Get ebook downloads in full at ebookmeta.

com

Introducing Communication Theory: Analysis and

Application Richard West

https://ebookmeta.com/product/introducing-communication-
theory-analysis-and-application-richard-west/

OR CLICK BUTTON

DOWNLOAD NOW

Explore and download more ebook at https://ebookmeta.com

 Recommended digital products (PDF, EPUB, MOBI) that
you can download immediately if you are interested.

Cost Benefit Analysis Theory and Application 2nd Edition

Tevfik F Nas

https://ebookmeta.com/product/cost-benefit-analysis-theory-and-
application-2nd-edition-tevfik-f-nas/

ebookmeta.com

Primary Mathematics 3A Hoerst

https://ebookmeta.com/product/primary-mathematics-3a-hoerst/

ebookmeta.com

Introducing Play Framework: Java Web Application

Development 2nd Edition Karunakaran

https://ebookmeta.com/product/introducing-play-framework-java-web-
application-development-2nd-edition-karunakaran/

ebookmeta.com

Business Partnership Essentials A Step by Step Action Plan

for Succeeding in Business With a Partner Second Edition

https://ebookmeta.com/product/business-partnership-essentials-a-step-
by-step-action-plan-for-succeeding-in-business-with-a-partner-second-
edition/
ebookmeta.com
Let s Go 5th 1 SB 5th Edition Mehdi

https://ebookmeta.com/product/let-s-go-5th-1-sb-5th-edition-mehdi/

ebookmeta.com

Murderous Fiction The Collected Short Fiction 2022nd

Edition W. T. Ballard

https://ebookmeta.com/product/murderous-fiction-the-collected-short-
fiction-2022nd-edition-w-t-ballard/

ebookmeta.com

French and Italian Stoicisms From Sartre to Agamben 1st

Edition Kurt Lampe Janae Sholtz Editors

https://ebookmeta.com/product/french-and-italian-stoicisms-from-
sartre-to-agamben-1st-edition-kurt-lampe-janae-sholtz-editors/

ebookmeta.com

Class Roar Harem Fantasy For Men 1st Edition Sam Hunter

https://ebookmeta.com/product/class-roar-harem-fantasy-for-men-1st-
edition-sam-hunter/

ebookmeta.com

Minimal Surfaces from a Complex Analytic Viewpoint

Springer Monographs in Mathematics Antonio Alarcón

https://ebookmeta.com/product/minimal-surfaces-from-a-complex-
analytic-viewpoint-springer-monographs-in-mathematics-antonio-alarcon/

ebookmeta.com
Diet and Nutrition Sourcebook (Health Reference), 6th
Edition Kevin Hayes

https://ebookmeta.com/product/diet-and-nutrition-sourcebook-health-
reference-6th-edition-kevin-hayes/

ebookmeta.com
 ® This International Student Edition is for use outside of the U.S.
Seventh
Edition Seventh Edition
Your grades. Your time. Make the most of it.
You want to achieve the best grades possible with the limited time
you have to study. McGraw-Hill Connect helps you do just that. Connect is
your personalized digital learning assistant that makes earning better grades
and managing time easier, quicker, and more convenient than ever.

Introducing

COMMUNICATION THEORY
Introducing
Analysis and Application
Students who access Connect sooner, do better.*

11%
Average increase in student
scores when using Connect on
85%
of students pass their courses
using Connect compared to 72% COMMUNICATION
THEORY
day 1 vs. day 14 of class. of students not using Connect.

*Source: The Impact of Connect on Student Success. McGraw-Hill Connect® Effectiveness Study 2016

Activate your Connect subscription today!

If you need a hand getting started with Connect, or at any
step along the way, we’re standing by—ready to help.

Analysis and Application

West
mhhe.com/collegesmarter
mhhe.com/support

Turner

Richard L. West Lynn H. Turner

 SEVENTH EDITION

Introducing Communication Theory

Analysis and Application

Richard L. West
Emerson College

Lynn H. Turner
Marquette University
INTRODUCING COMMUNICATION THEORY
Published by McGraw Hill LLC, 1325 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10121. Copyright 2021 by McGraw Hill LLC. All rights
reserved. Printed in the United States of America. No part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any
means, or stored in a database or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC, including, but not limited to,
in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning.

Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers outside the United States.

This book is printed on acid-free paper.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 LCR 24 23 22 21 20

ISBN 978-1-260-57553-8
MHID 1-260-57553-5

All credits appearing on page or at the end of the book are considered to be an extension of the copyright page.

The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication. The inclusion of a website does not indicate an endorse-
ment by the authors or McGraw Hill LLC, and McGraw Hill LLC does not guarantee the accuracy of the information presented at these
sites.

mheducation.com/highered
 BRIEF CONTENTS iii

Brief Contents
Part One Foundations
COMMUNICATION, THEORY, AND RESEARCH
1. Thinking About Communication: Definitions, Models, and Ethics 1
2. Thinking About the Field: Traditions and Contexts 23
3. Thinking About Theory and Research 42

Part Two Empirical/Post-Positivist Theory

Organization of “Introducing Communication Theory: Analysis and Application” 65
INTRAPERSONAL: THE SELF AND MESSAGES
4. Expectancy Violations Theory 67

INTERPERSONAL: RELATIONSHIP DEVELOPMENT

5. Uncertainty Reduction Theory 82
6. Social Exchange Theory 100
7. Social Penetration Theory 115
8. Social Information Processing Theory 131

GROUPS, TEAMS, AND ORGANIZATIONS

9. Structuration Theory 147
10. Organizational Information Theory 162

THE MEDIA
11. Agenda Setting Theory 179
12. Spiral of Silence Theory 193
13. Uses and Gratifications Theory 211

CULTURE AND DIVERSITY

14. Face-Negotiation Theory 226

Part Three Interpretive Theories

INTRAPERSONAL: THE SELF AND MESSAGES
15. Symbolic Interaction Theory 242
16. Coordinated Management of Meaning 257

INTERPERSONAL: RELATIONSHIP DEVELOPMENT

17. Communication Privacy Management Theory 276
iv BRIEF CONTENTS

GROUPS, TEAMS, AND ORGANIZATIONS

18. Groupthink 291
19. Organizational Culture Theory 307

THE PUBLIC
20. The Rhetoric 322
21. Dramatism 339
22. The Narrative Paradigm 353

THE MEDIA
23. Media Ecology Theory 367

CULTURE AND DIVERSITY

24. Communication Accommodation Theory 386

Part Four Critical Theories

INTERPERSONAL: RELATIONSHIP DEVELOPMENT
25. Relational Dialectics Theory 402

THE MEDIA
26. Cultivation Theory 419
27. Cultural Studies 436

CULTURE AND DIVERSITY

28. Muted Group Theory 451
29. Feminist Standpoint Theory 466
30. Co-Cultural Theory 482

Afterword ← ConnectingQuests 504

APPENDIX A: Theory Summaries 508
References R-1
Name Index I-1
Subject Index I-11
 CONTENTS v

