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About the Cover
In the painting King George III Statue, 1776, American artist William Walcutt
(1819–1882) depicts the toppling of the monument in New York City that occurred
on July 9, 1776. The Declaration of Independence had been read aloud a few days
earlier and revolutionary feeling ran high. Walcutt, who moved to the city from
Ohio as very young man—when old people still remembered the dramatic events—
imagined the scene as one in which all types of people participated with gusto,
happy to be part of changing the world as they knew it.

mcg85955_fm_i-xliv-1.indd i 08/04/21 07:08 AM

mcg85955_fm_i-xliv-1.indd ii 08/04/21 07:08 AM
 OF THE PEOPLE

mcg85955_fm_i-xliv-1.indd iii 08/04/21 07:08 AM

mcg85955_fm_i-xliv-1.indd iv 08/04/21 07:08 AM
OF THE PEOPLE
A History of the United States
WITH SOURCES
FIFTH EDITION

VOLUME I

To 1877

Michael McGerr
Camilla Townsend
Karen M. Dunak
Mark Summers
Jan Ellen Lewis

New York Oxford

Oxford Unviersity Press

mcg85955_fm_i-xliv-1.indd v 08/04/21 07:08 AM

Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.
It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trademark of
Oxford University Press in the UK and certain other countries.

Published in the United States of America by Oxford University Press

198 Madison Avenue, New York, NY 10016, United States of America.

© 2022, 2019, 2017, 2013, and 2011 by Oxford University Press

For titles covered by Section 112 of the US Higher Education

Opportunity Act, please visit www.oup.com/us/he for the latest
information about pricing and alternate formats.

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in

a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the
prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted
by law, by license, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reproduction
rights organization. Inquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the
above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press,
at the address above.

You must not circulate this work in any other form

and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: McGerr, Michael E., author. | Townsend, Camilla, 1965- author. |

Dunak, Karen M., author. | Summers, Mark (History professor), author. |
Lewis, Jan, 1949-2018, author.
Title: Of the people : a history of the United States with sources /
Michael McGerr, Camilla Townsend, Karen M. Dunak, Mark Summers, Jan
Ellen Lewis.
Other titles: History of the United States with sources
Description: Fifth edition. | New York : Oxford University Press, [2022] |
Includes bibliographical references and index. | Contents: Volume 1. To
1877—Volume 2. Since 1865. | Summary: “A higher education history
text for United States history courses”—Provided by publisher.
Identifiers: LCCN 2021006879 (print) | LCCN 2021006880 (ebook) | ISBN
9780197585955 (v. 1 ; paperback) | ISBN 9780197585962 | ISBN
9780197586150 (v. 2 ; paperback) | ISBN 9780197586167 | ISBN
9780197585986 (v. 1 ; epub) | ISBN 9780197585979 (v. 1 ; pdf) | ISBN
9780197586181 (v. 2 ; epub) | ISBN 9780197586174 (v. 2 ; pdf)
Subjects: LCSH: United States—History—Textbooks. | United
States—History—Sources.
Classification: LCC E178.1 .M455 2022 (print) | LCC E178.1 (ebook) | DDC
973—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021006879
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021006880

987654321
Printed in Mexico by Quad/Mexico

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 Jan Ellen Lewis
1949–2018
Historian, Teacher, Friend

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 Brief Contents

Maps xxvi | Features xxviii | Preface xxx

About the Authors xlii

CHAPTER 1
Worlds in Motion, 1450–1550 2

CHAPTER 2
Colonial Outposts, 1550–1650 34

CHAPTER 3
The English Come to Stay, 1600–1660 64

CHAPTER 4
Continental Empires, 1660–1720 94

CHAPTER 5
The Eighteenth-Century World, 1700–1775 130

CHAPTER 6
Conflict in the Empire, 1713–1774 164

CHAPTER 7
Creating a New Nation, 1775–1788 196

CHAPTER 8
Contested Republic, 1789–1800 234

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 CHAPTER 9
A Republic in Transition, 1800–1819 268

CHAPTER 10
Jacksonian Democracy, 1820–1840 302

CHAPTER 11
Reform and Conflict, 1820–1848 346

CHAPTER 12
Manifest Destiny, 1836–1848 378

CHAPTER 13
The Politics of Slavery, 1848–1860 408

CHAPTER 14
A War for Union and Emancipation,
1861–1865 442

CHAPTER 15
Reconstructing a Nation, 1865–1877 482

Appendix A: Historical Documents A-1

Appendix B: Historical Facts and Data B-1
Glossary G-1 | Photo Credits C-1 | Index I-1

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Contents
Maps xxvi
Features xxviii
Preface xxx
Hallmark Features xxxii
New to the Fifth Edition xxxiii
Digital Learning Resources for Of the People xxxv
Acknowledgments xxxvi
About the Authors xlii

