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about the society for ecological
restoration international
No copyright claim is made in the work of Brandon T. Bestelmeyer, Joel R. Brown, Kris C. Havstad,
Jeffrey E. Herrick, and Debra P. C. Peters, employees of the federal government.
New models for ecosystem dynamics and restoration / edited by Richard J. Hobbs and
Katharine N. Suding.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN-13: 978-1-59726-184-5 (cloth : alk. paper)
ISBN-10: 1-59726-184-X (cloth : alk. paper)
ISBN-13: 978-1-59726-185-2 (pbk. : alk. paper)
ISBN-10: 1-59726-185-8 (pbk. : alk. paper)
1. Restoration ecology. 2. Ecological succession. 3. Ecosystem management.
I. Hobbs, R. J. (Richard J.) II. Suding, Katharine.
QH541.15.R45N49 2008
333.73'153—dc22 2008014304
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
contents
preface xi
Arid Ecosystems
7. Long-Term Dynamics and Rehabilitation of Woody Ecosystems in Dryland South
Island, New Zealand 99
Susan Walker, Ellen Cieraad, Adrian Monks, Larry Burrows, Jamie Wood,
Robbie Price, Geoff Rogers, and Bill Lee
8. Dryland Dynamics and Restoration: Perspectives for the Use of Climatic Swings 112
Milena Holmgren
Forest Ecosystems
13. A State-and-Transition Model for the Recovery of Abandoned Farmland in
New Zealand 189
Rachel J. Standish, Ashley D. Sparrow, Peter A. Williams, and Richard J. Hobbs
14. Dynamics and Restoration of Australian Tropical and Subtropical Rainforests 206
John Kanowski, Robert M. Kooyman, and Carla P. Catterall
Wetland Ecosystems
15. Interactions between Lesser Snow Geese and Arctic Coastal Vegetation
Leading to Alternative Stable States 221
I. Tanya Handa and Robert L. Jefferies
16. Feedbacks That Might Sustain Natural, Invaded, and Restored States in
Herbaceous Wetlands 236
Joy B. Zedler
17. Development of Conceptual Models for Ecological Regime Change in
Temporary Australian Wetlands 259
Lien L. Sim, Jenny A. Davis, and Jane M. Chambers
Production Landscapes
18. State-and-Transition Models for Mining Restoration in Australia 280
Carl Grant
19. An Alternative Stable State Model for Landscape-Scale Restoration in
South Australia 295
Peter Cale and Nigel Willoughby
20. Alternative Stable States for Planning and Implementing Restoration of
Production Systems in Michoacán, Mexico 311
Roberto Lindig-Cisneros
editors 335
contributors 337
index 345
PREFACE
The idea of putting together this book arose from the perception that the link between theory
and practice in ecology and, in particular, restoration ecology is not as strong as it could be.
There are interesting new ideas about how ecosystems work arising from both the theoreti-
cal and the practical side, and it seems essential that these ideas are examined critically and,
where possible, tested in order to assess their applicability in restoration practice. Essentially,
that is the aim of this book. We aimed to bring together the people that have been at the
forefront of developing new conceptual models for ecosystem dynamics and people who
have been using such models in an applied setting. We aimed to ask a number of questions
surrounding this topic. What is the theoretical basis for the new models, and what evidence
is there that such models can be applied to real ecosystems? How have such models been
used to think about and manage a range of ecosystems? And is it possible to better mesh the
theory and practice to improve both?
We wish to thank all the people who have assisted us in bringing together this book. First,
we thank the authors of the chapters for their contributions to the book, their gracious and
timely responses to our requests, and their willingness to consider their work in a broader
conceptual and/or practical context. Barbara Dean at Island Press is both an inspiration and
a welcome and thoughtful guide through the process of putting a book together, and Barbara
Youngblood is both patient and effective in the production process; without them and the rest
of the Island crew, it is unlikely that the book would have been either started or finished.
All chapters in the book were peer reviewed. In addition to internal review by other
chapter authors, each chapter was also reviewed by someone not involved in the book. We
gratefully acknowledge those who reviewed chapters and provided comment on the ideas
presented within the book: Mitch Aide, Peter Bellingham, Margaret Brock, Raphael Did-
ham, Susan Galatowitch, Karen Holl, Kathryn Kiel, Jamie Kirkpatrick, Anke Jentsch, David
Lindenmayer, Sue McIntyre, Karel Prach, and Eric Seabloom. We are also grateful to the
anonymous referees and the series editors, James Aronson and Don Falk, for their thoughtful
comments on the initial book proposal.