Contents
Preface xvii
About the Authors xxix

PART ONE Foundations

Communication, Theory, and Research

Chapter 1 Thinking About Communication: Definitions, Models, and Ethics 1
Defining Communication 3
Models of Understanding: Communication as Action, Interaction, and Transaction 6
Communication as Action: The Linear Model 6
Communication as Interaction: The Interactional Model 8
Communication as Transaction: The Transactional Model 9
Communication Models of the Future 10
Ethics and Communication 12
Business and Industry 14
Religion and Faith 14
Entertainment 15
Higher Education 15
Medicine 16
Politics 17
Technology 17
Some Final Thoughts 17
The Value of Understanding Communication Theory 18
Understanding Communication Theory Cultivates Critical Thinking Skills 18
Understanding Communication Theory Helps You to Recognize the Breadth and Depth of
Research 19
Understanding Communication Theory Helps to Make Sense of Personal Life
Experiences 19
Communication Theory Fosters Self-Awareness 19
Conclusion 20
Discussion Starters 20
Key Terms 21
Chapter 2 Thinking About the Field: Traditions and Contexts 23
A Historical Briefing 24
Seven Traditions in the Communication Field 26
The Rhetorical Tradition: Communication and the Art of Public Speaking 27
The Semiotic Tradition: Communication and the Co-Creation of Signs 28
The Phenomenological Tradition: Communication and the Analysis of the Everyday 28
The Cybernetic Tradition: Communication and the Processing of Information via Feedback 28
The Socio-Psychological Tradition: Communication and the Science of Human Behavior 29
The Socio-Cultural Tradition: Communication and Socially Constructed Reality 29
vi CONTENTS

The Critical Tradition: Communication and Questioning the Status Quo 30

Putting It All Together 30
Seven Contexts in the Communication Field 31
Intrapersonal Communication 32
Interpersonal Communication 32
Small Group and Team Communication 33
Organizational Communication 34
Public/Rhetorical Communication 36
Mass/Media Communication 37
Cultural Communication 38
Collating the Contexts 38
Conclusion 39
Discussion Starters 40
Key Terms 40
Chapter 3 Thinking About Theory and Research 42
Defining Theory: What’s in a Name? 43
Components 44
Goals 45
Approaches to Knowing: How Do You See (and Talk About) the World? 46
The Positivistic, or Empirical, Approach 46
The Interpretive Approach 46
The Critical Approach 46
Approaches to Knowing: What Questions Do You Ask About the World? 47
Approaches to Knowing: How Do We Go About Theory Building? 49
Covering Law Approach 50
Rules Approach 51
Systems Approach 52
Evaluating Theory: Determining Theory Effectiveness 54
Theory and Metaphor 56
The Research Process 57
Communication Research and the Scientific Method 57
Communication Research and the Qualitative Approach 59
Conclusion 61
Discussion Starters 62
Key Terms 62

PART TWO Empirical/Post-Positivist Theories

Organization of “Introducing Communication Theory: Analysis and Application” 65

Intrapersonal: The Self and Messages
Chapter 4 Expectancy Violations Theory 67
Space Relations 69
Proxemic Zones 69
Territoriality 71
Assumptions of Expectancy Violations Theory 72
 CONTENTS vii

Arousal 75
Threat Threshold 76
Violation Valence 76
Communicator Reward Valence 77
Integration and Critique 78
Integration 78
Critique 78
Scope 79
Utility 79
Testability 79
Heurism 79
Closing 80
Discussion Starters 80
Key Terms 80
Interpersonal: Relationship Development
Chapter 5 Uncertainty Reduction Theory 82
Assumptions of Uncertainty Reduction Theory 84
Key Concepts of URT: The Axiom and Theorem 86
Axioms of Uncertainty Reduction Theory 86
Theorems of Uncertainty Reduction Theory 88
Expansions of Uncertainty Reduction Theory 88
Antecedent Conditions 88
Strategies 89
Developed Relationships 90
Social Media and Computer-Mediated Communication 92
Context 94
Integration and Critique 96
Integration 96
Critique 96
Utility 97
Heurism 98
Closing 98
Discussion Starters 98
Key Terms 99
Chapter 6 Social Exchange Theory 100
Assumptions of Social Exchange Theory 103
Dimensions of Interdependence 106
Evaluation of a Relationship 107
Power and Exchange Patterns 109
Integration and Critique 110
Integration 111
Critique 111
Scope 111
Utility 111
viii CONTENTS

Testability 112
Heurism 112
Closing 113
Discussion Starters 113
Key Terms 114
Chapter 7 Social Penetration Theory 115
Assumptions of Social Penetration Theory 117
“Tearing Up” the Relationship: The Onion Analogy 120
A Social Exchange: Relational Costs and Rewards 122
Stages of the Social Penetration Process 123
Orientation: Revealing Bit by Bit 124
Exploratory Affective Exchange: The Self Emerges 125
Affective Exchange: Commitment and Comfortability 126
Stable Exchange: Raw Honesty and Intimacy 127
Integration and Critique 128
Integration 128
Critique 128
Scope 128
Heurism 129
Closing 129
Discussion Starters 129
Key Terms 130
Chapter 8 Social Information Processing Theory 131
Theoretical Turbulence: The Cues Filtered Out 134
Assumptions of Social Information Processing Theory 135
Hyperpersonal Perspective: “I Like What I Read and I Want More” 139
Sender: Selective Self-Presentation 139
Receiver: Idealization of the Sender 140
Channel Management 140
Feedback 141
Warranting: Gaining Confidence Online 142
Integration and Critique 143
Integration 143
Critique 143
Scope 144
Utility 144
Testability 144
Closing 145
Discussion Starters 145
Key Terms 146
Groups, Teams, and Organizations
Chapter 9 Structuration Theory 147
Assumptions of Structuration Theory 151
Central Concepts of Structuration Theory 153
 CONTENTS ix

Agency and Reflexivity 153

Duality of Structure 154
Social Integration 157
Application of Time and Space 158
Integration and Critique 158
Integration 159
Critique 159
Scope 159
Parsimony 159
Closing 160
Discussion Starters 160
Key Terms 161
Chapter 10 Organizational Information Theory 162
The Only Constant Is Change (in Organizations) 165
General Systems Theory 165
Darwin’s Theory of Sociocultural Evolution 166
Assumptions of Organizational Information Theory 167
Key Concepts and Conceptualizing Information 168
Information Environment: The Sum Total 168
Rules: Guidelines to Analyze 169
Self-Governance in an Age of Rules 170
Cycles: Act, Respond, Adjust 171
The Principles Related to Equivocality 172
Reducing Equivocality: Trying to Use the Information 173
Enactment: Assigning Message Importance 173
Selection: Interpreting the Inputs 174
Retention: Remembering the Small Stuff 174
Integration and Critique 175
Integration 176
Critique 176
Logical Consistency 176
Utility 176
Heurism 177
Closing 177
Discussion Starters 177
Key Terms 178
The Media
Chapter 11 Agenda Setting Theory 179
History of Agenda Setting Research 181
Pretheoretical Conceptualizing 181
Establishing the Theory of Agenda Setting 182
Elaborating the Theory 183
Assumptions of Agenda Setting Theory 184
Three-Part Process of Agenda Setting 185
x CONTENTS

