteen thousand foot.
The example and footsteps of Peter were closely pursued by another
fanatic, the monk Godescal [or Gottschalk], whose sermons had swept
away fifteen or twenty thousand peasants from the villages of Germany.
Their rear was again pressed by a herd of two hundred thousand, the
most stupid and savage refuse of the people, who mingled with their
devotion a brutal license of rapine, prostitution, and drunkenness. Some
counts and gentlemen, at the head of three thousand horse, attended
the motions of the multitude to partake in the spoil; but their genuine
leaders (may we credit such folly?) were a goose and a goat, who were
carried in the front, and to whom these worthy Christians ascribed an
infusion of the divine Spirit. Of these, and of other bands of enthusiasts,
the first and most easy warfare was against the Jews, the murderers of
the Son of God. In the trading cities of the Moselle and the Rhine, their
colonies were numerous and rich; and they enjoyed, under the
protection of the emperor and the bishops, the free exercise of their
religion. At Verdun, Trèves, Mainz, Speier, Worms, many thousands of
that unhappy people were pillaged and massacred; nor had they felt a
more bloody stroke since the persecution of Hadrian. A remnant was
saved by the firmness of their bishops, who accepted a feigned and
transient conversion; but the more obstinate Jews opposed their
fanaticism to the fanaticism of the Christians, barricaded their houses,
and precipitating themselves, their families, and their wealth into the
rivers or the flames, disappointed the malice, or at least the avarice, of
their implacable foes.

PETER THE HERMIT AND HIS RABBLE

Between the frontiers of Austria and the seat of the Byzantine

monarchy the crusaders were compelled to traverse an interval of six
hundred miles—the wild and desolate countries of Hungary and
Bulgaria. Both nations had imbibed the rudiments of Christianity: the
Hungarians were ruled by their native princes, the Bulgarians by a
lieutenant of the Greek emperor; but on the slightest provocation their
ferocious nature was rekindled, and ample provocation was afforded by
the disorders of the first pilgrims. Agriculture must have been unskilful
and languid among a people whose cities were built of reeds and timber,
which were deserted in the summer season for the tents of hunters and
shepherds. A scanty supply of provisions was rudely demanded, forcibly
seized, and greedily consumed; and on the first quarrel, the crusaders
gave a loose rein to indignation and revenge. But their ignorance of the
country, of war, and of discipline exposed them to every snare. The
Greek prefect of Bulgaria commanded a regular force; at the trumpet of
the Hungarian king, the eighth or the tenth of his martial subjects bent
their bows and mounted on horseback; their policy was insidious, and
their retaliation on these pious robbers was unrelenting and bloody.
About a third of the naked fugitives, and the hermit Peter was of the
number, escaped to the Thracian Mountains; and the emperor, who
respected the pilgrimage and succour of the Latins, conducted them by
secure and easy journeys to Constantinople, and advised them to await
the arrival of their brethren.
For awhile they remembered their faults and losses; but no sooner
were they revived by the hospitable entertainment than their venom
was again inflamed; they stung their benefactor, and neither gardens,
nor palaces, nor churches were safe from their depredations. For his
own safety, Alexius allured them to pass over to the Asiatic side of the
Bosporus; but their blind impetuosity soon urged them to desert the
station which he had assigned, and to rush headlong against the Turks
who occupied the road of Jerusalem. The hermit, conscious of his
shame, had withdrawn from the camp to Constantinople; and his
lieutenant, Walter the Penniless, who was worthy of a better command,
attempted without success to introduce some order and prudence
among the herd of savages. They separated in quest of prey, and
themselves fell an easy prey to the arts of the sultan. By a rumour that
their foremost companions were rioting in the spoils of his capital,
Suleiman tempted the main body to descend into the plain of Nicæa;
they were overwhelmed by the Turkish arrows; and a pyramid of bones
informed their companions of the place of their defeat. Of the first
crusaders, three hundred thousand[48] had already perished before a
single city was rescued from the infidels, before their graver and more
noble brethren had completed the preparations of their enterprise.