RJH received financial support from the Australian Research Council as an ARC Austra-
lian professorial fellow during the preparation of this book. KNS acknowledges research sup-
port from the National Science Foundation and U.S. Department of Agriculture.
xi
xii Preface
Finally, we’d like to thank the colleagues with whom we’ve discussed and argued about
the ideas in the book and, last but not least, our families, who have to put up with continual
absences, permanently cluttered home workspaces, and long periods when we were tied to
the computer.
PART ONE
Background: Concepts and Models
Our objective in putting together this book was to collectively evaluate threshold modeling
approaches as applied to ecological restoration. It was our aim not to develop a new suite of
models but rather to examine when and where state transition, alternative state, and other
threshold approaches are being used; how effective they are; and what types of evidence
are being used to derive and apply the models. There are many ways to explore the nexus
between the demand for strong inference and statistically robust approaches required by
these models and the need to get something that works practically. In this emerging junction
between theoretical and quantitative ecology and practical ecological restoration, it was our
goal to explore both the potential and the pitfalls of this meshing of theory and practice as
well as to develop innovative ways to maximize the potential and minimize the pitfalls. In this
part, experts in the theoretical and quantitative aspects of these ecosystem models examine
the possible ways of assessing ecosystem dynamics. These six chapters highlight the concep-
tual relevance of these models to restoration as well as the problems of rigorously testing the
models in a restoration setting.
1
Chapter 1
As rates of exotic species invasion, fragmentation, and climate change continue to accelerate,
restoration faces increasingly greater challenges. Restoration must address the substantial,
long-lasting reorganizations of ecosystems driven by these impacts. Among practitioners and
scientists alike, there is increasing recognition that ecosystem dynamics can be complex,
nonlinear, and often unpredictable (Wallington et al. 2005). Of particular importance is
the recognition that some ecosystems may occur in a number of different states, which may
be contingent on the history of disturbance, human intervention, or past restoration actions
(Beisner et al. 2003; Suding et al. 2004). Complementary approaches using modifications
of classical succession theory and the concept of assembly rules have also recently been
investigated in the context of managing and restoring ecosystems (Young et al. 2001; Tem-
perton et al. 2004; Hobbs et al. 2007). Adding further complexity, we better understand the
importance of broad-scale processes and interactions between adjoining ecosystems; impacts
in one place may be the result of events or management decisions elsewhere (Hobbs 2002).
Taken together, these advances yield an exciting body of theory on which to rest restoration
ecology (D’Antonio and Thomsen 2004; Hobbs and Norton 2004; Holl and Crone 2004;
Young et al. 2005).
This book addresses how recent advances in our understanding of ecosystem and landscape
dynamics can be translated into the conceptual and practical frameworks for restoration, add-
ing to a number of excellent recent books developing linkages between ecological theory and
restoration (Whisenant 1999; Walker and del Moral 2003; Temperton et al. 2004; Falk et al.
2006; van Andel and Aronson 2006; Walker et al. 2007). We explore how ecosystem models,
particularly those that encompass nonlinear and complex dynamics, can be applied to the
recovery of degraded systems (Hobbs and Norton 1996; Prober et al. 2002; Lindig-Cisneros et
al. 2003; Suding et al. 2004). In this introductory chapter, we trace the development of these
“new” ecosystem models in restoration, describe the main restoration approaches that would
be taken based on the different type of ecosystem dynamics, and provide a synopsis of suitable
evidence and approaches that can be used to determine what models of ecosystem dynamics
may be applicable for particular systems and restoration situations. Lastly, we delineate the
limitations and important considerations of this evidence that will affect inference, starting a
discussion that continues in the contributed works that follow.
3
4 background: concepts and models
We also include a definitions of terms used throughout this book. Many terms have very
precise definitions as they relate to ecosystem models. To avoid misperceptions and oversim-
plification, it is important to maintain very clear and unambiguous terminology as applica-
tion of these models increase. We italicize our first use of terms throughout this chapter that
we define in box 1.1.
Box 1.1
Definitions of Terms
Sources for terminology include the glossary at the Resilience Alliance Web page (http://www.resal-
liance.org), Gunderson (2000), and Carpenter et al. (2001).