Three Levels of Agenda Setting 186

Integration and Critique 188
Integration 189
Critique 189
Scope 189
Utility 189
Heurism 191
Closing 191
Discussion Starters 191
Key Terms 192
Chapter 12 Spiral of Silence Theory 193
The Court of Public Opinion 195
Assumptions of Spiral of Silence Theory 197
The Media’s Influence 200
The Train Test 202
The Hard Core 203
Speaking Out About Various Issues 205
The Spiral of Silence and Social Media 205
Integration and Critique 207
Integration 208
Critique 208
Logical Consistency 208
Heurism 209
Closing 209
Discussion Starters 209
Key Terms 210
Chapter 13 Uses and Gratifications Theory 211
Assumptions of Uses and Gratifications Theory 213
History of Uses and Gratifications Research 215
Changing Positions on Media Effects 217
Key Concepts 218
Contemporary Applications of Uses and Gratifications Theory 220
Integration and Critique 221
Integration 222
Critique 222
Logical Consistency 222
Heurism 223
Closing 223
Discussion Starters 224
Key Terms 224
Culture and Diversity
Chapter 14 Face-Negotiation Theory 226
About Face 228
Face and Politeness Theory 229
 CONTENTS xi

Facework 230
Assumptions of Face-Negotiation Theory 230
Individualistic and Collectivistic Cultures 233
Face Management and Culture 236
Managing Conflict Across Cultures 237
Integration and Critique 238
Integration 239
Critique 239
Logical Consistency 239
Heurism 240
Closing 240
Discussion Starters 240
Key Terms 241

PART THREE Interpretive Theories

Intrapersonal: The Self and Messages

Chapter 15 Symbolic Interaction Theory 242
History of Symbolic Interaction Theory 244
Assumptions of Symbolic Interaction Theory 245
Individuals Construct Meaning via the Communication Process 245
Humans Act Toward Others on the Basis of the Meanings Those Others Have for
Them 246
Meaning Is Created in Interaction Between People 246
Meaning Is Modified Through an Interpretive Process 247
Self-Concept Is a Motivation for Behavior 247
Individuals Develop Self-Concepts Through Interactions with Others 248
Self-Concepts Provide an Important Motive for Behavior 248
A Unique Relationship Exists Between the Individual and Society 249
People and Groups Are Influenced by Cultural and Social Processes 250
Social Structure Is Worked Out Through Social Interaction 250
Key Concepts 251
Mind 251
Self 252
Society 253
Integration and Critique 254
Integration 254
Critique 254
Scope 254
Utility 254
Testability 255
Closing 255
Discussion Starters 256
Key Terms 256
xii CONTENTS

Chapter 16 Coordinated Management of Meaning 257

All the World’s a Stage 258
Assumptions of Coordinated Management of Meaning 259
The Hierarchy of Organized Meaning 261
Content 262
Speech Act 263
Episodes 263
Relationship 264
Life Scripts 265
Cultural Patterns 265
Charmed and Strange Loops 266
The Coordination of Meaning: Making Sense of the Sequence 268
Influences on the Coordination Process 269
Rules and Unwanted Repetitive Patterns 270
Integration and Critique 272
Integration 272
Critique 272
Scope 273
Parsimony 273
Utility 273
Heurism 273
Closing 274
Discussion Starters 274
Key Terms 275
Interpersonal: Relationship Development
Chapter 17 Communication Privacy Management Theory 276
Evolution of Communication Privacy Management Theory 278
Assumptions of CPM 280
Key Components and Axioms of CPM 281
Component 1: Privacy Ownership 283
Component 2: Privacy Control 284
Component 3: Privacy Turbulence 286
Integration and Critique 287
Integration 287
Critique 287
Logical Consistency 287
Utility 288
Heurism 288
Closing 289
Discussion Starters 289
Key Terms 289
Groups, Teams, and Organizations
Chapter 18 Groupthink 291
Assumptions of Groupthink 294
What Comes Before: Antecedent Conditions of Groupthink 296
 CONTENTS xiii

Group Cohesiveness 296

Structural Factors 297
Group Stress 298
Symptoms of Groupthink 298
Overestimation of the Group 299
Closed-Mindedness 299
Pressures Toward Uniformity 300
Think Before You Act: Ways to Prevent Groupthink 301
Polythink: Moving Beyond the Groupthink Phenomenon 303
Integration and Critique 303
Integration 304
Critique 304
Scope 304
Testability 304
Heurism 304
Test of Time 305
Closing 305
Discussion Starters 305
Key Terms 306
Chapter 19 Organizational Culture Theory 307
The Cultural Metaphor: Of Spider Webs and Organizations 311
Assumptions of Organizational Cultural Theory 312
Ethnographic Understanding: Laying It On Thick 314
The Communicative Performance 316
Ritual Performances 317
Passion Performances 317
Social Performances 317
Political Performances 317
Enculturation Performances 318
Integration and Critique 318
Integration 319
Critique 319
Logical Consistency 319
Utility 319
Heurism 319
Closing 320
Discussion Starters 320
Key Terms 320
The Public
Chapter 20 The Rhetoric 322
The Rhetorical Tradition 324
Assumptions of the Rhetoric 325
The Syllogism: A Three-Tiered Argument 327
Canons of Rhetoric 328
xiv CONTENTS

Invention 329
Arrangement 329
Style 330
Memory 331
Delivery 331
Types of Rhetoric 331
Integration and Critique 334
Integration 335
Critique 335
Logical Consistency 335
Heurism 336
Test of Time 336
Closing 336
Discussion Starters 336
Key Terms 337
Chapter 21 Dramatism 339
Assumptions of Dramatism 341
Dramatism as New Rhetoric 342
Identification/Division and Substance 343
The Process of Guilt and Redemption 344
The Pentad 345
Integration and Critique 347
Integration 347
Critique 347
Scope 348
Parsimony 348
Utility 348
Heurism 349
Closing 350
Discussion Starters 350
Key Terms 351
Chapter 22 The Narrative Paradigm 353
Assumptions of the Narrative Paradigm 356
Key Concepts in the Narrative Approach 359
Narration (or Narratives) 359
Narrative Rationality 360
Integration and Critique 362
Integration 363
Critique 363
Scope 363
Logical Consistency 363
Utility 363
Heurism 364
Other documents randomly have
different content
between them, Elphinstone rose to depart, but before he went, he
touched Swift on the shoulder with his sword, and dropped a hint
that he would expect to receive satisfaction next morning on the
Links. Next day, accordingly, the two gentlemen met at eleven in the
forenoon in that comparatively public place (as it now appears), and
fought a single combat with swords, which ended in Swift receiving a
mortal wound in the breast.
Elphinstone was indicted for this act before the High Court of
Justiciary; but the case was never brought forward, and the young
man died without molestation at Leith three years after.