CHAPTER 1

Worlds in Motion, 1450–1550 2

American Portrait: Malinche, Cultural Translator 4

The Worlds of Indian Peoples 5

Great Migrations 5
The Emergence of Farming 6
The Cradle of the Americas 6
The Northern World Takes Shape 7
American Landscape: Tenochtitlan 8

The Worlds of Christopher Columbus 11

The Reconquista 11
The Age of Exploration 12
New Ideas Take Root 13
Collision in the Caribbean 15
Columbus’s First Voyage 15
The Origins of a New World Political and Economic Order 17
The Division of the World 18
Onto the Mainland 18
The First Florida Ventures 19
The Conquest of Mexico 20
Struggles For Democracy: Native Americans Debate the Question of the
Europeans 22
The Establishment of a Spanish Empire 24
The Return to North America 25

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 Contents xi

The Consequences of Conquest 26

Demographic Disaster 27
The Columbian Exchange 27
Men’s and Women’s Lives 28
Conclusion 31
Chapter 1 Primary Sources
1.1 Aztec Songs S1-2
1.2 Visual Documents: Chaco Culture National Historical Park, Pueblo
Bonito S1-2
1.3 King Fernando and Queen Isabella of Spain, “Granada Capitulations”
(1492) S1-4
1.4 Aztec Priests, Statement to the Franciscan Friars (1520s) S1-5
1.5 Alvar Núñez Cabeza de Vaca, Describing North America (1535) S1-6

CHAPTER 2
Colonial Outposts, 1550–1650 34

American Portrait: Paquiquineo Finds His Way Home 36

Pursuing Wealth and Glory Along the North American Shore 37

European Objectives 37
The Huge Geographical Barrier 38
Spanish Outposts 40
New France: An Outpost in Global Politics and Economics 41
The Five Nations of Iroquois and the Political Landscape 41
Champlain Encounters the Hurons 42
Creating a Middle Ground in New France 44
Struggles For Democracy: The Settlers and the Indians Learn
to Compromise 45
An Outpost in a Global Political Economy 47

New Netherland: The Empire of a Trading Nation 48

Colonization by a Private Company 48
Slavery and Freedom in New Netherland 50
The Dutch–Indian Trading Partnership 51
The Beaver Wars 51
England Attempts an Empire 52
Competition with Spain 52
Rehearsal in Ireland 53
America In The World: Squanto Comes Back to America 54
The Roanoke Venture 56
The Abandoned Colony 59

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xii Contents

Conclusion 60
Chapter 2 Primary Sources
2.1 Letter from Fray Pedro de Feria to Phillip II, King of Spain,
about Paquiquineo (1563) S2-2
2.2 Richard Hakluyt, Excerpt from The Principal Navigations, Voyages,
Traffiques, and Discoveries of the English Nation (1589–1600) S2-3
2.3 A Smallpox Epidemic in Canada (1639 -1640) S2-4
2.4 John Heckewelder, Account of the Arrival of the Dutch at Manhattan S2-5

CHAPTER 3
The English Come to Stay, 1600–1660 64

American Portrait: The Predicament of Pocahontas, Alias Rebecca 66

The First Chesapeake Colonies 67

Founding Virginia 68
Starving Times 69
Troubled Relations with the Powhatans 69
Toward a New Economic Order and the Rise of Democracy 71
Toward the Destruction of the Powhatans 72
A New Colony in Maryland 74
The Economy Based on Slavery Emerges 75
The Insatiable Demand for Cheap Labor 75
The Origins of African Slavery in the Chesapeake 76
Gender and the Social Order in the Chesapeake 77
America In The World: The English Enter the Slave Trade 78

A Bible Commonwealth in the New England Wilderness 78

The English Origins of the Puritan Movement 79
Struggles For Democracy: The First African Arrivals Exercise Some
Rights 80
What Did the Puritans Believe? 81
The Pilgrim Colony at Plymouth 82
The Puritan Colony at Massachusetts Bay 83
The New England Way 85
Changing the Landscape to Fit the Economic Needs of the
Commonwealth 85
The Puritan Family 87
Dissension in the Puritan Ranks 87
Roger Williams and Toleration 88
Anne Hutchinson and the Equality of Believers 88
Puritan Indian Policy and the Pequot War 89
Conclusion 91

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 Contents xiii

Chapter 3 Primary Sources

3.1 Edward Waterhouse’s Report on the Uprising of 1622 S3-2
3.2 Letter from Richard Frethorne to His Parents About Life in
Virginia (1623) S3-4
3.3 Excerpts from Anne Hutchinson’s Trial Transcript (1637) S3-5
3.4 Letter from Anne Bradstreet to Her Children (Undated) S3-6

