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BLAST FURNACE IRONMAKING
BLAST FURNACE
IRONMAKING
Analysis, Control, and
Optimization

Ian Cameron
Hatch Ltd., Sheridan Science and Technology Park, Mississauga, ON, Canada

Mitren Sukhram
Hatch Ltd., Sheridan Science and Technology Park, Mississauga, ON, Canada

Kyle Lefebvre
Hatch Ltd., Sheridan Science and Technology Park, Mississauga, ON, Canada

William Davenport
Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, United States
Elsevier
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The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom
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Copyright © 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
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herein).
Notices
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changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information,
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ISBN: 978-0-12-814227-1

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 Author Biography

Ian Cameron is the principal metallurgist, fer- More recently, Mitren has focused on devel-
rous in the Pyrometallurgy sector practice at oping innovative technologies to improve blast
Hatch Ltd., Ontario, Canada. He develops cli- furnace productivity and reduce greenhouse gas
ent-focused solutions to produce iron and steel emissions. Mitren is a graduate of the
starting from the basic raw materials. Ian has University of Toronto, Toronto, Canada where
extensive international experience in process he completed bachelor, master’s, and PhD
technology, plant operations, technology trans- degrees in materials science and engineering.
fer, commissioning and training with iron and His areas of expertise include thermodynamics,
steel clients and resource companies. His expe- heat, mass, and momentum transfer in pyromet-
rience includes coke plant, pellet plant and allurgical processes. Mitren is a licensed profes-
blast furnace design and operations, assessing sional engineer in Ontario, Canada with 5+
steel works energy balances, and the imple- years experience as a consulting process
mentation/impact of future iron and coke- metallurgist.
making technologies. Ian holds bachelor and
Kyle Lefebvre is a process engineer in the
master’s degrees in metallurgical engineering
Pyrometallurgy sector practice at Hatch Ltd.,
from McGill University, Montréal, Quebec,
Ontario, Canada. He has worked extensively
Canada and is a licensed professional engineer
on mass, energy, and logistics models to
in Ontario, Canada. He has 38+ years of expe-
design and improve the performance of
rience including 23+ years as a consulting
numerous iron and steel production facilities.
engineer for Hatch and previously Corus
Kyle has worked across the globe in the iron
Consulting and Hoogovens Technical Services.
and steel industry with experience in the
Cameron is a life member of the Association
design and optimization of both integrated
for Iron and Steel Technology (AIST) and two
and electric arc furnace based steel plants.
time winner of AIST’s Joseph S. Kapitan award
Kyle holds a bachelor’s degree in chemical
for best technical paper in the ironmaking
engineering and biosciences, and a master’s
division.
degree in applied science from McMaster
Mitren Sukhram is a senior process engineer University in Hamilton, Ontario, Canada. Kyle
in the Pyrometallurgy sector practice at Hatch is a licensed professional engineer in Ontario,
Ltd., Ontario, Canada. He works on all aspects Canada with 4+ years of experience in the field
of blast furnace ironmaking including reline of process engineering.
planning, techno-economic assessments, cam-
Emeritus Professor William George
paign life assessment/extension, and opera-
Davenport is a graduate of the University of
tional support for blast furnaces located
British Columbia, Canada and Imperial
around the world.
College, University of London, UK. Prior to his

xvii
xviii AUTHOR BIOGRAPHY

academic career, he worked on iron- and steel- Extractive Metallurgy of Nickel, Cobalt and
making technologies with the Linde Division of Platinum Group Metals
Union Carbide in Tonawanda, New York, USA. Sulfuric Acid Manufacture
He spent a combined 43 years of teaching at and:
McGill University, Montréal, Quebec, Canada Rare Earths, Science, Technology,
and the University of Arizona, USA. He was Production and Use.
also a visiting professor at Tohoku University,
Professor Davenport is a fellow and life
Sendai, Japan and visitor at Cambridge
member of the Canadian Institute of Mining,
University, UK.
Metallurgy and Petroleum and a 25-year mem-
Professor Davenport spent much of his
ber of the (U.S.) Society of Mining, Metallurgy,
career visiting industrial plants around the
and Exploration. He is a recipient of the CIM
world. This has resulted in his co-authoring of
Alcan Award, the TMS Extractive Metallurgy
the following books:
Lecture Award, the Aus. IMM Sir George
Extractive Metallurgy of Copper Fisher Award, the AIME Mineral Industry
Iron Blast Furnace Education Award, the American Mining Hall
Flash Smelting of Fame Medal of Merit, and the SME Milton E.
Wadsworth award.
 Preface