The merit of the invention of that noble 1730.

instrument, the Reflecting Telescope, is
allowed to rest with David Gregory, a native of Scotland, although
that of first completing one (in 1671) is due to the illustrious Newton.
It was thought very desirable by Sir Isaac to substitute glass for
metallic reflectors; but fifty years elapsed without the idea being
realised, when at length, about this date, a very young Edinburgh
artist, named James Short, ‘executed no fewer than six reflecting
telescopes with glass specula, three of which were fifteen inches, and
three nine inches in focal length,’ to which Professor Maclaurin gave
his approbation, though ultimately their light was found fainter than
was deemed necessary.
Two years afterwards, when Short had only attained the age of
twenty-two, he began to enter into competition with the English
makers of reflecting telescopes, but without attempting to make
specula of glass. ‘To such perfection did he carry the art of grinding
and polishing metallic specula, and of giving them the true parabolic
figure, that, with a telescope of fifteen inches in focal length, he and
Mr Bayne, Professor of Law in the University of Edinburgh, read the
Philosophical Transactions at the distance of five hundred feet, and
several times, particularly on the 24th of November and the 7th of
December 1734, they saw the five satellites of Saturn together, an
achievement beyond the reach of Hadley’s six-feet telescope.’
This ingenious man, attaining some celebrity for the making of
reflecting telescopes, was induced, in 1742, to settle in London,
where for a number of years he continued to use his remarkable
talents in this way, occasionally furnishing 1730.
instruments at high prices to royal
personages throughout Europe.[704]

One William Muir, brother of two men Oct. 26.

who had recently been hanged at Ayr for
theft, was this day tried before a jury, for housebreaking, by the Lord
Provost of Edinburgh, acting as ‘High Sheriff within burgh.’ The man
was condemned to death, and the sentence was duly executed on the
ensuing 2d of December, he dying penitent.[705]
It seems strange to us, but about this time the condemnation of
criminals to capital punishment by sheriffs of counties, and by the
chief-magistrate of Edinburgh, was by no means infrequent, being
entirely in accordance with the statutory arrangements of the
country. Nay more, great territorial lords, especially in the
Highlands, still acted upon their ancient privileges of pit and gallows.
It is related that the Duke of Athole one day received at Blair an
application from his baron-bailie for pardon to a man whom he had
condemned to be hanged for theft, but who was a person of such
merits otherwise that it seemed a pity to put justice in force against
him. The Lord President Forbes, who had stopped to dine with his
Grace in the course of a journey to Edinburgh, expressed his surprise
that the power of pardoning a condemned criminal should be
attributed to any person but the king. ‘Since I have the power of
punishing,’ said the duke, ‘it is but right that I should have the power
of pardoning.’ Then, calling a servant, he quietly added: ‘Send an
express to Logierait, and order Donald Stewart, presently under
sentence, to be set at liberty.’[706]