CHAPTER 4

Continental Empires, 1660–1720 94

American Portrait: Mercy Lewis Learns to Fear the Devil 96

The Plan of Empire 97

Turmoil in England 98
The Meaning of Mercantilism 98
New Colonies, New Patterns 99
New Netherland Becomes New York 99
American Landscape: New Amsterdam/New York 100
Diversity and Prosperity in Pennsylvania 102
Indians and Africans in the Political Economy of Carolina 102
The Barbados Connection 105
The Transformation of Virginia 106
Social Change in Virginia 106
Bacon’s Rebellion and the Abandonment of the Middle Ground 106
Virginia Becomes a Slave Society 107
New England Under Assault 109
Social Prosperity and the Fear of Religious Decline 109
King Philip’s War 111
Indians and the Empire 112
The Empire Strikes 113
The Dominion of New England 113
The Glorious Revolution in Britain and America 113
Struggles For Democracy: Maryland’s Colonists Demand a New
Government 114
The Rights of Englishmen 116
Conflict in the Empire 116
Massachusetts in Crisis 117
The Social and Cultural Contexts of Witchcraft 118
Witchcraft at Salem 118
The End of Witchcraft 119
Empires in Collision 119
France Attempts an Empire 120

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xiv Contents

The Spanish Outpost in Florida 122

Conquest, Revolt, and Reconquest in New Mexico 123
Native Americans and the Country Between 126
Conclusion 128
Chapter 4 Primary Sources
4.1 The Dutch Lose Power in America: A Meeting with Indians on the
Delaware (1670) S4-2
4.2 Letter from William Penn to His Backers (1683) S4-3
4.3 Mary Rowlandson, Excerpts from The Sovereignty and Goodness
of God (1682) S4-4
4.4 Declaration of a Pueblo Indian Captured by the Spaniards (1680) S4-6
4.5 Robert Calef, Excerpts from More Wonders of the Invisible World (1700) S4-8

CHAPTER 5

The Eighteenth-Century World,

1700–1775 130

American Portrait: Young Alexander Hamilton: One Immigrant’s Story 132

The Population Explosion of the Eighteenth Century 133

The Dimensions of Population Growth 133
Bound for America: European Immigrants 133
Bound for America: Enslaved Africans 134
American Landscape: The Slave Ship 138
The Great Increase of Offspring 139
The Transatlantic Economy: Producing and Consuming 140
The Nature of Colonial Economic Growth 140
The Transformation of the Family Economy 140
Sources of Regional Prosperity 141
Merchants and Dependent Laborers in the Transatlantic Economy 143
Consumer Choices and the Creation of Gentility 145
The Varieties of Colonial Experience 147
Creating an Urban Public Sphere 147
The Diversity of Urban Life 150
The Maturing of Rural Society 151
The World That Slavery Made 151
Georgia: From Frontier Outpost to Plantation Society 152
The Head and the Heart in America: The Enlightenment
and Religious Awakening 153
The Ideas of the Enlightenment 154
The Economic and Social Foundations of Democracy 155