The idea for this book arose following an iron- proficient in matrix algebra, Excel Goal Seek,
making lecture by Ian Cameron at the 2014 Excel Solver, and Optimization. We thank them
Conference of Metallurgists, Vancouver, profusely for their help and wish them the best
Canada. His lecture entitled, The Iron Blast of luck with their studies and future careers.
Furnace; Theory and Practice-35 Years Later, dis- The objectives of our book are to describe
cussed how the fundamental approach provided blast furnace ironmaking as it is today and to
in the 1979 book by John Peacey and Bill suggest how it will be in the near and distant
Davenport had applied to ensuing industry future. To achieve these objectives, we visited
improvements. Bill Davenport attended the lec- and worked at many blast furnaces around the
ture and afterward asked Ian if he would like to world while we were writing. The principle
write a new book on the iron blast furnace. In visits were to:
1979, Ian had been a student in Bill’s ironmak-
• AK Steel, Dearborn, Blast Furnace C, United
ing/steelmaking class at McGill University,
States
Montréal, Quebec, Canada. Later, Ian was fortu-
• Algoma Steel, Blast Furnace 7, Canada
nate to work with John Peacey as part of the
• ArcelorMittal Dofasco Blast Furnaces 2 and
Noranda group and at Hatch.
4, Canada
Ian agreed, and writing began. These authors
• ArcelorMittal, Fos-sur-Mer, Blast Furnaces 1
were soon joined by Mitren Sukhram and Kyle
and 2, France
Lefebvre, co-authors, who work with Ian at
• ArcelorMittal Monlevade Blast Furnace A,
Hatch Ltd., Mississauga, Canada. Anqi Cai
Brazil
joined in 2018 and made a strong contribution
• ArcelorMittal Indiana Harbor, Blast Furnace
during the last 8 months when the book was
7, United States
finalized.
• ArcelorMittal, Tubarão Blast Furnace 1 and
We were very fortunate to work with five
3, Brazil
young university interns, all from McGill
• BlueScope Steel, Port Kembla, Blast Furnace
University, during our writing, namely;
5, Australia
• Anqi Cai, • EVRAZ NTMK Blast Furnace 5 and 6,
• Sabrina Lao, Russian Federation
• Denzel Guye, • JFE Fukuyama Works, Blast Furnace 5, Japan
• Max (Shuhong) Shen, and • Hebei Iron & Steel, Handan Works, P. R.
• William Dixon. China
• NLMK, Blast Furnaces 3 7, Russian
They proofread our manuscripts, did the
Federation
end-of-chapter exercises, and showed us older
• Nippon Steel, Nagoya Works, Blast Furnace
folks what engineering students in 2015 18
1, Japan
already knew and didn’t know. They were all

xix
xx PREFACE

• Nippon Steel, Oita Works, Blast Furnace 2, 3. A thorough examination of modern

Japan industrial blast furnace practice around the
• Gerdau, Acominas, Blast Furnaces 1 and 2, world based on prior knowledge and our
Brazil plant visits.
• Stelco Lake Erie Works, Blast Furnace 1,
A brief note about units. We have used SI
Canada
units throughout except  C for temperature
• Tata Steel Europe, Blast Furnaces 6 and 7,
and pascals and bar (1 3 105 Pa) for pressure.
The Netherlands
We also use the unit normal cubic meter (Nm3)
• Ternium CSA, Blast Furnaces 1 and 2, Brazil
which is a m3 of gas at 0 C and 1 bar pressure.
• Ternium Siderar, Blast Furnace 2, Argentina
A Nm3 contains 0.0440 kg mol of ideal gas.
• U. S. Steel Great Lakes Works, Blast
One of the authors would like to thank his
Furnaces B2 and D4, United States
wife Margaret Davenport for reading portions
• U. S. Steel Gary Works, Blast Furnaces 4
of the manuscript and his son George
and 14, United States
Davenport for his assistance with many calcu-
We thank the personnel at these facilities for lations. The authors thank Hatch Ltd., espe-
their kindness in showing us around their cially Mr. Ted Lyon, Managing Director, Bulk
plants and for answering all our questions. Metals, for the continuing support we received
Our book consists of three main sections: as we completed the book over a 5-year period.
Preparing the book provided a great educa-
1. Three introductory chapters describing the
tion as we discussed and debated the best way
blast furnace from the outside and then the
to present blast furnace practice to you, that is,
inside. This is followed by a brief description
our readers. Our approach will help you build
of how the blast furnace’s molten iron
knowledge/tools to understand and control
product is used for making steel.
the complex blast furnace operation-one of
2. An arithmetical section that develops a
mankind’s most important industrial furnaces.
thermochemical model of the blast furnace
process from first principles and
Ian Cameron, Mitren Sukhram,
culminating with several chapters on
Kyle Lefebvre and William Davenport
control and optimization.
September 2019.
 Acknowledgments