We are now arrived at a time which seems to mark very decidedly

a transition in Scotland from poverty to growing wealth, from the
puritanic manners of the seventeenth century to the semi-licence and
ease of the eighteenth, from narrow to liberal education, and
consequently from restricted to expanded views. It may, therefore, be
proper here to introduce a few general observations.
Although, only a few years back, we find Wodrow speaking of the
general poverty, it is remarkable that, after this time, complaints on
that point are not heard in almost any quarter. The influx of
commercial prosperity at Glasgow had now 1730.
fairly set in, and the linen manufacture and
other branches of industry begin to be a good deal spoken of.
Agricultural improvements and the decoration of the country by
wood had now been commenced. There was great chafing under the
taxation introduced after the Union, and smuggling was popular, and
the revenue-officers were detested; yet the people had become able
to endure the deductions made from their income. Thus did matters
go on during the time between 1725 and 1745, making a slow but
sensible advance—nothing like what took place after the question of
the dynasty had been settled at Culloden, but yet such as to very
considerably affect the condition of the people. Much of this was
owing to the pacific policy of Sir Robert Walpole, to whom, with all
his faults, the British people certainly owe more than to any minister
before Sir Robert Peel.
If we wish to realise the manners before this period, we must think
of the Scotch as a people living in a part of Britain remote from the
centre—peninsulated and off at a side—enjoying little intercourse
with strangers; but, above all, as a people on whom the theology of
the Puritans, with all their peculiar views regarding the forms of
religion and the arrangements of a church, had taken a powerful
hold. Down to 1730, all respectable persons in Scotland, with but the
slightest exceptions, maintained a strictly evangelical creed, went
regularly to church, and kept up daily family-worship. Nay, it had
become a custom that every house should contain a small closet built
on purpose, to which the head of the family could retire at stated
times for his personal or private devotions, which were usually of a
protracted kind, and often accompanied by great motions and
groanings, expressive of an intense sense of human worthlessness
without the divine favour. On Sunday, the whole family, having first
gathered for prayers in the parlour, proceeded at ten to church. At
half-past twelve, they came home for a light dinner of cold viands
(none being cooked on this sacred day), to return at two for an
afternoon service of about two hours. The remainder of the day was
devoted to private devotions, catechising of children, and the reading
of pious books, excepting a space of time set aside for supper, which
in many families was a comfortable meal, and an occasion, the only
one during the day, when a little cheerful conversation was indulged
in. Invariably, the day was closed with a repetition of family prayers.
It was customary for serious people to draw up a written paper, in
which they formally devoted themselves to 1730.
the service of God—a sort of personal
covenant with their Maker—and to renew this each year at the time
of the celebration of the communion by a fresh signature with the
date. The subscriber expressed his entire satisfaction with the
scheme of Christian salvation, avowed his willingness to take the
Lord to be his all-sufficient portion, and to be resigned to his will and
providence in all things. He also expressed his resolution to be
mortified to the world, and to engage heartily and steadfastly
persevere in the performance of all religious duties. An earnest
prayer for the divine help usually closed this document.
As all were trained to look up to the Deity with awe and terror, so,
with the same feelings, were children accustomed to look up to their
parents, and servants to their masters. Amongst the upper classes,
the head of the family was for the most part an awful personage, who
sat in a special chair by the fireside, and at the head of the table, with
his hat on, often served at meals with special dishes, which no one
else, not even guests, partook of. In all the arrangements of the
house, his convenience and tastes were primarily studied. His
children approached him with fear, and never spoke with any
freedom before him. At meals, the lady of the house helped every one
as she herself might choose. The dishes were at once ill-cooked and
ill-served. It was thought unmeet for man that he should be nice
about food. Nicety and love of rich feeding were understood to be
hateful peculiarities of the English, and unworthy of the people who
had been so much more favoured by God in a knowledge of matters
of higher concern.
There was, nevertheless, a great amount of hospitality. And here it
is to be observed, that the poverty of those old times had less effect
on the entertainments of the higher classes than might have been
expected. What helped the gentlefolks in this respect, was the custom
of receiving considerable payments from their tenants in kind. This
enabled them to indulge in a rude abundance at home, while their
means of living in a town-house, or in an inn while travelling, was
probably very limited. We must further remember the abundance of
game in Scotland, how every moor teemed with grouse and black-
cock, and every lake and river with fish. These furnished large
supplies for the table of the laird, both in Lowlands and Highlands;
and I feel convinced that the miserable picture drawn by a modern
historian of the way of living among the northern chiefs is untrue to a
large extent, mainly by his failure to take 1730.
such resources into account.
A lady, born in 1714, who has left a valuable set of reminiscences of
her early days, lays great stress on the home-staying life of the
Scottish gentry. She says that this result of their narrow
circumstances kept their minds in a contracted state, and caused
them to regard all manners and habits different from their own with
prejudice. The adult had few intelligent books to read; neither did
journals then exist to give them a knowledge of public affairs. The
children, kept at a distance by their parents, lived much amongst
themselves or with underlings, and grew up with little of either
knowledge or refinement. Restrained within a narrow social circle,
they often contracted improper marriages. It was not thought
necessary in those days that young ladies should acquire a sound
knowledge of even their own language, much less of French, German,
or Italian; nor were many of them taught music or any other refined
accomplishment. ‘The chief thing required was to hear them psalms
and long catechisms, in which they were employed an hour or more
every day, and almost the whole day on Sunday. They were allowed
to run about and amuse themselves in the way they choosed, even to
the age of woman, at which time they were generally sent to
Edinburgh for a winter or two, to learn to dress themselves, and to
dance, and see a little of the world. The world was only to be seen at
church, at marriages, burials, and baptisms.... When in the country,
their employment was in coloured work, beds, tapestry, and other
pieces of furniture; imitations of fruits and flowers, with very little
taste. If they read any, it was either books of devotion or long
romances, and sometimes both.’
Previous to this time, the universal dress of the middle classes was
of plain country cloth, much of it what was called hodden gray—that
is, cloth spun at home from the undyed wool. Gentlemen of figure
wore English or foreign cloth, and their clothes were costly in
comparison with other articles. We find, for instance, a gentleman at
his marriage, in 1711, paying £340 Scots for two suits, a night-gown,
and a suit to his servant. Linen being everywhere made at home—the
spinning executed by the servants during the long winter evenings,
and the weaving by the village webster—there was a general
abundance of napery and of under-clothing. Holland, being about six
shillings an ell, was worn only by men of refinement. ‘I remember,’
says the lady aforesaid, ‘in the ‘30 or ‘31, of a ball where it was agreed
that the company should be dressed in 1730.
nothing but what was manufactured in the
country. My sisters were as well dressed as any, and their gowns
were striped linen at 2s. 6d. per yard. Their heads and ruffles were of
Paisley muslins, at 4s. 6d., with fourpenny edging from Hamilton; all
of them the finest that could be had.... At the time I mention, hoops
were constantly worn four and a half yards wide, which required
much silk to cover them; and gold and silver were much used for
trimming, never less than three rows round the petticoat; so that,
though the silk was slight, the price was increased by the trimming.
Then the heads were all dressed in laces from Flanders; no blondes
or course-edging used: the price of these was high, but two suits
would serve for life; they were not renewed but at marriage, or some
great event. Who could not afford these wore fringes of thread.’ In
those days, the ladies went to church, and appeared on other public
occasions, in full dress. A row of them so rigged out, taking a place in
the procession at the opening of the General Assembly, used to be
spoken of by old people as a fine show. When a lady appeared in
undress on the streets of Edinburgh, she generally wore a mask,
which, however, seems to have been regarded as simply an
equivalent for the veil of modern times.
One marked peculiarity of old times, was the union of fine parade
and elegant dressing with vulgarity of thought, speech, and act. The
seemliness and delicacy observed now-a-days regarding both
marriages and births were unknown long ago. We have seen how a
bridal in high life was conducted in the reign of Queen Anne.[707] Let
us now observe the ceremonials connected with a birth at the same
period. ‘On the fourth week after the lady’s delivery, she is set on her
bed on a low footstool; the bed covered with some neat piece of
sewed work or white sattin, with three pillows at her back covered
with the same; she in full dress with a lappet head-dress and a fan in
her hand. Having informed her acquaintance what day she is to see
company, they all come and pay their respects to her, standing, or
walking a little through the room (for there’s no chairs). They drink a
glass of wine and eat a bit of cake, and then give place to others.
Towards the end of the week, all the friends are asked to what was
called the Cummers’ Feast.[708] This was a supper where every
gentleman brought a pint of wine to be drunk by him and his wife.
The supper was a ham at the head, and a 1730.
pyramid of fowl at the bottom. This dish
consisted of four or five ducks at bottom, hens above, and partridges
at top. There was an eating posset in the middle of the table, with
dried fruits and sweetmeats at the sides. When they had finished
their supper, the meat was removed, and in a moment everybody
flies to the sweetmeats to pocket them. Upon which a scramble
ensued; chairs overturned, and everything on the table; wrestling
and pulling at one another with the utmost noise. When all was
quiet, they went to the stoups (for there were no bottles), of which
the women had a good share; for though it was a disgrace to be seen
drunk, yet it was none to be a little intoxicat in good company.’
Any one who has observed the conduct of stiff people, when on
special occasions they break out from their reserve, will have no
difficulty in reconciling such childish frolics with the general
sombreness of old Scottish life.
It is to be observed that, while puritanic rigour was characteristic
of the great bulk of society, there had been from the Restoration a
minority of a more indulgent complexion. These were generally
persons of rank, and adherents of Episcopacy and the House of
Stuart. Such tendency as there was in the country to music, to
theatricals, to elegant literature, resided with this party almost
exclusively. After the long dark interval which ensued upon the death
of Drummond, Sir George Mackenzie, the ‘persecutor,’ was the first
to attempt the cultivation of the belles-lettres in Scotland. Dr Pitcairn
was the centre of a small circle of wits who, a little later, devoted
themselves to the Muses, but who composed exclusively in Latin.
When Addison, Steele, Pope, and Swift were conferring Augustine
glories on the reign of Anne in England, there was scarcely a single
writer of polite English in Scotland; but under George I., we find
Ramsay tuning his rustic reed, and making himself known even in
the south, notwithstanding the peculiarity of his language. These
men were all of them unsympathetic with the old church Calvinism
of their native country—as, indeed, have been nearly all the eminent
cultivators of letters in Scotland down to the present time. We learn
that copies of the Tatler and Spectator found their way into
Scotland; and we hear not only of gentlemen, but of clergymen
reading them. Allan Ramsay lent out the plays of Congreve and
Farquhar at his shop in Edinburgh. Periodical amateur concerts were
commenced, as we have seen, as early as 1717. The Easy Club—to
which Ramsay belonged—and other social 1730.
fraternities of the same kind, were at the
same time enjoying their occasional convivialities in Edinburgh. A
small miscellany of verse, published in Edinburgh in 1720, makes us
aware that there were then residing there several young aspirants to
the laurel, including two who have since obtained places in the roll of
the British poets—namely, Thomson and Mallet—and also Mr Henry
Home of Kames, and Mr Joseph Mitchell: moreover, we gather from
this little volume, that there was in Edinburgh a ‘Fair Intellectual
Club,’ an association, we must presume, of young ladies who were
disposed to cultivate a taste for the belles-lettres. About this time, the
tea-table began to be a point of reunion for the upper classes. At four
in the afternoon, the gentlemen and ladies would assemble round a
multitude of small china cups, each recognisable by the number of
the little silver spoon connected with it, and from these the lady of
the house would dispense an almost endless series of libations, while
lively chat and gossip went briskly on, but it is to be feared, in most
circles, little conversation of what would now be called an intellectual
cast. On these occasions, the singing of a Scottish song to an
accompaniment on the spinet was considered a graceful
accomplishment; and certainly no superior treat was to be had.
 Lady playing on Spinet, with Violoncello Accompaniment.—From
a volume entitled Music for Tea-table Miscellany, published by
Allan Ramsay.