THE LEADERS OF THE FIRST CRUSADE

None of the great sovereigns of Europe embarked

[1096-1097 a.d.] their persons in the First Crusade. The religious
ardour was more strongly felt by the princes of the
second order, who held an important place in the feudal system. The
first rank both in war and council is justly due to Godfrey de Bouillon;
and happy would it have been for the crusaders, if they had trusted
themselves to the sole conduct of that accomplished hero, a worthy
representative of Charlemagne, from whom he was descended in the
female line.
In the service of Henry IV, he bore the great standard of the empire,
and pierced with his lance the breast of Rudolf the rebel king; Godfrey
was the first who ascended the walls of Rome; and his sickness, his
vow, perhaps his remorse for bearing arms against the pope, confirmed
an early resolution of visiting the Holy Sepulchre, not as a pilgrim but a
deliverer. His valour was matured by prudence and moderation; his
piety, though blind, was sincere; and in the tumult of a camp he
practised the real and fictitious virtues of a convent. Superior to the
private factions of the chiefs, he reserved his enmity for the enemies of
Christ; and though he gained a kingdom by the attempt, his pure and
disinterested zeal was acknowledged by his rivals. Godfrey de Bouillon
was accompanied by his two brothers—by Eustace the elder, who had
succeeded to the county of Boulogne, and by the younger, Baldwin, a
character of more ambiguous virtue.
In the parliament that was held at Paris, in the king’s presence, about
two months after the Council of Clermont, Hugh, count of Vermandois
was the most conspicuous of the princes who assumed the cross. But
the appellation of “the great” was applied, not so much to his merit or
possessions (though neither were contemptible) as to the royal birth of
the brother of the king of France. Robert, duke of Normandy, was the
eldest son of William the Conqueror; but on his father’s death he was
deprived of the kingdom of England by his own indolence and the
activity of his brother Rufus. For the trifling sum of ten thousand marks
he mortgaged Normandy, during his absence, to the English usurper;
but his engagement and behaviour in the holy war announced in Robert
a reformation of manners, and restored him in some degree to the
public esteem. Another Robert was count of Flanders; he was surnamed
the Sword and Lance of the Christians; but in the exploits of a soldier he
sometimes forgot the duties of a general. Stephen, count of Chartres, of
Blois, and of Troyes, was one of the richest princes of the age; and the
number of his castles has been compared to the 365 days of the year.
His mind was improved by literature; and in the council of the chiefs, the
eloquent Stephen was chosen to discharge the office of their president.
These four were the principal leaders of the French, the Normans, and
the pilgrims of the British Isles; but the list of the barons who were
possessed of three or four towns would exceed, says a contemporary,
the catalogue of the Trojan War.
THE FOUR LEADERS OF THE FIRST CRUSADE