ANQI CAI, McGILL UNIVERSITY community and as a tool to train process

engineers.
Ms. Anqi Cai played a key role in writing
this book. She was especially helpful to
Professor Davenport. They spoke every day CONTRIBUTING AUTHORS
for about 3 months even though she was in
Mississauga, Ontario and he was in Tucson, Dr. Afshin Sadri, Mr. Manuel Huerta, and Mr.
Arizona. She was especially helpful in the ther- Luke Boivin all of Hatch Ltd. took on the chal-
modynamic aspects of the book, writing equa- lenge of providing important content to sev-
tions, challenging others and providing eral chapters in the book. Their dedication to
documentation to prove every point. Vigorous provide high-quality materials is appreciated
arguments often ensued. by the authors.
Anqi also made critical contributions to the
book’s matrices, making sure that the variables
were properly identified and unchanged SUSANNE CRAGO, CHAMELEON
throughout the book, that the equations were GRAPHICS
properly numbered and that every cell had its
proper value. Her consistent equation number- Susanne created the excellent graphics in
ing was especially critical. the book. She persevered through the many
Finally, Anqi completed all the book’s after- changes requested by the authors. We appreci-
chapter exercises and made sure that the exer- ate her skills as a graphics artist and patience
cises were appropriate and clearly worded. to get the best possible images.
Students completing the exercises will have
her to thank for their clarity.
WILLIAM DIXON, DENZEL GUYE,
SABRINA LAO, AND MAX
(SHUHONG) SHEN, ALL FROM
TED LYON, MANAGING McGILL UNIVERSITY
DIRECTOR—BULK METALS,
HATCH LTD. In addition to Ms. Anqi Cai, these students
reviewed parts of the book as the authors were
Mr. Ted Lyon provided important sponsor- preparing the manuscript. Their input on the
ship of the Hatch team during the authoring of content and approach are greatly appreciated
the book. He was always encouraging and by the authors. Knowing that the books’
supported the completion of the book, under- content appealed to each of these students
standing its importance to the ironmaking reinforced our approach and direction.

xxi
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xxii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

The students also helped with more routine KC Woody Midrex Corporation, United States
aspects that every author appreciates when
Professor Ivan NLMK Lipetsk, Russia
preparing a manuscript.
Kurunov
Tadashi Imai Nippon Steel, Nagoya, Japan
OTHER CONTRIBUTORS Takayuki Nishi Nippon Steel, Nagoya, Japan
Jumpei Konishi Nippon Steel, Oita, Japan
The authors would like to thank and
acknowledge many others who contributed to Laurence Kayl Paul Wurth S.A., Luxembourg
the book. Our supporters are listed below and Robert Neuhold Primetals Technologies, Austria
reflect the global nature of the ironmaking
Professor Chenn Purdue University, United States
community. Qui Zhou

Michael Grant Air Liquide, Germany Dr. Jens SMS Group, Germany
Kempken
Peter Hamerlinck ArcelorMittal Dofasco, Canada
John D’Alessio Stelco Holdings Inc., Canada
Adelmo Monaco ArcelorMittal Dofasco, Canada
Scott Dedrick Stelco Holdings Inc., Canada
Douglas Ruy ArcelorMittal Tubarão, Brazil
Dr. John Quanci SunCoke Energy, United States
Ken Landau Association of Iron and Steel
Technology (AIST), United States Gerard Tijhuis Tata Steel Europe, The Netherlands