Two things at this period told powerfully in introducing new ideas

and politer manners: first, the constant going and coming of sixty-
one men of importance between their own 1730.
country and London in attendance on
parliament; and second, the introduction of a number of English
people as residents or visitors into the country, in connection with
the army, the excise and customs, and the management of the
forfeited estates. This intercourse irresistibly led to greater
cleanliness, to a demand for better house accommodation, and to at
once greater ease and greater propriety of manners. The minority of
the tasteful and the gay being so far reinforced, assemblies for
dancing, and even in a modest way theatricals, were no longer to be
repressed. The change thus effected was by and by confirmed, in
consequence of young men of family getting into the custom of
travelling for a year or two on the continent before settling at their
professions or in the management of their affairs at home. This led,
too, to a somewhat incongruous ingrafting of French politeness on
the homely manners and speech of the general flock of ladies and
gentlemen. Reverting to the matter of house accommodation, it may
be remarked that a floor of three or four rooms and a kitchen was
then considered a mansion for a gentleman or superior merchant in
Edinburgh. We ought not to be too much startled at the idea of a lady
receiving gentlemen along with ladies in her bedroom, when we
reflect that there were then few rooms which had not beds in them,
either openly or behind a screen. It is a significant fact that, in 1745,
there was in Inverness only one house which contained a room
without a bed—namely, that in which Prince Charles took up his
lodgings.
As a consequence of the narrowness of house accommodation in
those days, taverns were much more used than they are now. A
physician or advocate in high practice was to be consulted at his
tavern, and the habits of each important practitioner in this regard
were studied, and became widely known. Gentlemen met in tavern
clubs each evening for conversation, without much expense, a
shilling’s reckoning being thought high—more generally, it was the
half of that sum. ‘In some of these clubs they played at backgammon
or catch-honours for a penny the game.’ At the consultations of
lawyers, the liquor was sherry, brought in mutchkin stoups, and paid
for by the employer. ‘It was incredible the quantity that was drunk
sometimes on those occasions.’ Politicians met in taverns to discuss
the affairs of state. One situated in the High Street, kept by Patrick
Steil, was the resort of a number of the patriots who urged on the Act
of Security and resisted the Union; and the phrase, Pate Steil’s
Parliament, occasionally appears in the 1730.
correspondence of the time. It was in the
same place, as we have seen, that the weekly concert was
commenced. In the freer days which ensued upon this time, it was
not thought derogatory to ladies of good rank that they should
occasionally join oyster-parties in these places of resort.
Miss Mure, in her invaluable memoir, remarks on the change
which took place in her youth in the religious sentiments of the
people. A dread of the Deity, and a fear of hell and of the power of
the devil, she cites as the predominant feelings of religious people in
the age succeeding the Revolution. It was thought a mark of atheistic
tendencies to doubt witchcraft, or the reality of apparitions, or the
occasional vaticinative character of dreams. When the generation of
the Revolution was beginning to pass away, the deep convictions as
well as the polemical spirit, of the seventeenth century gave place to
an easier and a gentler faith. There was no such thing as scepticism,
except in the greatest obscurity; but a number of favourite preachers
began to place Christianity in an amiable light before their
congregations. ‘We were bid,’ says Miss Mure, ‘to draw our
knowledge of God from his works, the chief of which is the soul of a
good man; then judge if we have cause to fear.... Whoever would
please God must resemble him in goodness and benevolence.... The
Christian religion was taught as the purest rule of morals; the belief
of a particular providence and of a future state as a support in every
situation. The distresses of individuals were necessary for exercising
the good affections of others, and the state of suffering the post of
honour.’ At the same time, dread of parents also melted away. ‘The
fathers would use their sons with such freedom, that they should be
their first friend; and the mothers would allow of no intimacies but
with themselves. For their girls the utmost care was taken that fear of
no kind should enslave the mind; nurses were turned off who would
tell the young of ghosts and witches. The old ministers were ridiculed
who preached up hell and damnation; the mind was to be influenced
by gentle and generous motives alone.’
A country gentleman, writing in 1729, remarks the increase in the
expense of housekeeping which he had seen going on during the past
twenty years. While deeming it indisputable that Edinburgh was now
less populous than before the Union, ‘yet I am informed,’ says he,
‘there is a greater consumption since, than before the Union, of all
provisions, especially fleshes and wheatbread. The butcher owns he
now kills three of every species of cattle for 1730.
every one he killed before the Union.’
Where formerly he had been accustomed to see ‘two or three
substantial dishes of beef, mutton, and fowl, garnished with their
own wholesome gravy,’ he now saw ‘several services of little
expensive ashets, with English pickles, yea Indian mangoes, and
catch-up or anchovy sauces.’ Where there used to be the quart stoup
of ale from the barrel, there was now bottled ale for a first service,
and claret to help out the second, or else ‘a snaker of rack or brandy
punch.’ Tea in the morning and tea in the evening had now become
established. There were more livery-servants, and better dressed,
and more horses, than formerly. French and Italian silks for the
ladies, and English broadcloth for the gentlemen, were more and
more supplanting the plain home-stuffs of former days.[709] This
writer was full of fears as to the warrantableness of this superior style
of living, but his report of the fact is not the less valuable.

It will be remembered that the Bank of 1731. July.

Scotland, soon after its institution in 1696,
settled branches at Glasgow, Aberdeen, Montrose, and Dundee, all of
which proving unsuccessful, were speedily withdrawn. Since then, no
new similar movement had been made; neither had a native bank
arisen in any of those towns. But now, when the country seemed to
be making some decided advances in industry and wealth, the Bank
resolved upon a new attempt, and set up branches in Glasgow,
Aberdeen, Dundee, and Berwick. It was found, however, that the
effort was yet premature, and, after two years’ trial, these branches
were all recalled.[710]
It is to be observed that Glasgow, though yet unable to support a
branch of a public bank, was not inexperienced in banking
accommodation. The business was carried on here, as it had long ago
been in Edinburgh, by private traders, and in intimate connection
with other business. An advertisement published in the newspapers
in July 1730 by James Blair, merchant, at the head of the Saltmarket
in Glasgow, makes us aware that at his shop there, ‘all persons who
have occasion to buy or sell bills of exchange, or want money to
borrow, or have money to lend on interest, or have any sort of goods
to sell, or want to buy any kind of goods, or who want to buy sugar-
house notes or other good bills, or desire to have such notes or bills
discounted, or who want to have policies 1731.
signed, or incline to underwrite policies in
ships or goods, may deliver their commands.’[711]

The latter part of the year 1730 and Oct.

earlier part of 1731 were made memorable
in England by the ‘Malicious Society of Undertakers.’ An inoffensive
farmer or a merchant would receive a letter threatening the
conflagration of his house unless he should deposit six or eight
guineas under his door before some assigned time. The system is
said to have begun at Bristol, where the house of a Mr Packer was
actually set fire to and consumed. When a panic had spread, many
ruined gamblers and others adopted the practice, in recklessness, or
with a view to gain; but the chief practitioners appear to have been
ruffians of the lower classes, as the letters were generally very ill-
spelt and ill-written.
In the autumn of 1731, the system spread to Scotland, beginning in
Lanarkshire. According to Mr Wodrow, the parishes of Lesmahago
and Strathaven were thrown into great alarm by a number of
anonymous letters being dropped at night, or thrown into houses,
threatening fire-raising unless contributions were made in money.
Mr Aiton of Walseley, a justice of peace, was ordered to bring fifty
guineas to the Cross-boat at Lanark; otherwise his house would be
burnt. He went to the place, but found no one waiting. At the same
time, there were rumours of strangers being seen on the moors. So
great was the consternation, that parties of soldiers were brought to
the district, but without discovering any person that seemed liable to
suspicion.[712]