mcg85955_fm_i-xliv-1.indd xiv 08/04/21 07:08 AM

Other documents randomly have
different content
spot of grease where it was not wanted would spoil the effect aimed
at; and they should be boiled hard.
To simply colour the eggs they need only be dipped in water, then
placed in a decoction of logwood for the various shades of purple; of
cochineal for red, or boiled with onion peelings, or in an onion, for
amber, or coloured with spinach juice for green. But superior to these
simple colourings are Judson’s dyes, which may be obtained of any
colour, and can be used as paints on the shells as well as dyes.
The eggs are dipped in water before being put in the dye, to make
them take the colour evenly. If it is desired to keep part of the shell
white—for instance, to have a name or motto in white on a red
ground—proceed thus: When the egg is warm after boiling take a
small piece of mutton suet, which, being hard, you can cut to a point
almost like a pencil. With this draw or write what you wish on the
warm egg, which you can then place in the dye. The part greased
will not take the colour, but when dry the fat is easily removed, and
the white design can be left or filled in with another colour, or with a
little gold or silver paint. A pretty way is to grease a delicate piece of
moss, a fine fern leaf, or a skeleton leaf, to roll either round a warm
egg so as to leave a greasy print on it, and then put it in the colour;
but great care must be taken in handling the work not to blur the
design. An egg spotted with grease then put in a yellow dye, the
grease removed, and then a pale blue dye used, produces an effect
that would puzzle a naturalist. Brown and blue dyes answer, used in
the same way.
Eggs may be also simply treated by having small leaves or little bits
of moss bound on to them with various coloured wools, or ribbons
(not fast-coloured ones), before they are boiled, the wool or ribbons
being removed when they are dry again; the effect is often very
good, but there is great doubt about the results in this way of
colouring.
A neater and much better way than greasing the design, for those
who do not mind the trouble, is to dye the egg all over, and then to
scratch out the motto, or whatever is required white, with a penknife.
This is, of course, a much more difficult process, and requires great
care.
Eggs dyed pale blue, and a little cloud and sea with a tiny boat
painted on them, or dyed yellow and turned into a little sunset
picture, with a tree added, are very pretty. They can be done in oil or
water colours.
I have seen cupids and like subjects painted on them, but they are
quite unsuited for Easter eggs, which are not, and should not be
used as, adjuncts of Valentine’s day.
For more elaborate work, the eggs, having been boiled hard, can be
painted over with gold size, and then covered with gold, or any metal
leaf, which maybe again painted on with oil paints, or by using a
medium and body colours, with water colours.
A gilt egg, with a white lily on it, or a silvered one with a daffodil,
looks very pretty; violets and primroses, emblems of spring, are also
appropriate, while eggs with butterflies or small birds bearing
mottoes painted on them, are much appreciated by children. When
painted in water colours, the eggs can easily be varnished. On
Easter day I once saw the breakfast eggs which the cook had boiled,
some with red and some with blue dye in the water, sent to table in a
nest of green moss lined with a little white wool; the eggs were only
cooked the usual time, and were greatly relished by the younger
members of the family.
I would recommend the use of Easter eggs to those girls who take
Sunday-school classes; they are very good mediums for giving
precepts or words of advice; a judiciously chosen motto or text may
often do a great deal in helping a child or person to correct a fault,
and a motto is more attractive on an ornamental egg than in a book.
I remember a little German book called “Ostereier” (Easter eggs), in
which a charming account is given of an Easter festival, when motto
eggs were distributed to a number of children. Some of the rhymes
given are very pretty; they lose in translation, but are such as
“Goodness, not gold, wins love and trust,” “For meat and drink the
giver thank,” “A good conscience makes a soft pillow.”
Such sentences as these do for quite small children, but a short
verse from a hymn or a text can easily be written on an egg. They
look very well coloured pale blue or mottled green and blue, as
directed above, and the words written on after with red, or blue ink of
a darker colour, and a little ornamentation round. For school-children
water colours should not be used in painting the eggs, for the warm
and often moist hands of the recipients of these little gifts would
smear the paint.
We must now come to another kind of egg I have found much
appreciated, as it is eatable, though imitation only. It is prepared
thus: Procure some half egg shells which you can colour or not, as
you please, but you must cut the edges as smooth as you can with a
pair of small, sharp scissors; next take one pound of ground almonds
(they can be bought ready prepared), mix with the beaten whites of
three, or if small, four eggs, add a teaspoonful of orange flower
water, or a little more, if needed, make into a paste, and stir in one
pound of fine sifted loaf sugar, and work with a wooden spoon into a
smooth paste; next shake a little icing sugar into the half shells, and
fill them with the almond paste, scoop a piece out of the centre of
each half, and as you put the two halves together insert a preserved
apricot (dried) without a stone; if the apricots are too large use half
ones, but whether large or small they must be pressed into suitable
shapes before they are used, as they have to represent the yolks of
the eggs.
When the parts are joined together, a strip of tissue paper should be
fastened round the junction with white of egg, and then a ribbon or
ornamental paper put round and the shells decorated with a little
water colour paint. If preferred, the shells can be used as moulds
only, and removed as soon as the paste is dry, but if this is to be
done the two edges of the almond paste must be moistened with
white of egg before they are put together, or they would come apart
when the shells were removed.
The almond eggs must be put in a warm, dry place as soon as
made; a very cool oven will do to dry them.
If you remove the shells, cover the almond paste with icing sugar
that has been well worked with a little white of egg and lemon juice;
this is not an easy operation, but if the sugar is well worked before
using, it will cover the paste more neatly than if used quickly; if
sufficient smoothness is attained the sugar can be decorated