In the south of France, the command was assumed by Adhemar,

bishop of Puy, the pope’s legate; and by Raymond, count of St. Giles
and Toulouse, who added the prouder titles of duke of Narbonne and
marquis of Provence. The former was a respectable prelate, alike
qualified for this world and the next. The latter was a veteran warrior,
who had fought against the Saracens of Spain, and who consecrated his
declining age not only to the deliverance but to the perpetual service of
the Holy Sepulchre. A mercantile, rather than a martial spirit prevailed
among his provincials—a common name which included the natives of
Auvergne and Languedoc—the vassals of the kingdom of Burgundy or
Arles. From the adjacent frontier of Spain, he drew a band of hardy
adventurers; as he marched through Lombardy, a crowd of Italians
flocked to his standard, and his united force consisted of one hundred
thousand horse and foot. If Raymond was the first to enlist and the last
to depart, the delay may be excused by the greatness of his preparation
and the promise of an everlasting farewell.
The name of Bohemond, the son of Robert
Guiscard, was already famous by his double
victory over the Greek emperor; but his father’s
will had reduced him to the principality of
Taranto and the remembrance of his eastern
trophies, till he was awakened by the rumour
and passage of the French pilgrims. It is in the
person of this Norman chief that we may seek
for the coolest policy and ambition with a small
alloy of religious fanaticism. His conduct may
justify a belief that he had secretly directed the
design of the pope, which he affected to
second with astonishment and zeal. At the
siege of Amalfi, his example and discourse
inflamed the passions of a confederate army;
he instantly tore his garment to supply crosses
for the numerous candidates and prepared to
visit Constantinople and Asia at the head of ten
A Crusader thousand horse and twenty thousand foot.
Several princes of the Norman race
accompanied this veteran general; and his
cousin Tancred was the partner, rather than the servant, of the war. In
the accomplished character of Tancred we discover all the virtues of a
perfect knight—the true spirit of chivalry, which inspired the generous
sentiments and social offices of man, far better than the base
philosophy, or the baser religion, of the times.
Between the age of Charlemagne and that of the Crusades, a
revolution had taken place among the Spaniards, the Normans, and the
French, which was gradually extended to the rest of Europe. The service
of the infantry was degraded to the plebeians; the cavalry formed the
strength of the armies, and the honourable name miles, or soldier, was
confined to the gentlemen who served on horseback and were invested
with the character of knighthood. The dukes and counts, who had
usurped the rights of sovereignty, divided the provinces among their
faithful barons; the barons distributed among their vassals the fiefs or
benefices of their jurisdiction; and these military tenants, the peers of
each other and of their lord, composed the noble or equestrian order,
which disdained to conceive the peasant or burgher as of the same
species with themselves. The dignity of their birth was preserved by
pure and equal alliances; their sons alone who could produce four
quarters or lines of ancestry without spot or reproach, might legally
pretend to the honour of knighthood: but a valiant plebeian was
sometimes enriched and ennobled by the sword and became the father
of a new race. A single knight could impart, according to his judgment,
the character which he received; and the warlike sovereigns of Europe
derived more glory from this personal distinction than from the lustre of
their diadem.
Such were the troops, and such the leaders, who assumed the cross
for the deliverance of the Holy Sepulchre. As soon as they were relieved
by the absence of the plebeian multitude, they encouraged each other,
by interviews and messages, to accomplish their vow and hasten their
departure. Their wives and sisters were desirous of partaking the danger
and merit of the pilgrimage; their portable treasures were conveyed in
bars of silver and gold; and the princes and barons were attended by
their equipage of hounds and hawks to amuse their leisure and to
supply their table. The difficulty of procuring subsistence for so many
myriads of men and horses engaged them to separate their forces; their
choice or situation determined the road; and it was agreed to meet in
the neighbourhood of Constantinople, and from thence to begin their
operations against the Turks.