Alternative stable states. A regime shift involving alternate stable states occurs when a
threshold level of a controlling variable in a system is passed, such that the nature and extent
of feedbacks change, resulting in a change of direction (the trajectory) of the system. A shift
occurs when internal processes of the system (rates of birth, mortality, growth, consumption,
decomposition, leaching, and so on) have changed and the state of the system (as indicated
by system state variables) begins to change in a different direction toward a different attrac-
tor or domain of attraction. The system changes direction when it crosses an unstable equi-
librium or repellor into another basin of attraction. While the S-shaped curve (fig. 1.1c) is
a common way of visualizing these dynamics, there are many types of relationships between
system state variables and environmental conditions. Other terms that are synonymous with
alternative stable states include alternative attractors, alternative basins of attraction, mul-
tiple stable states, and multiple stable equilibria.
Controlling variable. The factor (or combination of factors) that drives the change in
responding state variables (e.g., grazing intensity, fire frequency, pollution, or nutrient load-
ing). They are sometimes called slow variables. For alternative stable states, controlling
variables are assumed to be external to the system (i.e., that changes to the state variables will
not change the controlling variables), and the term cross-scale interactions is used when
external factors drive transitions.
A variation of these ideas, termed slow–fast cycles (also called relaxation oscillations
or oscillatory behavior) may occur if the state variable (the fast variable) is internally cou-
pled to the controlling variable (the slow variable) and responds discontinuously to it. Such
behavior can describe dynamics like the regular spruce-budworm outbreak in boreal forests
and differs from alternative stable state behavior, which assumes that the fast state variable
does not affect the slow controlling variable.
Disturbances are changes in the system state variable or in the controlling variable (either
of which could be affected by management). It is important to clarify what is being altered
as part of a disturbance. For instance, disturbances to the system state variable are sometimes
termed perturbations and distinguished from disturbances to the controlling environmental
variable, which are sometimes called external shocks.
Gradual continuum models describe system dynamics without thresholds. In this case,
change in the controlling variable is proportionate to change in the state variable. A state
variable would not be paired in this case (e.g., no dichotomy of grass versus shrub domina-
1. Models of Ecosystem Dynamics as Frameworks for Restoration Ecology 5
tion) but rather a continuum of more or less grasses and shrubs in the system. These models
imply unassisted recovery following the removal of adverse disturbances (or given the natu-
ral disturbance regime) to a desired set point.
Hysteresis refers to how a system responds or, more specifically, the return path taken fol-
lowing some disturbance or change due to cumulative effects. When the system follows a dif-
ferent path on return to its former state, this is called a hysteresis effect. Hysteresis would occur
in alternative stable states and relaxation oscillations but not other types of regime shifts or
nonregime behavior (gradual continuous and stochastic models). For instance, a system
exhibiting threshold behavior but not alternative stable states should respond discontinuously
but similarly to disturbance regardless of whether it is moving forward or backward.
Persistence. One criterion for stability is that a state is persistent: maintained beyond one
complete turnover of individuals. As the time frame of vegetation dynamics generally exceeds
the time scales of human observation or management goals, restoration decisions may often
need to be made without the certain documentation of persistence. States without strong
evidence of persistence are sometimes termed transient states.
Positive feedbacks. One important consideration about whether a system has crossed a
threshold is whether feedbacks affecting internal processes (rates of birth, mortality, growth,
consumption, decomposition, leaching, and so on) have changed. When a threshold is
crossed, positive feedback loops (the output of a process influences the input of the same
process in a way that amplifies the process) result in disproportionate changes relative to the
controlling variable. Near a regime or attractor, negative feedbacks increase in importance
to stabilize the system.
Resilience is the capacity of a system to absorb disturbance and reorganize so to retain
essentially the same function, structure, identity, and feedbacks (i.e., remain in the same
regime). Resilience is also defined as the width of the basin of attraction. The resilience of
a system can change; it is not static or defined solely by controlling variables. For instance,
the controlling variable for grass- and shrub-dominated rangeland could be grazing intensity,
but fire frequency could be a factor that influences how resilient the system is to changes in
grazing (i.e., how much disturbance it takes to shift a grassland system to a shrub-dominated
system).
State variables. Characteristics such as abundance, composition, or some ecosystem
function are state variables that describe responses of the system. For example, crossing a
threshold from clear to turbid water in lake systems brings about a sudden, large, and dra-
matic change in the responding state variables: the species shift from macrophytes to algae.
