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[1]
Arduino for Secret Agents

Transform your tiny Arduino device into a secret agent

gadget and build a range of espionage projects with this
practical guide for hackers

Marco Schwartz

BIRMINGHAM - MUMBAI
Arduino for Secret Agents

Copyright © 2015 Packt Publishing

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, without the prior written
permission of the publisher, except in the case of brief quotations embedded in
critical articles or reviews.

Every effort has been made in the preparation of this book to ensure the accuracy
of the information presented. However, the information contained in this book is
sold without warranty, either express or implied. Neither the author, nor Packt
Publishing, and its dealers and distributors will be held liable for any damages
caused or alleged to be caused directly or indirectly by this book.

Packt Publishing has endeavored to provide trademark information about all of the
companies and products mentioned in this book by the appropriate use of capitals.
However, Packt Publishing cannot guarantee the accuracy of this information.

First published: November 2015

Production reference: 1121115

Published by Packt Publishing Ltd.

Livery Place
35 Livery Street
Birmingham B3 2PB, UK.

ISBN 978-1-78398-608-8

www.packtpub.com
 Credits

Author Project Coordinator

Marco Schwartz Francina Pinto

Reviewer Proofreader
Roberto Gallea Safis Editing

Commissioning Editor Indexer

Julian Ursell Mariammal Chettiyar

Acquisition Editors Production Coordinator

Harsha Bharwani Arvindkumar Gupta
Prachi Bisht
Cover Work
Content Development Editor Arvindkumar Gupta
Pooja Mhapsekar

Technical Editor
Bharat Patil

Copy Editor
Vibha Shukla
 About the Author

Marco Schwartz is an electrical engineer, an entrepreneur, and a blogger. He has a

master's degree in electrical engineering and computer science from Supélec, France,
and a master's degree in micro engineering from the Ecole Polytechnique Fédérale de
Lausanne (EPFL) in Switzerland.

He has more than five years of experience working in the domain of electrical
engineering. Marco's interests gravitate around electronics, home automation,
the Arduino and Raspberry Pi platforms, open source hardware projects,
and 3D printing.

He has several websites about Arduino, including the Open Home Automation website
that is dedicated to building home automation systems using open source hardware.

Marco has written another book on home automation and Arduino, called Home
Automation With Arduino: Automate Your Home Using Open-source Hardware. He has
also written a book on how to build Internet of Things projects with Arduino, called
Internet of Things with the Arduino Yun, Packt Publishing.
 About the Reviewer

Roberto Gallea, PhD, is a computer science researcher since 2007. He was working
at the University of Palermo, Italy. He is committed to investigating fields such as
medical imaging, multimedia, and computer vision. In 2012, he started enhancing
his academic and personal projects with the use of analog and digital electronics,
with particular involvement in the open source hardware and software platform,
Arduino. Besides academic interests, he also conducts personal projects that are
aimed at producing handcrafted items embedding invisible electronics, such as
musical instruments, furniture, and LED devices. He has also been collaborating
with contemporary dance companies for digital scenic and costume design.
 www.PacktPub.com

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 Table of Contents
Preface iii
Chapter 1: A Simple Alarm System with Arduino 1
Hardware and software requirements 1
Hardware configuration 4
Configuring the alarm system 6
Testing the alarm system 10
Summary 12
Chapter 2: Creating a Spy Microphone 13
Hardware and software requirements 13
Using the SD card 15
Testing the microphone 20
Building the spy microphone 22
Recording on the SD card 25
Summary 27
Chapter 3: Building an EMF Bug Detector 29
Hardware and Software requirements 29
Hardware configuration 31
Testing the LCD screen 33
Building the EMF bug detector 34
Summary 39
Chapter 4: Access Control with a Fingerprint Sensor 41
Hardware and software requirements 41
Hardware configuration 43
Enrolling your fingerprint 44
Controlling access to the relay 49
Accessing secret data 52
Summary 57