ALEXIUS COMPELS HOMAGE

In some oriental tale there is the fable of a

[1097 a.d.] shepherd, who was ruined by the accomplishment
of his own wishes: he had prayed for water; the
Ganges was turned into his grounds, and his flock and cottage were
swept away by the inundation. Such was the fortune, or at least the
apprehension, of the Greek emperor Alexius Comnenus. In the Council
of Placentia, his ambassadors had solicited a moderate succour, perhaps
of ten thousand soldiers; but he was astonished by the approach of so
many potent chiefs and fanatic nations. The promiscuous multitudes of
Peter the Hermit were savage beasts, alike destitute of humanity and
reason; nor was it possible for Alexius to prevent or deplore their
destruction. The troops of Godfrey and his peers were less contemptible,
but not less suspicious, to the Greek emperor. Their motives might be
pure and pious; but he was equally alarmed by his knowledge of the
ambitious Bohemond, and his ignorance of the Transalpine chiefs; the
courage of the French was blind and headstrong; they might be tempted
by the luxury and wealth of Greece, and elated by the view and opinion
of their invincible strength; and Jerusalem might be forgotten in the
prospect of Constantinople.
After a long march and painful abstinence, the troops of Godfrey
encamped in the plains of Thrace; they heard with indignation that their
brother, the count of Vermandois, was imprisoned by the Greeks; and
their reluctant duke was compelled to indulge them in some freedom of
retaliation and rapine. They were appeased by the submission of
Alexius; he promised to supply their camp; and as they refused, in the
midst of winter, to pass the Bosporus, their quarters were assigned
among the gardens and palaces on the shores of that narrow sea. But
an incurable jealousy still rankled in the minds of the two nations, who
despised each other as slaves and barbarians. Ignorance is the ground
of suspicion, and suspicion was inflamed into daily provocations;
prejudice is blind, hunger is deaf; and Alexius is accused of a design to
starve or assault the Latins in a dangerous post, on all sides
encompassed with the waters. Godfrey sounded his trumpets, burst the
net, overspread the plain, and insulted the suburbs; but the gates of
Constantinople were strongly fortified; the ramparts were lined with
archers; and after a doubtful conflict, both parties listened to the voice
of peace and religion. The gifts and promises of the emperor insensibly
soothed the fierce spirit of the western strangers; as a Christian warrior,
he rekindled their zeal for the prosecution of their holy enterprise, which
he engaged to second with his troops and treasures. On the return of
spring, Godfrey was persuaded to occupy a pleasant and plentiful camp
in Asia; and no sooner had he passed the Bosporus than the Greek
vessels were suddenly recalled to the opposite shore. The same policy
was repeated with the succeeding chiefs, who were swayed by the
example and weakened by the departure of their foremost companions.
By his skill and diligence Alexius prevented the union of any two of the
confederate armies at the same moment under the walls of
Constantinople; and before the feast of the Pentecost not a Latin pilgrim
was left on the coast of Europe.
The same arms which threatened Europe might deliver Asia, and repel
the Turks from the neighbouring shores of the Bosporus and the
Hellespont. The fair provinces from Nicæa to Antioch were the recent
patrimony of the Roman emperor; and his ancient and perpetual claim
still embraced the kingdoms of Syria and Egypt. In his enthusiasm,
Alexius indulged, or affected, the ambitious hope of leading his new
allies to subvert the thrones of the East; but the calmer dictates of
reason and temper dissuaded him from exposing his royal person to the
faith of unknown and lawless barbarians. His prudence, or his pride, was
content with extorting from the French princes an oath of homage and
fidelity, and a solemn promise that they would either restore, or hold,
their Asiatic conquests, as the humble and loyal vassals of the Roman
Empire. Their independent spirit was fired at the mention of this foreign
and voluntary servitude; they successively yielded to the dexterous
application of gifts and flattery; and the first proselytes became the
most eloquent and effectual missionaries to multiply the companions of
their shame.
The ceremony of their homage was grateful to a people who had long
since considered pride as the substitute of power. High on his throne,
the emperor sat mute and immovable; his majesty was adored by the
Latin princes; and they submitted to kiss either his feet or his knees, an
indignity which their own writers are ashamed to confess, and unable to
deny.

NUMBERS OF THE CRUSADERS

The conquest of Asia was undertaken and achieved by Alexander, with
thirty-five thousand Macedonians and Greeks; and his best hope was in
the strength and discipline of his phalanx of infantry. The principal force
of the crusaders consisted in their cavalry; and when that force was
mustered in the plains of Bithynia, the knights and their martial
attendants on horseback amounted to one hundred thousand fighting
men, completely armed with the helmet and coat of mail. The value of
these soldiers deserved a strict and authentic account; and the flower of
European chivalry might furnish, in a first effort, this formidable body of
heavy horse. A part of the infantry might be enrolled for the service of
scouts, pioneers, and archers; but the promiscuous crowd were lost in
their own disorder; and we depend not on the eyes or knowledge, but
on the belief and fancy of a chaplain of Count Baldwin, in the estimate
of six hundred thousand pilgrims able to bear arms, besides the priests
and monks, the women and children, of the Latin camp. The reader
starts; and before he recovers from his surprise, we shall add, on the
same testimony, that if all who took the cross had accomplished their
vow, above six millions would have migrated from Europe to Asia. Under
this oppression of faith we derive some relief from a more sagacious and
thinking writer, who, after the same review of the cavalry, accuses the
credulity of the priest of Chartres, and even doubts whether the
Cisalpine regions (in the geography of a Frenchman) were sufficient to
produce and pour forth such incredible multitudes. The coolest
scepticism will remember, that of these religious volunteers great
numbers never beheld Constantinople and Nicæa. Of enthusiasm the
influence is irregular and transient; many were detained at home by
reason or cowardice, by poverty or weakness; and many were repulsed
by the obstacles of the way, the more insuperable as they were
unforeseen to these ignorant fanatics. The savage countries of Hungary
and Bulgaria were whitened with their bones; their vanguard was cut in
pieces by the Turkish sultan; and the loss of the first adventure, by the
sword, or climate, or fatigue, has already been stated at three hundred
thousand men. Yet the myriads that survived, that marched, that
pressed forwards on the holy pilgrimage, were a subject of
astonishment to themselves and to the Greeks. The copious energy of
her language sinks under the efforts of the princess Anna Comnena; the
images of locusts, of leaves and flowers, of the sands of the sea, or the
stars of heaven, imperfectly represent what she had seen and heard;
and the daughter of Alexius exclaims, that Europe was loosened from its
foundations and hurled against Asia. The ancient hosts of Darius and
Xerxes labour under the same doubt of a vague and indefinite
magnitude; but we are inclined to believe that a larger number has
never been contained within the lines of a single camp than at the siege
of Nicæa, the first operation of the Latin princes. Their motives, their
characters, and their arms, have been already displayed. Of their troops
the most numerous portion were natives of France; the Low Countries,
the banks of the Rhine, and Apulia sent a powerful reinforcement; some
bands of adventurers were drawn from Spain, Lombardy, and England,
and from the distant bogs and mountains of Ireland or Scotland issued
some naked and savage fanatics, ferocious at home, but unwarlike
abroad.