afterwards with some harmless colouring, such as saffron or
cochineal.
To make sugar eggs, mix one ounce of raw arrowroot with one
pound of icing sugar, add the beaten whites of three or four eggs,
according to size, and a teaspoonful of lemon juice; work the mixture
well; use the egg shells as moulds and proceed as with almond
paste, putting anything that is liked in the centre, and joining the
halves together with white of egg; dry thoroughly, in some place not
warm enough to melt the sugar, before you remove the shells. It is
easier to take the halves off if they are slightly oiled before the sugar
is sifted into them.
 NOTES FOR APRIL.
It is very interesting in the spring to watch the gradual development
of a frog from the egg, through the tadpole stage of its existence, till
at last it assumes its final form.
The old frogs emerge from their winter hiding places in the mud,
early in the spring, and during March their eggs may be found
floating on almost every stagnant pond. A group of these eggs in
their early stages of development looks like a mass of clear white
jelly, containing numbers of black specks, each of which is really the
germ of the future tadpole.
In order to watch the development, a group of the eggs should be
taken and put in a shallow vessel of water, which, if kept in the
house, should have a bell-glass, or some other covering over it, to
keep out the dust.
The jelly-like mass which envelopes the future tadpole is so clear
that all its changes can be easily watched. First the head appears,
then a flat tail, and in course of time the nostrils, mouth, and large
eyes, till at length the completed tadpole bursts open its gelatinous
covering, and apparently not in the least embarrassed by its new
surroundings, begins swimming briskly about, looking for something
to eat. The time occupied in hatching varies in different countries,
according to the climate, from four days to a month. In England the
tadpole does not often appear till towards the end of April.
The following stages are even more interesting, especially for those
who can take advantage of the transparency of the parts to watch
the circulation of the blood through a microscope.
The body of the tadpole gradually gets broader, while the tail gets
thinner and thinner, till it finally disappears altogether; but before that
happens its place has been taken by two hind legs, which first
appear under the skin and then gradually push their way through.
The fore legs next appear, and so on through all the stages of
development, till in a longer or shorter time, according to the amount
of warmth, light, and food it can obtain, the complete frog appears.
But woe betide the unfortunate tadpole which, first of the shoal,
attains to the dignity of possessing limbs, for so ferocious are the
later ones, and so jealous of their precocious little brother, that they
almost always fall upon him, and, not content with killing, never rest
till every morsel of him is eaten. And unless several of the tadpoles
assume their final change about the same time, this proceeding is
repeated till their numbers are very considerably diminished, or, as
sometimes happens, till only one survivor is left, who, having helped
to eat all his brethren, instead of meeting with his deserts, is allowed
to live on in peace, till some day in the course of his walks abroad,
he, in his turn, is snapped up as a delicate morsel by some hungry
snake or waterfowl.
Insects and flowers are much more closely connected with one
another than we sometimes think.
Not only do many insects depend upon flowers for their food, but
many flowers also depend upon the visits of insects to carry their
pollen from one flower to another and so continue the life of their
species.
There are some flowers, however, whose pollen is carried by the
wind instead of by insects, and which are therefore an exception to
this general rule. These, not needing to attract insects, are small and
insignificant, with neither scent nor honey, but with a very large
quantity of pollen. They generally flower early in spring, before the
leaves are out, as these would catch the pollen as it is blown along
by the wind, and prevent it reaching the flowers for which it is
intended. Notice, for example, the flower of the oak, elm, ash, and
Scotch fir.
April is a busy month in the garden. Auriculas and polyanthuses in
bloom should be watered often, and shaded if the sun is very bright,
and sheltered when the weather is cold; tulips also must be
sheltered from severe cold, though they may safely be encouraged
to grow now.
Seeds of perennials and biennials for flowering next year should be
sown now, such as wallflowers, carnations, and pinks. Heartsease
for autumn flowering should also be sown, and cuttings taken from
old plants. Hardy annuals should be sown not later than the middle
of April. Give them good soil, and do not cover the seeds too deeply
with earth (some of the smallest kinds should only be sprinkled on
the top), and when they begin to shoot up thin out the young plants
vigorously; amateur gardeners almost always leave them too close
together, but the more room they have the better and stronger they
will grow.
If there is no greenhouse, or “heat,” half hardy annuals may be sown
out in the open garden towards the end of April, and if diligently
cared for they will grow well and thrive.
After a warm day, evergreens are benefited by syringing. Ivy that is
wished to grow close should be clipped all over; and grass should be
cut about once a week, and often rolled. It should not be allowed to
get long before cutting the first time, or it will be troublesome to get
into order again.
April is the month in which we welcome most of our spring bird
visitors. The nightingale and cuckoo have already come and begun
their song; the swallow and house-martin will arrive about the middle
of the month, and are soon busy making new nests, or patching up
old ones. The whitethroat appears towards the end of the month.
During the April showers the whole air seems full of song. Walking
through woods ringing with bird music, we are once more reminded
of the problem which so puzzled Daines Barrington. “Do the birds all
sing in one key? And if not, why do the songs harmonise instead of
producing unpleasant discords?” Perhaps it is the distance which
lends enchantment and softens the discords. No doubt if all the
songsters were in one room, the result would not be quite so happy.
Many eggs, larvæ and cocoons of butterflies and moths may be
found this month among heaps of dry leaves, on low bushes, or
trunks of trees. Grasses and rushes shelter several of the early
species, which are already flying about, and some rare insects may
be found now which cannot be obtained later in the season.
 THE ROMANCE OF THE BANK OF
ENGLAND.
OR,