[i]
Table of Contents

Chapter 5: Opening a Lock with an SMS 59

Hardware and software requirements 60
Hardware configuration 62
Testing the FONA shield 65
Controlling the relay 70
Opening and closing the lock 73
Summary 75
Chapter 6: Building a Cloud Spy Camera 77
Hardware and software requirements 77
Hardware configuration 80
Setting up your Dropbox account 82
Setting up your Temboo account 84
Saving pictures to Dropbox 88
Live streaming from the spy camera 93
Summary 95
Chapter 7: Monitoring Secret Data from Anywhere 97
Hardware and software requirements 98
Hardware configuration 99
Sending data to dweet.io 101
Monitoring the device remotely 108
Creating automated e-mail alerts 112
Summary 113
Chapter 8: Creating a GPS Tracker with Arduino 115
Hardware and software requirements 115
Hardware configuration 117
Testing the location functions 118
Sending a GPS location by SMS 127
Building a GPS location tracker 129
Summary 132
Chapter 9: Building an Arduino Spy Robot 133
Hardware and software requirements 133
Hardware configuration 134
Setting up the motor control 141
Setting up live streaming 147
Setting up the interface 148
Testing the surveillance robot 151
Summary 152
Index 153

[ ii ]
 Preface
The Arduino platform makes it really easy to build electronics projects in various
domains, such as home automation, Internet of Things, wearable technology, and
even healthcare. It's also the ideal platform to build amazing projects for secret
agents, which is what we are going to do in this book.

Using the power and simplicity of the Arduino platform, we are going to see how
to build several projects that can be easily used by any aspiring secret agent. From
audio recorders to GPS trackers, you will be able to make your own secret agent
toolkit using the Arduino platform after reading this book.

What this book covers

Chapter 1, A Simple Alarm System with Arduino, is about building an alarm system that
is based on the Arduino platform with a motion sensor and a visual alarm.

Chapter 2, Creating a Spy Microphone, is about making a secret recording system that
can record the conversations and noises in a room.

Chapter 3, Building an EMF Bug Detector, is about creating a very useful device for
any secret agent: a detector to check whether there are other secret agent devices
in a room.

Chapter 4, Access Control with a Fingerprint Sensor, is about creating an access control
system using your own fingerprint.

Chapter 5, Opening a Lock with an SMS, is about building a project where the secret
agent can open a lock just by sending a text message to the Arduino device.

Chapter 6, Building a Cloud Spy Camera, is about making a spy camera that can be
accessed from anywhere in the world and can record pictures in Dropbox when
motion is detected.

[ iii ]
Preface

Chapter 7, Monitoring Secret Data from Anywhere, is about learning how to secretly
record any kind of data and how to log in this data on the Cloud.

Chapter 8, Creating a GPS Tracker with Arduino, is about creating one of the most
useful devices for a secret agent: a GPS tracker that indicates its position on a
map in real time.

Chapter 9, Building an Arduino Spy Robot, is about making a small surveillance robot
that can spy on your behalf.

What you need for this book

In the entire book, we will be using the Arduino platform so you will definitely need
the latest version of the Arduino IDE software.

We will be using a wide range of Arduino boards, shields, and hardware components.
You will find all the details about these requirements in the relevant chapters.

Who this book is for

This book is intended for those who want to build exciting secret agent projects
using the Arduino platform. For example, it is for those people who are already
experienced in using the Arduino platform and want to extend their knowledge by
building projects for secret agents. It is also for the people who want to learn about
electronics and programming as Arduino is the perfect platform for that.

Conventions
In this book, you will find a number of text styles that distinguish between different
kinds of information. Here are some examples of these styles and an explanation of
their meaning.

Code words in text, database table names, folder names, filenames, file extensions,
pathnames, dummy URLs, user input, and Twitter handles are shown as follows:
"Also, if the alarm_mode is going back to false, we need to deactivate the alarm
immediately."

[ iv ]
 Preface

A block of code is set as follows:

if (alarm_mode == false) {

// No tone & LED off

noTone(alarm_pin);
digitalWrite(led_pin, LOW);
}

Any command-line input or output is written as follows:

mjpg_streamer -i "input_uvc.so -d /dev/video0 -r 640x480 -f 25" -o
"output_http.so -p 8080 -w /www/webcam" &

New terms and important words are shown in bold. Words that you see on the
screen, for example, in menus or dialog boxes, appear in the text like this: "Now,
inside the parameters of the app, there are two things you need: the App key, and
the App secret."

Warnings or important notes appear in a box like this.

Tips and tricks appear like this.