THE SIEGE OF NICÆA

We have expatiated with pleasure on the first steps of the crusaders,

as they paint the manners and character of Europe; but we shall abridge
the tedious and uniform narrative of their blind achievements, which
were performed by strength, and are described by ignorance. From their
first station in the neighbourhood of Nicomedia, they advanced in
successive divisions; passed the contracted limit of the Greek Empire;
opened a road through the hills, and commenced, by the siege of his
capital, their pious warfare against the Turkish sultan. His kingdom of
Roum extended from the Hellespont to the confines of Syria, and barred
the pilgrimage of Jerusalem; his name was Kilij-Arslan, or Suleiman, of
the race of Seljuk, and son of the first conqueror; and in the defence of
a land which the Turks considered as their own, he deserved the praise
of his enemies, by whom alone he is known to posterity. Yielding to the
first impulse of the torrent, he deposited his family and treasure in
Nicæa; retired to the mountains with fifty thousand horse; and twice
descended to assault the camps or quarters of the Christian besiegers,
which formed an imperfect circle of above six miles.
The lofty and solid walls of Nicæa were covered by a deep ditch, and
flanked by 370 towers; and on the verge of Christendom, the Moslems
were trained in arms, and inflamed by religion. Before this city, the
French princes occupied their stations, and prosecuted their attacks
without correspondence or subordination; emulation prompted their
valour; but their valour was sullied by cruelty, and their emulation
degenerated into envy and civil discord. In the space of seven weeks,
much labour and blood were expended, and some progress, especially
by Count Raymond, was made on the side of the besiegers. But the
Turks could protract their resistance and secure their escape, as long as
they were masters of the lake Ascanius, which stretches several miles to
the westward of the city. The means of conquest were supplied by the
prudence and industry of Alexius; a great number of boats was
transported on sledges from the sea to the lake; they were filled with
the most dexterous of his archers; the flight of the sultana was
intercepted; Nicæa was invested by land and water; and a Greek
emissary persuaded the inhabitants to accept his master’s protection,
and to save themselves, by a timely surrender, from the rage of the
savages of Europe. In the moment of victory, or at least of hope, the
crusaders, thirsting for blood and plunder, were awed by the imperial
banner that streamed from the citadel; and Alexius guarded with jealous
vigilance this important conquest. The murmurs of the chiefs were
stifled by honour or interest; and after a halt of nine days, they directed
their march towards Phrygia, under the guidance of a Greek general,
whom they suspected of a secret connivance with the sultan. The
consort and the principal servants of Suleiman had been honourably
restored without ransom; and the emperor’s generosity to the
miscreants was interpreted as treason to the Christian cause.