THE OLD LADY OF THREADNEEDLE

STREET.
By EMMA BREWER.

CHAPTER VI.
It is a true saying, that when mothers begin to talk of their children
they never know when to stop; and the children, who might
otherwise have found favour, are thereby made to appear as
uninteresting and vexatious bores.
I will try to avoid falling into this error, and only tell you enough to
enable you to understand the peculiarities of mine.
You may have noticed how great a variety exists in the characters
and dispositions of the members of every large family, and will not be
surprised to hear that the same individuality of character shows itself
in the family of Funds and Stocks.
In introducing you to the steadiest and most reliable of my children, I
feel that I am putting you in the way of deriving real advantage. If,
however, you prefer the less worthy, the more daring and
speculative, I shall feel that no blame attaches to me.
Have you ever remarked, in your round of visits among your friends,
that it is almost possible to tell the character of host and hostess by
the people you meet there, and even by the servants who wait upon
you—all seem to take the tone of the house? I notice this specially
among my children. For example, my “Three per Cent. Consols” and
my “New Three’s,” whom I select as specially suited to be your
friends, have the most courteous, kindly, sober and religious class of
visitors; on the faces of all, old and young, clergy and laity, there is
an expression of repose and security and “well-to-doism” which is
charming; while, on the other hand, the faces and manners of those
who visit some of my other children are so wild, so haggard, so
restless, that you cannot help wishing that some good fairy would
give them a soothing syrup, or else insist on their choosing safer
friends; but if you ever pay me a visit, and use your eyes, you will
see more of this than, as a mother, I can tell you.
Against one thing, however, I am, as your friend, bound to warn you.
Listen to no one who proposes to let you have money at a very
cheap rate, while at the same time he offers to pay you large interest
on it. More I cannot say at present.
Closely connected with me, and in my neighbourhood, stands a most
mysterious building, known as the Stock Exchange. Its chief
entrance is in Capel-court, Bartholomew-lane.
None may pass within its portals but those specially privileged, still I
may tell you something about it without breaking through any of the
barriers which the inhabitants have set up between the public and
themselves.
This Stock Exchange is an association of about two thousand
persons, all men, of course, who meet together in Capel-court, and
who agree to be governed by a committee of thirty, chosen from
among themselves.
To the outside world, all the members are known by the name of
“stockbrokers,” but inside the mysterious building they divide
themselves into two classes—“stockjobbers” and “stockbrokers.”
Whether they be one or the other, their lives, occupations, fortunes
and reputations are bound up with the Stocks and Funds. They live
for them and they live on them. They determine their value, they
study every shade of temper exhibited by the family, they decide
their rise and fall, they are their interpreters and mouthpieces, they
act also as their bodyguard: none can approach but through them.
These two classes, jobbers and brokers, have a distinct work, which
I will try to make clear to you.
To start with, the stockjobber does not deal with the public, but the
stockbroker does.
You see stocks and shares are marketable commodities; you can
buy them, sell them, or transfer them, and the stockjobber is, as it
were, the wholesale merchant, and the stockbroker the retail dealer.
Let me explain. If you required twenty yards of black silk, you would
probably go to Marshall and Snelgrove or to Peter Robinson for it.
You certainly would not think of going to a wholesale house in the
City for it; and if you did, the article would not be supplied to you in
this way—it is contrary to the etiquette of trade.
Just in the same manner, if you wanted to buy some stock, you
would go to a stockbroker for it, and not to a stockjobber—the
stockbroker occupying the same position as Marshall and Snelgrove,
while the stockjobber stands in the place of the wholesale house in
the City.
The stockjobber, or wholesale merchant, is always ready both to buy
and sell with the broker. If you give an order to the latter, he darts
into the Stock Exchange, and without disclosing the nature of his
order to the jobber, inquires of him the price of the particular stock
which you wish to deal in. The jobber names two prices: one at
which he is prepared to buy (the lowest price, of course), the other at
which he is willing to sell (the highest price).
Thus, if the price of Consols was given by him as 100¼ to 100½, it
would mean that if you wanted him to take some stock of you he
would give you £100 5s. for each £100 of stock; and that if you
desired to buy some stock of him, you must pay him £100 10s. for
each £100.
These prices are the limits which the jobber sets himself. He is often
ready to give more or to sell for less than the prices he at first
names, according to what is known as the state of the market.
The profits of the jobber and the broker are not of the same kind; the
jobber makes his money out of the difference between the price at
which he buys the stock of you and sells it to someone else.
The broker charges you a small percentage on the cost of the stock
by way of commission for his services in the matter; this does not
include stamp duty or fee, but otherwise he undertakes any
incidental service which may be necessary to give you the full
proprietorship of the stock.
Stockjobbers, or wholesale stock merchants, are, as you see, very
necessary, for brokers could not at all times accommodate their
customers; it might be that one would want to sell at a moment when
there was no one to buy; as it is, however, all is made easy by the
jobbers, who are at all times ready both to buy and sell, and to
almost any amount.
It does sometimes happen that they promise to sell more than they
possess, and then they have to borrow and pay for the use of it on
their clearing day, which takes place once a month for Consols and
similar securities, and once a fortnight for other stocks within the
Exchange. It would never do for members of the Stock Exchange to
fall short of their obligations.
The mystery that has always hung about this building has greatly
increased since it has been in combination with the Exchange
Telegraph Company of London, with all its scientific developments
and its electric currents. Between this bureau and the Stock
Exchange ghostly, silent messages pass the livelong day concerning
the health, the value, the rise and the fall of the various stocks and
funds, and in a few seconds these mysterious messages are wafted
through the length and breadth of the land.
I am a curious, inquisitive old lady, and as there were many points in
these mysterious proceedings I could not understand, I went to the
bureau a short time back, and begged Mr. Wilfred King, the
courteous and clever secretary of the company, to make them clear
to me.
I was very interested in what he said about the rapidity with which
the messages are transmitted. He assured me that the result of the
last Derby was known all over London before the horses had had
time to stop after they had passed the winning-post; and, again, that
during the last Parliamentary session the debates, by means of this
company, were known at the Crystal Palace before they reached the
smoking-room of the House of Commons.
As I stood watching the clever instrument pouring out silently and
persistently its yards of tape messages, I asked as a favour that Mr.
King would cut off a piece, that I might show it to you. You will see
that the language is conveyed by means of simple lines, over which
he was so kind as to write the letters so represented—