James Erskine of Grange, brother of the 1732. Jan. 22.

attainted Earl of Mar, and who had been a
judge of the Court of Session since 1707, was fitted with a wife of
irregular habits and violent temper, the daughter of the murderer
Chiesley of Dalry.[713] After agreeing, in 1730, to live upon a separate
maintenance, she continued to persecute her husband in a personal
and indecent manner, and further vented some threats as to her
power of exposing him to the ministry for dangerous sentiments. The
woman was scarcely mad enough to justify restraint, and, though it
had been otherwise, there were in those days no asylums to which
she could have been consigned. In these circumstances, the husband
felt himself at liberty in conscience—pious man as he notedly was—to
have his wife spirited away by night from her lodgings in Edinburgh,
hurried by night-journeys to Loch Hourn on 1732.
the West Highland coast, and thence
transported to the lonely island of Heskir, and put under the care of a
peasant-farmer, subject to Sir Alexander Macdonald of Sleat. After
two years, she was taken to the still more remote island of St Kilda,
and there kept amongst a poor and illiterate people, though not
without the comforts of life, for seven years more. It was not till 1740
that any friends of hers knew where she was. A prosecution of the
husband being then threatened, the lady was taken to a place more
agreeable to her, where she soon after died.
Lord Grange was one of those singular men who contrive to
cherish and act out the most intense religious convictions, to appear
as zealous leaders in church judicatories, and stand as shining lights
before the world, while yet tainted with the most atrocious secret
vices. Being animated with an extreme hatred of Sir Robert Walpole,
he was tempted, in 1734, to give up his seat on the bench, in order
that he might be able to go into parliament and assist in hunting
down the minister. Returned for Clackmannanshire, he did make his
appearance in the House of Commons, fully believing that he should
ere long be secretary of state for Scotland under a new ministry. It
unluckily happened that one of the first opportunities he obtained
for making a display of oratory was on the bill that was introduced
for doing away with the statutes against witchcraft.[714] Erskine was
too faithful a Presbyterian of the old type to abandon a code of beliefs
that seemed fully supported by Scripture. He rose, and delivered
himself of a pious speech on the reality of necromantic arts, and the
necessity of maintaining the defences against them. Sir Robert is said
to have felt convinced from that moment, that he had not much to
fear from the new member for Clackmannanshire.
Disappointed, impoverished, out of reverence with old friends,
perhaps somewhat galled in conscience, Erskine ere long retired in a
great measure from the world. For some years before his death in
1754, he is said to have lived principally in a coffee-house in the
Haymarket, as all but the husband of its mistress; certainly a most
lame and impotent conclusion for one who had made such a figure in
political life, and passed as such a ‘professor,’ in his native country.

On a stormy night in this month, Colonel Feb.

Francis Charteris 1732.
died at his seat of
Stonyhill, near Musselburgh. The pencil of Hogarth, which
represents him as the old profligate gentleman in the first print of
the Harlot’s Progress, has given historical importance to this
extraordinary man. Descended from an old family of very moderate
fortune in Dumfriesshire—Charteris of Amisfield—he acquired an
enormous fortune by gambling and usury, and thus was enabled to
indulge in his favourite vices on a scale which might be called
magnificent. A single worthy trait has never yet been adduced to
redeem the character of Charteris, though it is highly probable that,
in some particulars, that character has been exaggerated by popular
rumour.[715]
A contemporary assures us, that the fortune of Charteris amounted
to the then enormous sum of fourteen thousand a year; of which ten
thousand was left to his grandson, Francis, second son of the Earl of
Wemyss.
‘Upon his death-bed,’ says the same writer, ‘he was exceedingly
anxious to know if there were any such thing as hell; and said, were
he assured there was no such place (being easy as to heaven), he
would give thirty thousand.... Mr Cumming the minister attended
him on his death-bed. He asked his daughter, who is exceedingly
narrow, what he should give him. She replied that it was unusual to
give anything on such occasions. “Well, then,” says Charteris, “let us
have another flourish from him!” so calling his prayers. There
accidentally happened, the night he died, a prodigious hurricane,
which the vulgar ascribed to his death.’[716]

A transaction, well understood in Mar. 12.

Scotland, but unknown and probably
incomprehensible in England—‘an inharmonious settlement’—took
place in the parish of St Cuthbert’s, close to Edinburgh. A Mr
Wotherspoon having been presented by the crown to this charge, to
the utter disgust of the parishioners, the Commission of the General
Assembly sent one of their number, a Mr Dawson, to effect the
‘edictal service.’ The magistrates, knowing the temper of the
parishioners, brought the City Guard to protect the ceremony as it
proceeded in the church; so the people could do nothing there. Their
rage, however, being irrepressible, they came out, tore down the
edict from the kirk-door, and seemed as if 1732.
they would tear down the kirk itself. The
City Guard fired upon them, and wounded one woman.[717]

June 24.
 Owing to the difficulty of travelling, few of the remarkable
foreigners who came to England found their way to Scotland; but
now and then an extraordinary person appeared. At this date, there
came to Edinburgh, and put up ‘at the house of Yaxley Davidson, at
the Cowgate Port,’ Joseph Jamati, Baculator or Governor of
Damascus. He appeared to be sixty, was of reddish-black
complexion, grave and well-looking, wearing a red cloth mantle
trimmed with silver lace, and a red turban set round with white
muslin; had a gray beard about half a foot long; and was described as
‘generally a Christian.’ Assistance under some severe taxation of the
Turkish pacha was what he held forth as the object of his visit to
Europe. He came to Edinburgh, with recommendations from the
Duke of Newcastle and other persons of distinction, and proposed to
make a round of the principal towns, and visit the Duke of Athole
and other great people. He was accompanied by an interpreter and
another servant. It appears that this personage had a public
reception from the magistrates, who bestowed on him a purse of
gold. In consequence of receiving a similar contribution from the
Convention of Burghs, he ultimately resolved to return without
making his proposed tour.
Four years later, Edinburgh received visits, in succession, from two
other Eastern hierarchs, one of them designated as archbishop of
Nicosia in Cyprus, of the Armenian Church, the other being Scheik
Schedit, from Berytus, near Mount Lebanon, of the Greek Church,
both bringing recommendatory letters from high personages, and
both aiming at a gathering of money for the relief of their
countrymen suffering under the Turks. Scheik Schedit had an
interpreter named Michel Laws, and two servants, and the whole
party went formally in a coach ‘to hear sermon in the High
Church.’[718]

The Scottish newspapers intimate that on July 11.

this day, between two and three afternoon,
there was felt at Glasgow ‘a shock of an earthquake, which lasted
about a second.’

July 28.
 The six Highland companies were reviewed at Ruthven, in
Badenoch, by General Wade, and were 1732.
praised for their good state of discipline.
‘We of this country,’ says the reporter of the affair, ‘and, indeed, all
the Highland and northern parts of the kingdom, have substantial
reason to be well satisfied with them, since for a long time there has
not been the least ground to complain of disorders of any kind;
which we attribute to the vigilance of their officers, and a right
distribution and position of the several companies.’[719]

Robert Trotter, schoolmaster of Dumfries, published a

Compendium of Latin Grammar, ‘the conceitedness, envy, and
errors’ of which were next year exposed in a brochure of
Animadversions by John Love, the schoolmaster of Dumbarton. Not
long after Love had thus disposed of Mr Trotter, he was himself put
on the defensive before the kirk-session of his parish, on a charge of
brewing on a Sunday. Probably the verb was only applicable in a
neuter form—that is, nature, by continuing her fermenting process
on the Sabbath, was the only delinquent—for the minister, ‘after a
juridical trial, was obliged to make a public apology for having
maliciously accused calumniated innocence.’[720] Love, who was the
preceptor of Tobias Smollett, afterwards distinguished himself by a
controversy with the notorious Lauder, who, by forgery, tried to
derogate from the fame of Milton.