Another example of system state variables is grass- or shrub-dominated rangeland. State vari-
ables are also sometimes called fast variables because they respond to changes in a control-
ling variable.
Stochastic dynamics are nonequilibrium with few relationships between environment
and system condition (i.e., there is no well-defined controlling variable). Often these sys-
tems have been found to be controlled mainly by random processes, chance events, or
climate variation.
needed to cross the threshold declines. Restoration thresholds indicate breakpoints that
need to be addressed by restoration efforts for recovery to occur, and degradation thresholds
indicate the point where environmental change precludes recovery to the same state without
management or restoration actions.
Threshold dynamics. The term alternate states is commonly used to describe the phe-
nomenon whereby systems can exhibit a big change from one kind of regime to another.
However, this terminology can be confusing because this would include what truly are alter-
nate stable states (i.e., two or more stable point attractors separated by unstable thresholds)
and the various other kinds of big changes that systems may exhibit. To avoid confusion over
terminology, we suggest using threshold dynamics to include all the various kinds of thresh-
olds and multiple system regimes that occur, including alternate stable states. Thus, these
models exhibit threshold behavior and can (but do not need to) indicate alternative stable
states. For convention in light of state-and-transition models, we still use states to specify the
regimes indicated by any of this class of models (not solely restricted to alternative stable
states). The terms regime shift and regime (Scheffer and Carpenter 2003) also describe
these general threshold dynamics.
FIGURE 1.1. Three conceptual models depicting the shift between a native state (or otherwise resto-
ration “goal”) to a degraded state might occur along an environmental gradient (adapted from Scheffer
and Carpenter 2003): (a) gradual continuum model; (b) one that predicts thresholds; and (c) a more
specific type of threshold model, alternative stable states. In (c), the dotted line denotes an unstable
equilibrium where positive feedbacks push the system to one or the other state, and the arrows denote
different pathways of degradation and recovery. We do not show another model, stochastic dynamics,
as it predicts highly variable dynamics without equilibria.
FIGURE 1.2. (a) Example output from a gap model of succession (reprinted with permission from
Shugart et al. 1988), illustrating the continuum linear view of succession. (b) Similar model in restora-
tion (adapted from Bradshaw 1984; Dobson et al. 1997) depicting restoration with ecosystem structure
and function developing along a linear pathway.
a) b)
FIGURE 1.3. (a) An example of a state-and-transition model that groups communities into discrete
states and describes processes that cause transitions between states (modified from Westoby et al. 1989).
(b) The spiral of degradation conceptual model proposed by Whisenant (1999) and expanded by
King and Hobbs (2006) that describes the interactive dynamics involved in degradation, characterizing
them as a stepwise process with feedback. As applied to restoration, the goal is to generate feedback
loops that will initiate and promote the continued improvement of ecosystem components, reversing
the direction of the arrows of degradation through autogenic recovery.
et al. 2002). Lakes can exist in a state either where the water is clear and rooted plants are
abundant or where the water is turbid and phytoplankton are abundant. In the clear lakes,
rooted plants stabilize the sediment, reducing turbidity, and provide refuges for fish that eat
phytoplankton. However, if the plants are removed or if fishing pressure is high, turbidity
blocks light and resuspends sediment for phytoplankton, causing a rapid and dramatic shift
(Moss et al. 1996; Carpenter et al. 1999). A turbid lake can be restored by manipulating the
feedbacks that maintain the system in the turbid state: increasing the population of fish that
consume phytoplankton, decreasing the number of predators that eat the phytoplankton-
consuming fish, reducing nutrient loading, and installing wave barriers to create refuges for
plants (Bachmann et al. 1999; Dent et al. 2002).
Recently, there has been an expansion of threshold and alternative state ideas to the gen-
eral challenge of restoration of degraded land beyond rangeland and lake ecosystems. One
conceptual model that has resonated widely is a two-threshold model where the first threshold
denotes changed biotic interactions and the second, further down the degradation pathway,
denotes changed abiotic limitations (fig. 1.4a; Hobbs and Harris 2001). Cramer and Hobbs
(2005) modified this model by including multiple processes that interact to affect resilience
and lead to degradation (fig. 1.4b). These and many other related conceptual models have
been used as heuristic devices to guide restoration efforts and often prove to be consistent
with land managers’ perception of the restoration process (Wallington et al. 2005). We focus
on this expansion of models in this book.