Reader feedback
Feedback from our readers is always welcome. Let us know what you think about
this book—what you liked or disliked. Reader feedback is important for us as it
helps us develop titles that you will really get the most out of.

To send us general feedback, simply e-mail feedback@packtpub.com, and mention

the book's title in the subject of your message.

If there is a topic that you have expertise in and you are interested in either writing
or contributing to a book, see our author guide at www.packtpub.com/authors.

Customer support
Now that you are the proud owner of a Packt book, we have a number of things to
help you to get the most from your purchase.

[v]
Preface

Downloading the example code

You can download the example code files from your account at http://www.
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Questions
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questions@packtpub.com, and we will do our best to address the problem.

[ vi ]
 A Simple Alarm System
with Arduino
I want to start this book with a simple project that any secret agent will want to
have, a simple alarm system that will be activated whenever motion is detected by
a sensor. This simple system is not only fun to make but will also help us to go over
the basics of Arduino programming and electronics, which are the skills that we will
use in this whole book.

It will basically be a simple alarm (a buzzer that makes sound, plus a red LED)
combined with a motion detector. The user will also be able to stop the alarm by
pressing a button.

We are going to do the following in this chapter:

• First, we are going to see what the requirements for this project are, in terms
of hardware and software
• Then, we will see how to assemble the hardware parts for this project
• After that, we will configure our system using the Arduino IDE

Hardware and software requirements

First, let's see what the required components for this project are. As this is the
first chapter of the book, we will spend a bit more time here to detail the different
components, as these are components that we will be using in the whole book.

[1]
A Simple Alarm System with Arduino

The first component that will be central to the project is the Arduino Uno board:

In several chapters of this book, this will be the 'brain' of the projects that we will
make. In all the projects, I will be using the official Arduino Uno R3 board. However,
you can use an equivalent board from another brand or another Arduino board, such
as an Arduino Mega board.

Another crucial component of our alarm system will be the buzzer:

[2]
 Chapter 1

This is a very simple component that is used to make simple sounds with Arduino.
You couldn't play an MP3 with it but it's just fine for an alarm system. You can, of
course, use any buzzer that is available; the goal is to just make a sound.

After that, we are going to need a motion detector:

Here, I used a very simple PIR motion detector. This sensor will measure the infrared
(IR) light that is emitted by moving objects in its field of view, for example, people
moving around. It is really easy and quite cheap to interface with Arduino. You can
use any brand that you want for this sensor; it just needs a voltage level of 5V in
order to be compatible with the Arduino Uno board.

Finally, here is the list of all the components that we will use in this project:

• Arduino Uno (https://www.sparkfun.com/products/11021)

• Buzzer (https://www.sparkfun.com/products/7950)
• PIR (https://www.sparkfun.com/products/13285)
• LED (https://www.sparkfun.com/products/9590)
• 330 Ohm resistor (https://www.sparkfun.com/products/8377)
• Button (https://www.sparkfun.com/products/97)
• 1k Ohm resistor (https://www.sparkfun.com/products/8980)
• Breadboard (https://www.sparkfun.com/products/12002)
• Jumper wires (https://www.sparkfun.com/products/8431)

[3]
A Simple Alarm System with Arduino

On the software side, the only thing that we will need in the first chapter is the
latest version of the Arduino IDE that you can download from the following URL:
https://www.arduino.cc/en/main/software.

Note that we are going to use the Arduino IDE in all the projects of this book, so
make sure to install the latest version.

Hardware configuration
We are now going to assemble the hardware for this project. As this is the first
project of this book, it will be quite simple. However, there are quite a lot of
components, so be sure to follow all the steps.

Here is a schematic to help you out during the process:

Let's start by putting all the components on the board. Place the buzzer, button, and
LED on the board first, according to the schematics. Then, place the 330 Ohm resistor
in series with the LED anode (the longest pin) and connect the 1k Ohm resistor to
one pin of the push button.

[4]
 Chapter 1

This is how it should look at this stage:

Now we are going to connect each component to the Arduino board.

Let's start with the power supply. Connect the 5V pin of the Arduino board to one
red power rail of the breadboard, and the GND pin of the Arduino board to one blue
power rail of the breadboard.

Then, we are going to connect the buzzer. Connect one pin of the buzzer to pin number
5 of the Arduino board and the other pin to the blue power rail of the breadboard.