Darryle Lathlean BlueScope Steel, Australia Gerald Toop Teck Resources, Trail, Canada

Fang Yuan Qing CISDI International Engineering & Frederico Ternium CSA, Brazil
(Tracy) Consulting, P.R. China Godinho Cunha

Li Zhiyou CISDI International Engineering & Oscar Lingiardi Ternium Siderar, Argentina
(William) Consulting, P.R. China Matt Kraeuter Thyssenkrupp Industrial Solutions,
Peter McCallum CRH, Canada United States

John Busser Hatch Ltd., Canada Claude, TMT Tapping Measuring

Bodeving Technology, Luxembourg
Anneliese Hatch Ltd., Canada
Dalmoro Professor Toru Tokyo University, Japan
Okabe
Barry Hyde Hatch Ltd., Canada
Ralph Albanese United States Steel Corporation,
Anne Kirkpatrick Hatch Ltd., Canada United States
Kiyoshi Fukuda JFE, Fukushima, Japan Devbrat Dutta United States Steel Corporation,
United States
Hedetoshi JFE, Fukushima, Japan
Matsuno Jason Entwistle United States Steel Corporation,
United States
Kentaro Nozawa Kobe Steel, Kakogawa, Japan
Michael J. McCoy United States Steel Corporation,
Professor Hiro Kyoto University, Japan
United States
Fukunaka
Professor University of Queensland, Australia
Chris Ravenscroft Midrex Corporation, United States
Evgueni Jak
 C H A P T E R

1
The Iron Blast Furnace Process

O U T L I N E

1.1 Introduction to the Blast Furnace 1.4.5 Production Statistics 11

Process 1 1.4.6 Campaign Life 11
1.2 Blast Furnace Raw Materials 2 1.5 Costs 15
1.2.1 Top-Charged Materials 4 1.5.1 Investment (Capital) Costs 15
1.2.2 Charging Methods 6 1.5.2 Operating Costs 15
1.2.3 Tuyere-Injected Materials 7 1.5.3 Maintenance and Relining Costs 16
1.3 Products From the Blast Furnace 7 1.6 Safety 16
1.3.1 Molten Iron 7
1.7 Environment 16
1.3.2 Molten Slag 8
1.3.3 Top Gas 9 1.8 Summary 17
1.4 Blast Furnace Operations 10 Exercises 18
1.4.1 Pressure 10
References 18
1.4.2 Principle Chemical Reactions 11
1.4.3 Main Thermal Processes 11 Suggested Reading 18
1.4.4 Blast Furnace Information 11

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO THE liquid steel. A photograph of a blast furnace

BLAST FURNACE PROCESS plant is shown in Fig. 1.2.
Solid Fe oxide ore (hematite, Fe2O3), coke
The iron blast furnace is a tall vertical shaft (87
91% carbon), and fluxes are charged to
furnace, Fig. 1.1. Its principle objective is to the top of the blast furnace. A molten iron
produce molten iron from iron ores for subse- alloy, 1500 C, 94.5% Fe, 4.5% C, and 1% [Si 1 Mn],
quent and immediate production of molten/ is cast from the hearth along with molten and

Blast Furnace Ironmaking

DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-814227-1.00001-4 1 © 2020 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
2 1. THE IRON BLAST FURNACE PROCESS