BATTLE OF DORYLÆUM

Suleiman was rather provoked than dismayed by the loss of his

capital; he admonished his subjects and allies of this strange invasion of
the western barbarians; the Turkish emirs obeyed the call of loyalty or
religion; the Turkoman hordes encamped round his standard; and his
whole force is loosely stated by the Christians at 200,000, or even
360,000 horse. Yet he patiently waited till they had left behind them the
sea and the Greek frontier; and hovering on the flanks, observed their
careless and confident progress in two columns beyond the view of each
other. Some miles before they could reach Dorylæum in Phrygia, the
left, and least numerous, division was surprised and attacked and almost
oppressed, by the Turkish cavalry. The heat of the weather, the clouds of
arrows, and the barbarous onset, overwhelmed the crusaders; they lost
their order and confidence; and the fainting fight was sustained by the
personal valour, rather than by the military conduct, of Bohemond,
Tancred, and Robert of Normandy. They were revived by the welcome
banners of Duke Godfrey, who flew to their succour with the count of
Vermandois and sixty thousand horse; and was followed by Raymond of
Toulouse, the bishop of Puy, and the remainder of the sacred army.
Without a moment’s pause, they formed in new order, and advanced to
a second battle. They were received with equal resolution; and, in their
common disdain for the unwarlike people of Greece and Asia, it was
confessed on both sides, that the Turks and the Franks were the only
nations entitled to the appellation of soldiers.
As long as the horses were fresh and
the quivers full, Suleiman maintained the
advantage of the day; and four thousand
Christians were pierced by the Turkish
arrows. In the evening, swiftness yielded
to strength; on either side, the numbers
were equal, or at least as great as any
ground could hold, or any generals could
manage; but in turning the hills, the last
division of Raymond and his provincials
was led, perhaps without design, on the
rear of an exhausted enemy, and the long
Helmet of a Crusader of the First
contest was determined. Besides a
Crusade
nameless and unaccounted multitude,
three thousand pagan knights were slain
in the battle and pursuit; the camp of Suleiman was pillaged. Reserving
ten thousand guards of the relics of his army, Suleiman evacuated the
kingdom of Roum, and hastened to implore the aid, and kindle the
resentment, of his eastern brethren. In a march of five hundred miles,
the crusaders traversed the Lesser Asia, through a wasted land and
deserted towns, without either finding a friend or an enemy. The
geographer may trace the position of Dorylæum, Antioch of Pisidia,
Iconium, Archelais, and Germanicia, and may compare those classic
appellations with the modern names of Eskishehr the old city, Akshehr
the white city, Cogni, Erekli, and Marash.

PRINCIPALITY OF EDESSA FOUNDED

To improve the general consternation, the cousin of Bohemond and

the brother of Godfrey were detached from the main army with their
respective squadrons of five, and of seven, hundred knights. They
overran in a rapid career the hills and sea coast of Cilicia, from Cogni to
the Syrian gates; the Norman standard was first planted on the walls of
Tarsus and Malmistra; but the proud injustice of Baldwin at length
provoked the patient and generous Italian; and they turned their
consecrated swords against each other in a private and profane quarrel.
Honour was the motive, and fame the reward, of Tancred; but fortune
smiled on the more selfish enterprise of his rival. He was called to the
assistance of a Greek or Armenian tyrant, who had been suffered under
the Turkish yoke to reign over the Christians of Edessa. Baldwin
accepted the character of his son and champion; but no sooner was he
introduced into the city than he inflamed the people to the massacre of
his father, occupied the throne and treasure, extended his conquests
over the hills of Armenia and the plain of Mesopotamia, and founded the
first principality of the Franks or Latins, which subsisted fifty-four years
beyond the Euphrates.

SIEGE OF ANTIOCH

Before the Franks could enter Syria, the summer,

[1097-1098 a.d.] and even the autumn, were completely wasted. The
siege of Antioch, or the separation and repose of
the army during the winter season, was strongly debated in their
council. At the head of the Turkish emirs, Baghi Sian, a veteran chief,
commanded in the place; his garrison was composed of six or seven
thousand horse, and fifteen or twenty thousand foot. Notwithstanding
strong fortifications, the city had been repeatedly taken by the Persians,
the Arabs, the Greeks, and the Turks; so large a circuit must have
yielded many previous points of attack; and in a siege that was formed
about the middle of October, the vigour of the execution could alone

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