After that, let's connect the LED. Connect the free pin of the resistor to pin number 6
of the Arduino board and the free pin of the LED (the cathode) to the ground via the
blue power rail.

Let's also connect the push button to our Arduino board. Refer to the schematic to
be sure about the connections since it is a bit more complex. Basically, you need
to connect the free pin of the resistor to the ground and connect the pin that is
connected to the button to the 5V pin via the red power rail. Finally, connect the
other side of the button to pin 12 of the Arduino board.

[5]
A Simple Alarm System with Arduino

Finally, let's connect the PIR motion sensor to the Arduino board. Connect the VCC
pin of the motion sensor to the red power rail and the GND pin to the blue power
rail. Finally, connect the SIG pin (or OUT pin) to Arduino pin number 7.

The following is the final result:

If your project looks similar to this picture, congratulations, you just assembled your
first secret agent project! You can now go on to the next section.

Configuring the alarm system

Now that the hardware for our project is ready, we can write down the code for
the project so that we have a usable alarm system. The goal is to make the buzzer
produce a sound whenever motion is detected and also to make the LED flash.
However, whenever the button is pressed, the alarm will be switched off.

[6]
 Chapter 1

Here is the complete code for this project:

// Code for the simple alarm system

// Pins
const int alarm_pin = 5;
const int led_pin = 6;
const int motion_pin = 7;
const int button_pin = 12;

// Alarm
boolean alarm_mode = false;

// Variables for the flashing LED

int ledState = LOW;
long previousMillis = 0;
long interval = 100; // Interval at which to blink (milliseconds)

void setup()
{
// Set pins to output
pinMode(led_pin,OUTPUT);
pinMode(alarm_pin,OUTPUT);

// Set button pin to input

pinMode(button_pin, INPUT);

// Wait before starting the alarm

delay(5000);
}

void loop()
{
// Motion detected ?
if (digitalRead(motion_pin)) {
alarm_mode = true;
}

// If alarm mode is on, flash the LED and make the alarm ring
if (alarm_mode){
unsigned long currentMillis = millis();
if(currentMillis - previousMillis > interval) {
previousMillis = currentMillis;
if (ledState == LOW)

[7]
A Simple Alarm System with Arduino

ledState = HIGH;
else
ledState = LOW;
// Switch the LED
digitalWrite(led_pin, ledState);
}
tone(alarm_pin,1000);
}

// If alarm is off
if (alarm_mode == false) {

// No tone & LED off

noTone(alarm_pin);
digitalWrite(led_pin, LOW);
}

// If button is pressed, set alarm off

int button_state = digitalRead(button_pin);
if (button_state) {alarm_mode = false;}
}

Downloading the example code

You can download the example code files from your account at
http://www.packtpub.com for all the Packt Publishing books you
have purchased. If you purchased this book elsewhere, you can visit
http://www.packtpub.com/support and register to have the
files e-mailed directly to you.

We are now going to see, in more detail, the different parts of the code. It starts by
declaring which pins are connected to different elements of the project, such as the
alarm buzzer:
const int alarm_pin = 5;
const int led_pin = 6;
const int motion_pin = 7;
const int button_pin = 12;

[8]
 Chapter 1

After that, in the setup() function of the sketch, we declare these pins as either
inputs or outputs, as follows:
// Set pins to output
pinMode(led_pin,OUTPUT);
pinMode(alarm_pin,OUTPUT);

// Set button pin to input

pinMode(button_pin, INPUT);

Then, in the loop() function of the sketch, we check whether the alarm was
switched on by checking the state of the motion sensor:
if (digitalRead(motion_pin)) {
alarm_mode = true;
}

Note that if we detect some motion, we immediately set the alarm_mode variable to
true. We will see how the code makes use of this variable right now.