metallic iron. In this book, reduction means

removal of oxygen (O) from iron oxides. The blast
furnace produces a molten iron alloy at 1500 C:
• 94.5 mass% Fe;
• 4.5 mass% C;
• 0.6 mass% Si;
• 0.4 mass% Mn; and
• minor amounts of S, P, and Ti.
Virtually all the molten iron alloy, com-
monly referred to as hot metal or raw iron, is
immediately refined into lower carbon molten
steel at other furnaces within the steel plant.
The Fe oxides and coke are charged to the
top of the blast furnace at furnace pressure
and in separate layers. The molten iron is
tapped from the bottom of the furnace into
ladles known as torpedo ladles. It is immedi-
ately sent molten to the steelmaking shop. By-
product molten and impurity-rich oxide slag is
tapped with the molten iron, separated imme-
diately outside of the blast furnace, solidified,
FIGURE 1.1 Cutaway drawing of an iron blast furnace. and sold as road aggregate or for use in
It is a tall cylindrical furnace B40 m high and 10
15 m in
diameter. cement production. The slag is made up of;
1. impurity oxides, mostly SiO2 and Al2O3
present in ore gangue and coke ash, plus
impurity-rich oxide slag. Hot, high pressure
2. flux oxides, mostly CaO and MgO.
air is blown into the blast furnace through the
tuyeres, burning coke, and injected fuel to cre- Iron ore pellets and metallurgical coke can
ate the heat needed to smelt the iron ores and be seen in Figs. 1.3 and 1.4.
fluxes. The resulting gas rises quickly up Heat for the process is created by burning
through the furnace charge materials also the coke with hot B1200 C high pressure air
known as burden. The burden is heated, Fe injected through tuyeres located near the bot-
oxides are reduced to Fe, and solid materials tom of the furnace. The air is blown through as
are melted and collected in the hearth. Molten few as 15 to as many as 45 water-cooled copper
iron production is typically 4,000
12,000 tonne tuyeres located around the furnace circumfer-
per blast furnace per day. The process is contin- ence at the top of the hearth, Figs. 1.1 and 1.5.
uous and operates with very high availability,
typically over 95% of the available time.
In 2016, 94% of the world’s iron ore reduc-
tion was done in blast furnaces. The remainder 1.2 BLAST FURNACE RAW
was done by solid state reduction known as MATERIALS
Direct Reduction Ironmaking. The blast fur-
nace employs carbon in coke to reduce Fe The blast furnace’s principle raw materials
oxide pellets, sinter, and crushed ore to are:

BLAST FURNACE IRONMAKING

FIGURE 1.2 Two iron blast furnaces and supporting equipment at Formosa Ha Tinh in Vietnam supplied by China’s
CISDI. Conveyor belts (from right to left in the upper picture) transport iron oxide ores/sinter/pellets, coke, and flux up
to the top of each furnace. Four vertical blast heaters or stoves (lower picture) heat the blast air to B1200 C. A large flue,
known as the downcomer, descends from the furnace top and removes top gas from the blast furnace. The blast furnace
gas is cleaned and the stoves use this as a fuel. Source: Photographs courtesy of CISDI International Engineering & Consulting Co.
4 1. THE IRON BLAST FURNACE PROCESS

FIGURE 1.5 New tuyeres in a rebuilt blast furnace.

They are water-cooled copper with a protective metal coat-
FIGURE 1.3 Fired hematite (Fe2O3) pellets ready for ing near the tip. Tuyeres are about 0.15 m inside diameter
charging to an iron blast furnace. They are 8
16 mm in and penetrate about 0.4 m into the furnace. They are situ-
diameter and contain B64 mass% Fe as compared to 70 ated about 3 m above the blast furnace taphole and are
mass% Fe in pure Fe2O3. Source: Photograph courtesy of about 1.2 m apart around the blast furnace circumference.
Midrex Technologies Inc. 1200 C blast air enters the tuyeres at 180
240 m/s and a
pressure of 3.5
4.5 bar (gauge). Source: Photograph courtesy
of Stelco Holdings Inc.

Pulverized coal, natural gas, and other

hydrocarbons are injected in through the
tuyeres to replace coke. Oxygen and steam are
also added to the blast air.

1.2.1 Top-Charged Materials

FIGURE 1.4 Metallurgical coke, about 70
100 mm
long. Coke is made by high-temperature vaporization of The top-charged raw materials are typically:
volatiles, (e.g., CH4) from coal heated in the absence of air,
Chapter 55, Metallurgical Coke—A Key to Blast Furnace 1. iron oxides: Overwhelmingly hematite,
Operations. “Met” coke contains 87
91% carbon and Fe2O3. This oxide is added as;
9
13% oxide ash; mostly silica and alumina from the origi- a. 8
16 mm diameter pellets (B64 mass%
nal coal. The coke burns with blast air near the bottom of
Fe) produced by heating finely ground
the blast furnace and in front of the tuyeres to (1) provide
heat for the ironmaking process, and (2) carbon monoxide and beneficiated ore, Fig. 1.6;
for iron oxide reduction. Source: Photograph courtesy of b. 10
45 mm sinter pieces (57 mass%
SunCoke Energy Inc. Fe) produced by heating
nonbeneficiated ore fines and other
1. top-charge solids (Fe oxide, coke, and flux), solids; and
and c. natural ore, crushed to 50 mm pieces
2. hot blast air B1200 C, which is forcefully (62
67 mass% Fe).
blown into the furnace through tuyeres near All iron oxides contain silica (SiO2) and
the bottom of the furnace, Figs. 1.1 and 1.5. other oxide impurities.