[1]

The following little sketch will give you some idea of the instrument
and its working:—
I should like you to know more of this wonderful place; but it belongs
to my life only inasmuch as it carries my messages so silently and
rapidly that people hundreds of miles away can do business with me
in the same hour, and the result is that many thousands of pounds
pass through my hands in a day, which might otherwise have
remained idle.
You will possibly feel surprised to hear that on an average six
millions of pounds[2] are daily passed in London, without a single
coin being used, and without any inconvenience or fatigue; whereas
such a sum as this, if paid in gold or silver, would necessitate the
carrying backward and forward over many miles some hundred tons
weight.
Like many other gigantic transactions, it is brought about in an
insignificant building in a court leading out of Lombard-street, and
therefore close to my residence.
It is not a mysterious place like the Stock Exchange, but its power of
working is so wonderful as to be quite beyond the power of woman
to take in.
It transfers more money in one week than the whole quantity of gold
coin in the kingdom amounts to; and not the least wonderful thing
about it is that the entire work is performed by about thirty well
trained clerks, in the most exact, regular, and simple manner.
The place I am speaking of is the Bankers’ Clearing House—not to
be confounded with that in the Stock Exchange. It was established in
1775 by bankers who desired a central place where they might
conduct their clearing, or balancing, and their needs led them to the
invention of a simple and ingenious method of economising the use
of money. Almost all their payments are in the form of cheques upon
bankers.
The system of clearing is quite as important in money matters as
division of labour is in manufactures, and deserves a much more
thorough explanation than I can give here; and my only excuse for
mentioning it at all is to show you how wonderfully different my
position is now, strengthened as it is by the development of science,
knowledge, and experience, from what it was in my early days.
While my transactions have increased a thousandfold, money,
labour, and time have in an equal degree been economised.
I thought myself very rich formerly with a fortune of £1,200,000, and I
considered that I and my household had a great deal to do in the
management of it, and the work which fell to my lot. Dear me! I can
call back the picture of even a hundred and twenty years ago. My
own house was so small that passers-by could scarcely recognise it;
the population of London was only half a million, and there was but
one bridge over the Thames connecting my side of the City with
Southwark; and as to that mysterious building, the Stock Exchange,
it did not exist. You know, also, for I have told you, that my directors
only employed fifty-four secretaries and clerks, and that their united
salaries did not exceed £4,350. The contrast between then and now
is marvellous even to me.
Only look at it. The proprietors’ capital is now fourteen millions and a
half instead of £1,200,000; I am the Banker of the Government; I
receive the Public Revenue; I pay the National Debt; I receive and
register transfers of stock from one public creditor to another, and I
make the quarterly payment of the dividends. I have undertaken also
the management of the Indian Debt, as well as the Funded Debt of
the Metropolitan Board of Works. What do you think of that for a
woman old as I am in years? You must own that, notwithstanding my
age, I am young and vigorous in thought, in action, and in
organisation, otherwise how could I get through my work as I do?
 “GHOSTLY, SILENT MESSAGES.”
My profits, too, are, when compared with those in my young days,
enormous. You wanted to know, if I remember rightly, how I lived,
and how I obtained the money to pay you your dividends; and
whether, in this respect, I was worthy of your trust.
Well, I will tell you a few of the ways in which I make money. I obtain
large sums by discounting Exchequer Bills; then there is the interest
upon the capital stock in the hands of the Government; I receive,
also, an allowance for managing the Public Debt. Up to 1786 I used
to get £562 10s. for every million; it was then reduced to £450 a
million; and since 1808 I get £300 per million up to 600 millions, and
£150 per million beyond—a nice little sum for you to work out.
A further source of income is interest on loans, on mortgages, profit
on purchase of bullion, and many other small matters. I am careful,
you see, not to have all my eggs in one basket.
For help in all this work I employ between eight and nine hundred
officers and servants, whose salaries exceed £210,000 a year.
I think I am a good mistress. I am sure I do my best to take care of
all my people, and I am acquainted with every one of them, even