FIGURE 1.4. (a) An influential view about how the state-and-transition framework can be applied to
restoration ecology (modified from Hobbs and Harris 2001; Whisenant 1999). Primary processes are
fully functional in intact ecosystem state (far left). When the system crosses the transition threshold
controlled by biotic interactions, most primary processes are still functional, and recovery requires veg-
etation manipulation (e.g., invasive species removal). However, when the system crosses the threshold
primary controlled by abiotic limitations, primary processes are nonfunctional, and recovery requires
modification of the physical environment. (b) Another state-and-transition model of ecosystem dynam-
ics where the balls represent vegetation states and the arrows transition between states (based on Cra-
mer and Hobbs 2005). This representation incorporates two process dimensions in the degradation
sequence (in this case of salinity, salt accumulation, and waterlogging) and the degree of reversibility
of the transition (the depth of the depression in which the ball sits).
1. Models of Ecosystem Dynamics as Frameworks for Restoration Ecology 11
any, of restoration thresholds that serve as barriers to prevent the recovery of degraded sys-
tems. These barriers can result from biotic factors (e.g., weed invasion, herbivory, lack of
pollination) or abiotic factors (e.g., changes in hydrology or soil structure and processes)
(fig. 1.4). Conceptual models of ecosystem dynamics can aid in this understanding and may
reduce the risk of unpredicted or undesired change in restoration projects, suggesting ways to
correctly diagnose ecosystem damage identify restoration constraints and develop corrective
methodologies that aim to overcome such constraints.
While there are many types of ecosystem models and many ways to distinguish among
the different types, three are particularly applicable to restoration ecology (table 1.1). First,
continuum models describe dynamics without thresholds, where a change in the environ-
mental controlling variable is more proportional to the system response. Second, stochastic
models describe highly variable nonequilibrium relationships between system response and
environment. These two types of models stand as alternatives to the third group, which con-
stitutes the “new models” reference in the book title, threshold or regime shift models. These
describe abrupt changes with small changes in environmental conditions. In the previous
section, we described some of the historical developments related to these models; in this
section, we describe the main restoration approaches that would be taken based on the dif-
ferent type of ecosystem dynamics.
Table 1.1.
Comparisons of four types of ecosystem models, with patterns and tests consistent with each type. Alternative stable states are specific types of
threshold models. See glossary for definition of terminology.
Ecosystem Model Patterns Processes
Threshold or Sigmoid Sharp boundary, with Sigmoid with or A to B; discrete Resilient, then Sometimes Positive feedbacks;
dynamic regime less sharp environmen- without hysteresis states small disturbance yes
tal boundary causes large
change in state
variables
Alternative stable Various; S-shaped Sharp boundary, with Sigmoid with A to B; discrete As in threshold; Yes, priority Positive feedbacks;
state curve; two or less sharp environmen- hysteresis; collapse states but nonrecovery effects yes
more alternative tal boundary recovery or hysteresis possible
attractors
Stochastic No pattern None, random No temporal trend None No consistent No No?
response
1. The relationship between the restoration state variable—a fast-changing or responding state variable such as dominant vegetation, diversity, or ecosystem function (y axis)—and
slow-changing or external controlling variable, such as climate or nutrient inputs (x axis).
2. How the restoration state variable changes over time.
3. The existence and classification of states have been determined by multivariate analysis (site groupings based on vegetation), multimodal distributions (most frequent vegetation
conditions in a landscape), or qualitatively based on knowledge of the system.
4. Assumes manipulation of the controlling variable (e.g., the x axis)
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drames français, Kean, La Grâce de Dieu, Les Enfants d’Édouard,
etc., etc.
Au dire de ses biographes, ce n’est seulement qu’en 1879, à
Naples, qu’elle promit définitivement de devenir une grande artiste.
Une grande tragédienne, Giacinta Pezzana, lui laissa jouer près d’elle
le rôle de Thérèse Raquin où elle fut, assure-t-on, admirable.
Elle fit ensuite partie de la troupe de Rossi, qu’elle quitta de plus
en plus fréquemment pour essayer de voler de ses propres ailes. Dès
lors, sa réputation ne fit que grandir. Il y a juste dix ans (1887)
qu’elle commença ses tournées à travers l’Europe avec sa troupe à
elle. Elle aborde successivement tous les rôles du répertoire français
et quelques-uns du répertoire italien: la Camille d’Horace, Fédora,
Francillon, l’Étrangère (où elle joue alternativement les deux rôles de
femme), Magda, La Locandiera, de Goldoni, Divorçons, La Femme de
Claude, L’Abbesse de Jouarre, La Princesse de Bagdad, La Visite de
noces, etc., etc.