BLAST FURNACE IRONMAKING

FIGURE 1.6 Blast furnace input and output material flows. All % are mass%. Three iron oxide feeds; pellets, sinter, and crushed ore are charged with coke. Products are
molten iron and slag. The molten iron goes directly to steelmaking, and molten slag is solidified and used for road aggregate or in cement production. Reductants for ironmaking
are (1) charged to the top of the furnace as metallurgical coke, and (2) injected with hot blast air as pulverized coal and other hydrocarbon fuels. The top-charged coke and iron
oxides are added in layers; a B0.7 m thick Fe oxide ore layer then a 0.4 m thick coke layer, then a 0.7 m thick ore layer, and so on. Not shown is top gas leaving the furnace; it
leaves at 100
200 C and is sent to dedusting and demisting before it is used as fuel for heating blast air and for other in-plant duties.
6 1. THE IRON BLAST FURNACE PROCESS

2. coke: 87
91 mass% C, 9%
13% ash, both on is discharging into the furnace at furnace
a dry basis, and 1
5 mass% H2O—added as pressure, Fig. 1.7.
50
60 mm diameter pieces. This material
This system allows top gas to flow continu-
must be:
ously out of the furnace while the furnace is
a. reactive enough to combust rapidly at
being charged with solids.
elevated temperature, and
b. strong enough to avoid being crushed in
the blast furnace.
Coke ash consists of alumina (Al2O3) and
silica (SiO2) and often alkali impurities (K2O
and Na2O). Large and strong coke is
essential in the blast furnace to:
a. prevent the charge from collapsing into
the bottom of the furnace;
b. permit upward gas flow between the
coke pieces where ore and flux are
reduced and melted; and
c. allow downward dripping of newly
formed molten iron and slag.
3. fluxes: Mostly CaO and MgO. These oxides
flux the silica and alumina impurities in ore
and coke to make a fluid molten slag which
is cast or tapped from the furnace together
with the product molten iron. Fluxes are
added as 50 mm diameter limestone
(CaCO3) and dolomite (CaCO3:MgCO3)
pieces or as CaO and MgO contained in
pellets and sinter. These fluxes cause sulfur,
and alkali impurities to be absorbed in
molten slag rather than in the molten iron.

1.2.2 Charging Methods

Continuous blast furnace operation
demands that top charging does not interfere FIGURE 1.7 Bell-less charging system developed by
with gas flow out of the furnace, while the Paul Wurth for charging a blast furnace under pressure.
charge burden must be added at 1
3 bar fur- The two holding hoppers are notable. They are filled cycli-
cally where one hopper is filling at ambient pressure,
nace pressure (gauge). This is achieved using: while the other is emptying at furnace pressure. The
1. gas uptake flues located away from the charge is distributed across the blast furnace throat area by
a rotating distribution chute. The furnace’s top gas leaves
central solids charging equipment, and the blast furnace continuously through four gas uptakes
2. two central sealed charge hoppers, one located below the charging system in the furnace top cone
loading at ambient pressure, while the other (between stockline and feeder spout)—see Fig. 1.8.

BLAST FURNACE IRONMAKING

 1.3 PRODUCTS FROM THE BLAST FURNACE 7

FIGURE 1.8 Three of four gas uptakes and the downcomer pipe used to capture and remove top gas from a blast fur-
nace. Source: Photograph courtesy of CISDI International Engineering & Consulting Co.