with those who perform what is called menial service (I don’t like that
word; every service is honourable, if well performed); but I do
confess that I am extremely strict and particular and I am intolerant
of mistakes, from whatever cause they arise, because they dim the
lustre of my honour.
I think on the whole I have reason to be proud of my servants.
Indeed, I have a firm belief that no lady in the land is served better or
more faithfully.
I think you will like to hear a little about the way I manage my people.
First of all, I make every increase of salary to depend upon
punctuality in the morning, knowing as I do its importance. I am
equally particular that those living within the house shall keep good
hours at night.
Then I do not mind giving occasional leave of absence, if urgently
required; but I don’t allow anyone to take what is called “French
leave” without paying a fine for each day’s absence.
When my people get too old for service, I like to feel that they will not
suffer want; so I give them a pension in proportion to the salary they
are receiving at the time they retire. I spend about £40,000 in this
way—a spending which has nothing but pleasure in it for me.
I started a library some time ago for the younger members of my
household, by giving them a large room and £500 for books. It has
since been kept going by themselves, each subscriber paying eight
shillings a year. Between three and eight on certain days in the week
you may see numbers of them making their way thither for reading
and recreation. Those who prefer it may have books to take home.
One of my representatives is always present during these hours, just
to show our interest in their recreation.
The kind feeling, however, is not at all one-sided, as I have had
frequent opportunities of judging. Times of trouble, panic, and
sickness never fail to show me the love and devotion of my people,
and that they have not hesitated to sacrifice their lives for my safety
is a matter of history.
During the hours of the night, when I take my well-earned sleep, I am
watched over by my faithful servants, who take it in turn, two at the
time, to keep watch, in which loving duty they are assisted by a
company of Foot Guards.
So you see on the whole I am a happy woman, a very busy one, and
I think a safe one for you to trust.
(To be continued.)
OUR TOUR IN NORTH ITALY.
By TWO LONDON BACHELORS.
 ST. GIORGIO, MAGGIORE.
Our longing expectations were fulfilled, and we were vouchsafed a
lovely evening for our entrance into Venice. By the time the train
reached Mæstre all traces of the storm had disappeared, the sky
was dark blue, and glittered with innumerable stars and a full moon
—just such an ideal night as one would choose for getting one’s first
impressions of the most poetical city in the world.
From Padua to Mæstre there is nothing remarkable; the same
seemingly eternal plain has to be traversed; but as the train draws
near to the last-named city one begins to realise that one is really
approaching the Queen of the Adriatic.
At Mæstre we began to feel the sea breezes, and as the train rushed
on to St. Giuliana we caught glimpses of the far-off lights of Venice
reflected in the water. And now commences the vast bridge which
takes the train over the lagune. This bridge is between three and four
miles in length, and contains 222 arches.
Our excitement was great when we reached the lagune, and the
train seemed actually rushing through the water.
At first the buildings of the distant city looked like huge black rocks,
though the hundreds of lights reflected in the water told one of the
approach to habitation. But as we drew near, the churches, towers,
campanili, and palaces became almost distinguishable, telling out
black against the starlit sky, and seemingly rising from the middle of
the sea—an exquisitely poetical scene, with which no one could be
disappointed.
Of course, we can understand that approaching Venice by day is
quite another matter. Then the shallowness of the lagune (the water
is sometimes not more than three feet deep) is realised; then all the
ruin, shabby detail, bad restoration, and bizarre Gothic work of the
city are seen at a glance. The beautiful moonlight night, however,
told us of none of these defects, but emphasised the strange poetry
of this singular city, with its wonderful history and associations, built
in the middle of the sea.
The approach to Venice by gondola in former times must have been
even more romantic, as the puffing and the screeching of a steam-
engine brings one’s mind back to the nineteenth century. Though, at
the same time, rushing across the lagune in a railway-train at night
produces a somewhat remarkable sensation.
The train took about nine minutes to cross the bridge, and then
glided quietly into the railway station at Venice. There were only
about half a dozen passengers besides ourselves, and there was