La Duse a été mariée. Elle a une fille de quatorze ans qu’elle fait
élever dans un lycée d’Allemagne et qu’elle adore.
On sait le grand cas qu’Alexandre Dumas fils faisait de son talent.
Elle avait avec lui une correspondance suivie.
Elle ne se trouva avec Dumas qu’une seule fois. Elle alla à Marly,
en compagnie de Gualdo, un poète italien de grand talent, qui est
resté un de ses amis fervents. Quand elle vit Dumas, avant même de
prononcer un mot, elle se mit à fondre en larmes. L’écrivain fut forcé
de la consoler, avec des paroles tendres de grand frère. Elle ne le vit
plus jamais.
L’Allemagne, la Russie, l’Autriche, l’Angleterre, l’Amérique
l’accueillirent avec enthousiasme. Elle fut fêtée et choyée par la
haute société européenne. Elle est très liée avec l’ambassadrice
d’Autriche, à Paris, qu’elle vient visiter à chacun de ses voyages en
France.
Ses tournées sont fructueuses. En Europe, raconte son
impresario, elle fait des salles de 16.000 francs, en Amérique, elle
«vaut» 35.000 francs par soirée. Elle dépense l’argent comme elle le
gagne. Elle a des villas et des pied-à-terre aux quatre coins de
l’Europe et même en Amérique: à Londres, à Rome, à Venise, à
New-York.
Détails particuliers: la Duse ne peut pas supporter les parfums, ni
les bijoux—ni les importuns. Les journalistes—pas tous, espérons-le
—sont ses bêtes noires.
Lors de son dernier séjour à Copenhague, les reporters danois
ont dû imaginer des «trucs» pour épier tous ses mouvements: l’un
d’eux, improvisé cocher, a conduit sa voiture de la gare à l’hôtel; un
autre, prenant la place d’un garçon, lui a servi son dîner; un
troisième, déguisé en cordonnier, lui a pris mesure d’une paire de
chaussures; trois autres, l’entrée des coulisses du Folketheâtre étant
interdite formellement aux personnes étrangères, ont pu se faire
engager comme machinistes et prendre ainsi des notes particulières.
On a vu, pourtant, qu’elle sait, au besoin, faire des exceptions.
C’est ce soir son début! Aujourd’hui, c’est donc son dernier grand
jour de fièvre. Mais Mme Sarah Bernhardt lui a prédit un grand
succès. Il faut l’en croire, car elle s’y connaît.
DU MAQUILLAGE A LA PEINTURE
14 février 1897.
*
* *
4 mai 1897.
Un de ces vieux clichés, comme il s’en fane tous les jours,
prétend que les arts sont frères. Les voici, au contraire, qui se
concurrencent! L’exposition des peintures et des sculptures des
artistes lyriques et dramatiques s’ouvre demain mercredi dans les
galeries Bernheim jeune et fils, 8, rue Laffitte. Elle durera jusqu’au
30 mai. On peut y aller, on doit même y aller. Le produit des entrées
est destiné à la caisse de l’Association des artistes.
Nous avons pu, en privilégié, voir donner la dernière couche de
vernis à ces produits des comédiens et comédiennes de ce temps. Il
serait trop facile d’en rire, il serait exagéré d’en pleurer. On est
d’ailleurs prévenu, dès l’entrée, qu’on n’y met pas de prétention. Mlle
Rachel Boyer, de la Comédie-Française, a dessiné, de ses mains
spirituelles l’affiche de l’exposition: c’est un Romain, ou un pompier,
déguisé en pantin dont on voit les ficelles. De ses bras articulés il
tient, à droite, un pinceau qui pourrait être un sceptre, à gauche une
palette qui est un bouclier; un petit cœur percé d’une flèche est
dessiné sur le biceps gauche.
L’exposition est au premier étage. On me donne un catalogue; je
l’ouvre et—déception!—je ne retrouve pas les vers qu’avait écrits, en
préface, et sans vouloir les signer, la plus accorte des soubrettes de
la Maison de Molière.
N’importe, je les sais par cœur, et les voici qui me montent aux
lèvres:
Les Comédiens et les Chanteurs,
L’été, forment la ribambelle
Qu’on voit assiéger les hauteurs
Où la nature est le plus belle.