1.2.3 Tuyere-Injected Materials 1.3 PRODUCTS FROM

Raw materials introduced through the
THE BLAST FURNACE
tuyeres (Fig. 1.5) are:
The iron blast furnace makes three
1. hot blast air: Heated to B1200 C and often products:
enriched with pure oxygen. The blast air
1. molten blast furnace iron, also known as hot
burns descending incandescent coke
metal or raw iron;
.1500 C in front of the tuyeres to provide a
2. molten oxide slag, known as blast furnace
2000
2200 C flame that is hot enough to:
slag; and
a. heat and reduce iron oxides throughout
3. blast furnace top gas, known as BFG.
the blast furnace, and
b. melt iron and slag.
2. injectants: Most often pulverized coal but
also other hydrocarbons (e.g. natural gas) 1.3.1 Molten Iron
are injected and combusted in front of the
The main product of the blast furnace is
tuyeres to provide heat plus extra CO(g)
molten iron, cast at 1500 C. It is cast through a
and H2(g) reducing gases.
pluggable taphole in the furnace hearth wall
Pulverized coal is cheaper than coke per kg near the bottom of the furnace. A small blast
of contained C. Pulverized coal injection low- furnace is equipped with one taphole; a large
ers the blast furnace coke requirement and furnace will need three or four tapholes to con-
total operating cost. tinuously drain the furnace. Larger furnaces

BLAST FURNACE IRONMAKING

8 1. THE IRON BLAST FURNACE PROCESS

alternately use two tapholes with the others 1.3.2 Molten Slag
being refurbished or on standby.
The molten iron exits the blast furnace satu- As shown in Fig. 1.9, molten blast furnace
rated with carbon. The iron typically contains slag is tapped from the blast furnace together
the following: with the molten iron. Slag is separated from
iron by gravity then solidified and sold.
Blast furnace slag is a molten oxide solution
at 1500 C made up of the following:
Element Mass%

Fe 94.4 Substance Mass%

C 4.5 CaO 40

Si 0.6 SiO2 38

Mn 0.4 Al2O3 10

P 0.06 MgO 10

S 0.03 MnO 0.4

Ti 0.01 TiO2 0.5

P2O5 ,0.1

S 0.8
The hot metal is immediately sent molten Fe (total in droplets and ions) 0.2
B1500 C to the steelmaking plant where it is
sequentially:
Chemically, the slag is a high temperature
1. desulfurized in a large ladle by injecting a solution of cations (such as Ca11 and Mg11)
[CaO, CaC2, and/or Mg]
based powder and anions (such as O22 and SiO442).2 Slag con-
into the iron, thereby removing the sulfur tains very little Fe - an indication of the blast
contained as a molten CaO-, MgO-, S-rich furnace’s excellent reduction efficiency.
slag1; Blast furnace slag composition is chosen to:
2. oxidized with virtually pure oxygen and
fluxed with CaO and MgO in a basic 1. guarantee that the slag is molten and fluid;
oxygen furnace to remove most of the 2. remove the ore’s gangue minerals and the
impurities, that is, Si, C, S, and P; coke’s ash from the furnace burden as a
3. alloyed with other metals; for example, Mn, fluid slag;
Cr, Ni, V, and Mo; 3. absorb K2O and Na2O (alkalis), which will
4. degassed to remove H2(g), N2(g) and lower otherwise build up in the furnace; and
carbon to very low levels [removing C as 4. absorb sulfur that will otherwise enter the
CO(g)]; product molten iron.
5. continuously cast into steel slabs, billets, A slag “basicity” ratio, B4 is defined as:
and/or blooms; and
6. finished by hot and cold rolling, Mass% CaO 1 Mass% MgO
B4 5
Mass% SiO2 1 Mass% Al2 O3
occasionally coated, and then sold
A B4 value between 0.9 and 1.1 best meets
as described in Chapter 3, Making Steel From
these four slag composition objectives.
Molten Blast Furnace Iron.

BLAST FURNACE IRONMAKING

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 1.3 PRODUCTS FROM THE BLAST FURNACE 9

FIGURE 1.9 Molten iron and slag being tapped from a blast furnace. They are separated in the main trough by allow-
ing dense molten iron (6.8 t/m3) to flow under a refractory skimming block while forcing the less dense molten slag
(2.7 t/m3) to collect above the iron and flow into a slag runner. The molten iron flows continuously into a torpedo-shaped
rail car ladle used to transport the hot metal to steelmaking. The molten slag flows to a granulation machine or is solidi-
fied in pits-then sold. Notice the huge bustle pipe that distributes blast air to individual tuyeres. Source: Photograph courtesy
of TMT—Tapping Measuring Technology S.à. r.l & G.m.b.H.