Since 1598 we have not heard of any 1733. May 14.

foreigners coming into Scotland to play
dangerous tricks upon long tight ropes; but now, unexpectedly, a
pair of these diverting vagabonds, one described as an Italian who
had performed his wonders in all the cities of Europe, the other as
his son, presented themselves. A rope being fixed between the Half-
moon Battery in the Castle, and a place on the south side of the
Grassmarket, two hundred feet below, the father slid down in half a
minute. The son performed the same feat, blowing a trumpet all the
way, to the astonishment of ‘an infinite crowd of spectators.’ Three
days afterwards, there was a repetition of the performance, at the
desire of several persons of quality, when, after sliding down, the
father made his way up again, firing a pistol, beating a drum, and
playing a variety of antics by the way, proclaiming, moreover, that
here he could defy all messengers, sheriffs’ officers, and macers of
the Court of Session. Being sore fatigued at the end of the
performance, he offered a guinea to the 1733.
sutler of the Castle for a draught of ale,
which the fellow was churlish enough to refuse.
The two funambuli failed on a subsequent trial, ‘their equipage not
at all answering.’ Not many weeks after, we learn that William
Hamilton, mason in the Dean, trying the like tricks on a rope
connected with Queensferry steeple, fell off the rope, and was killed.
[721]

In the course of this year, a body called the Edinburgh Company

of Players performed plays in the Tailors’ Hall, in the Cowgate. On
the 6th June, they had the Beggars’ Opera for the benefit of the
Edinburgh Infirmary. They afterwards acted Othello, Hamlet, Henry
IV., Macbeth, and King Lear, ‘with great applause.’ In December,
they presented before a large audience the Tempest, ‘every part, and
even what required machinery, being performed in great order.’ In
February 1734, the Conscious Lovers was performed ‘for the benefit
of Mrs Woodward,’ ‘the doors not to be opened till four of the clock,
performance to begin at six.’ In March, the Wonder is advertised,
‘the part of the Scots colonel by Mr Weir, and that of his servant
Gibby, in Highland dress, by Mr Wescomb; and all the other parts to
the best advantage.’ Allan Ramsay must have been deeply concerned
in the speculation, because he appears in the office-copy of the
newspaper (Caledonian Mercury) as the paymaster for the
advertisements.
Nor was this nascent taste for the amusements of the stage
confined to Edinburgh. In August, the company is reported as setting
out early one morning for Dundee, Montrose, Aberdeen, &c., ‘in
order to entertain the ladies and gentlemen in the different stations
of their circuit.’ We soon after hear of their being honoured at
Dundee with the patronage of the ancient and honourable society of
freemasons, who marched in a body, with the grand-master at their
head, to the playhouse, ‘in their proper apparel, with hautboys and
other music playing before them;’ all this to hear the Jubilee and The
Devil to Pay.
In December, the Edinburgh company was again in the Tailors’
Hall, and now it ventured on ‘a pantomime in grotesque characters,’
costing something in the getting up; wherefore ‘nothing less than full
prices will be taken during the whole performance.’ In consideration
of the need for space, it was ‘hoped that no gentleman whatever will
take it amiss if they are refused admittance 1733.
behind the scenes.’ Soon after, we hear of
the freemasons patronising the play of Henry IV., marching to the
house ‘in procession, with aprons and white gloves, attended with
flambeaux.’ Mrs Bulkely took her benefit on the 22d January in
Oroonoko and a farce, in both of which she was to play; but ‘being
weak, and almost incapable to walk, [she] cannot acquit herself to
her friends’ satisfaction as usual; yet hopes to be favoured with their
presence.’
It is observable that the plays represented in the Cowgate house
were all of them of classic merit. This was, of course, prudential with
regard to popular prejudices. Persons possessed of a love of literature
were very naturally among those most easily reconciled to the stage;
and amongst these we may be allowed to class certain schoolmasters,
who about this time began to encourage their pupils to recite plays as
a species of rhetorical exercise.
On Candlemas, 1734—when by custom the pupils in all schools in
Scotland brought gifts to their masters, and had a holiday—the
pupils of the Perth Grammar School made an exhibition of English
and Latin readings in the church before the clergy, magistrates, and a
large miscellaneous auditory. ‘The Tuesday after, they acted Cato in
the school, which is one of the handsomest in Scotland, before three
hundred gentlemen and ladies. The youth, though they had never
seen a play acted, performed surprisingly both in action and
pronunciation, which gave general satisfaction. After the play, the
magistrates entertained the gentlemen at a tavern.’[722]
In August, ‘the young gentlemen of Dalkeith School acted, before a
numerous crowd of spectators, the tragedy of Julius Cæsar and
comedy of Æsop, with a judgment and address inimitable at their
years.’ At the same time, the pupils in the grammar school of
Kirkcaldy performed a piece composed by their master, entitled The
Royal Council for Advice, or the Regular Education of Boys the
Foundation of all other National Improvements. ‘The council
consisted of a preses and twelve members, decently and gravely
seated round a table like senators. The other boys were posted at a
due distance in a crowd, representing people come to attend this
meeting for advice: from whom entered in their turn and order, a
tradesman, a farmer, a country gentleman, a nobleman, two
schoolmasters, &c., and, last of all, a gentleman who complimented
and congratulated the council on their 1733.
noble design and worthy performances.’
The whole exhibition is described as giving high satisfaction to the
audience.
This sort of fair weather could not last. At Candlemas, 1735, the
Perth school-boys acted George Barnwell—certainly an ill-chosen
play—twice before large audiences, comprising many persons of
distinction; and it was given out that on the succeeding Sunday ‘a
very learned moral sermon, suitable to the occasion, was preached in
the town.’ Immediately after came the corrective. The kirk-session
had nominated a committee to take measures to prevent the school
from being ‘converted into a playhouse, whereby youth are diverted
from their studies, and employed in the buffooneries of the stage;’
and as for the moral sermon, it was ‘directed against the sins and
corruptions of the age, and was very suitable to the resolution of the
session.’

England was pleasingly startled in 1721 by July.

the report which came home regarding a
singularly gallant defence made by an English ship against two
strongly armed pirate vessels in the Bay of Juanna, near Madagascar.
The East India Company was peculiarly gratified by the report, for,
though it inferred the loss of one of their ships, it told them of a
severe check given to a system of marine depredation, by which their
commerce was constantly suffering.
It appeared that the Company’s ship Cassandra, commanded by
Captain Macrae, on coming to the Bay of Juanna in July 1720, heard
of a shipwrecked pirate captain being engaged in fitting out a new
vessel on the island of Mayotta, and Macrae instantly formed the
design of attacking him. When ready, on the 8th of August, to sail on