1.3.2.1 Slag Uses 1450
1500 C, so that it flows smoothly into

Solidified blast furnace slag is used for road the granulator.
aggregate and in cement production. For road
aggregate, slag is air cooled in large pits then
crushed. For cement, molten slag is water 1.3.3 Top Gas
quenched then finely ground. This finely ground
BFG leaves the furnace through four widely
slag is added to Portland cement (30
70% blast
spaced uptake flues located in the furnace top
furnace slag, remainder Portland cement). This
cone, Figs. 1.1 and 1.8. The gas is dedusted,
mixture is stronger than Portland cement alone
demisted, and burnt for:
and more resistant to sulfate and chloride attack.
Slag cement is also fire resistant.3 1. heating blast air in regenerative stoves,
Successful slag granulation requires that Fig. 1.2,
the molten slag must always be hot, 2. heating other furnaces around the steel plant,

BLAST FURNACE IRONMAKING

10 1. THE IRON BLAST FURNACE PROCESS

3. producing low-pressure steam for the steel

plant, and
4. making electricity.
BFG is typically composed of the following:

Gas Volume %

CO 23
CO2 22
H2 3
H2O 3
N2 49

FIGURE 1.10 Pt
Rh thermocouple in flowing-tapped

BFG’s fuel value is about 10% that of natu- molten iron stream. It is inside the vertical refractory probe
ral gas, that is, BFG is a “weak” fuel. Despite (bottom end closed) to give a continuous measure of hot
being a weak fuel, BFG has many valuable in- metal temperature. Source: Photo courtesy of Algoma Inc.
plant uses; it is by far the largest stream of
waste energy in any steelworks. The moist temperatures: Hot blast, cooling water,
dust from dedusting/demisting is agglomer- furnace wall, top gas;
ated by sintering or briquetting then recycled pressures: Blast, furnace interior at several
to the blast furnace to recover its Fe and C. It points, top;
accounts for about 5% of the blast furnace flowrates: Blast air, tuyere injectants, cooling
charge. water; and
moisture: Of charge materials added to the
furnace.
1.4 BLAST FURNACE OPERATIONS In addition, product iron and slag tempera-
tures are measured continuously or intermit-
The blast furnace operation entails: tently with specialized high-temperature
1. nearly continuous charging of ore, coke, Pt
Rh thermocouples, Fig. 1.10.4
and flux through the top of the furnace; Powerful drilling machines are used to
2. continuous blowing of hot blast air and open the taphole. At the end of a cast, a mud
hydrocarbon injectants through the blast gun is used to block the taphole and stop mol-
furnace tuyeres; and ten iron and slag flow.
3. continuous (on smaller furnaces
intermittently) casting of molten iron and 1.4.1 Pressure
slag through a taphole near the bottom of
Most blast furnaces are pressurized to
the hearth.
1
3 bar (gauge) at the top gas offtakes and
Most of these operations are controlled by 2.5
4.5 bar (gauge) at the tuyere tips. These
skilled operators using multiple sensors pressures densify the gas (n/V 5 P/RT), giving
around the furnace. Continuously monitored it an extended residence/reaction time in
process variables include the following: the furnace.

BLAST FURNACE IRONMAKING

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 Transcriber’s Notes:
On page 34, Catherine has been changed to
Catharine.
On page 37, aple has been changed to able.
On page 38, sierous has been changed to
serious.
On page 59, unexpceted has been changed to
unexpected.
On page 63, futherance has been changed to
furtherance.
On page 83, fellow ship has been changed to
fellowship.
On page 88, comanding has been changed to
commanding.
On page 124, dolicious has been changed to
delicious.
On page 184, a repetitive “the the” has been
removed.
On page 202, a repetitive “and and” has been
removed.
On page 205, dilligence has been changed to
diligence.
On page 225, thistledown has been changed to
thistle-down.
Minor silent changes have been made to
regularize usage of punctuation.
All other spelling, hyphenation and dialect have
been retained as typeset.
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