Now, if the alarm_mode variable is true, we have to enable the alarm, make the buzzer
emit a sound, and also flash the LED. This is done by the following code snippet:
if (alarm_mode){
unsigned long currentMillis = millis();
if(currentMillis - previousMillis > interval) {
previousMillis = currentMillis;
if (ledState == LOW)
ledState = HIGH;
else
ledState = LOW;
// Switch the LED
digitalWrite(led_pin, ledState);
}
tone(alarm_pin,1000);
}

Also, if alarm_mode is returning false, we need to deactivate the alarm immediately

by stopping the sound from being emitted and shutting down the LED. This is done
with the following code:
if (alarm_mode == false) {

// No tone & LED off

noTone(alarm_pin);
digitalWrite(led_pin, LOW);
}

[9]
A Simple Alarm System with Arduino

Finally, we continuously read the state of the push button. If the button is pressed,
we will immediately set the alarm off:
int button_state = digitalRead(button_pin);
if (button_state) {alarm_mode = false;}

Usually, we should take care of the bounce effect of the button in order to make
sure that we don't have erratic readings when the button is pressed. However, here
we only care about the button actually being pressed so we do not need to add an
additional debouncing code for the button.

Note that you can find all the code for this project inside the GitHub repository of
the book:
https://github.com/marcoschwartz/arduino-secret-agents

Now that we have written down the code for the project, it's time to get to the most
exciting part of the chapter: testing the alarm system!

Testing the alarm system

We are now ready to test our simple alarm system. Just grab the code for this project
(either from the preceding code or the GitHub repository of the book) and put it into
your Arduino IDE.

In the IDE, choose the right board type (for example, Arduino Uno) and also the
correct serial port.

You can now upload the code to the board. Once it is done, simply pass your hand
in front of the PIR motion sensor; the alarm should go off immediately. Then, simply
press the push button to stop it.

[ 10 ]
 Chapter 1

To illustrate the behavior of the alarm, I simply used a battery pack to make it work
when it is not connected to my computer. The following is the result when the alarm
goes off:

If this works as expected, congratulations, you just built your first secret agent
project: a simple alarm system based on Arduino!

If it doesn't work well at this point, there are several things you can check. First, go
through the hardware configuration part again to make sure that your project is
correctly configured.

Also, you can verify that when you pass your hand in front of the PIR sensor, it goes
red. If this is not the case, most probably your PIR motion sensor has a problem and
must be replaced.

[ 11 ]
A Simple Alarm System with Arduino

Summary
In this first chapter, we built a simple alarm based on Arduino with only a
few components.

There are several ways to go further and improve this project. You can add more
functions to the project just by adding more lines to the code. For example, you
can add a timer so that the alarm only goes off after a given amount of time, or
you can build a mode where a push of the button actually activates or deactivates
the alarm mode.

In the next chapter, we are going to build another project that is very useful for secret
agents: an audio recording device based on Arduino!

[ 12 ]
Random documents with unrelated
content Scribd suggests to you:
and 1874. We feel at liberty to call attention to some manuscript
alterations made by the author in our copy. For Coturniculus
passerinus read Zonotrichia albicollis; for Myiarchus crinitus, read
Tyrannus verticalis; for Archibuteo lagopus, read A. ferrugineus,
the range of which is thus carried beyond any point hitherto given;
for Tringa canutus read T. bairdi; for Podilymbus podiceps, read
Podiceps californicus. We could wish the report were better printed;
but poor presswork is the usual fate of public documents, English or
American.—E. C.

Knowlton’s Revised List of the Birds of Brandon, Vermont.

[54]
—This is a briefly annotated list of 149 species occurring in the
immediate vicinity of Brandon. The author says: “A few more species
doubtless occur, especially among the Waders and Swimmers, but as
they have never been actually noted, they have been rigidly
excluded.” An examination of the List shows that, with perhaps one
or two exceptions, he has succeeded in adhering to this principle, the
result being a very reliable list as far as it goes. The further
application of this rule doubtless accounts for the fact that many of
the species are not stated to breed that yet no doubt do so.
The chief interest of the List lies in its bearing upon the extent of
the Alleghanian fauna in the Champlain valley. The breeding of such
species as Dendrœca striata and Zonotrichia leucophrys, the
occurrence of Perisoreus canadensis and Picoides arcticus, and the
absence of Ortyx virginiana and one or two other species, are almost
the only exceptions to an otherwise strictly Alleghanian fauna.
A number of species, especially among the migrants, would seem,
from what the writer says, to be by no means numerous at this
locality, and no doubt his statements are strictly in accordance with
his experience. We have reason to believe, however, that a more
thorough search might reveal greater numbers of some of these
species.
It is to be regretted that Mr. Knowlton’s List could not have
appeared elsewhere than in the columns of a newspaper, both for the
sake of giving it a more permanent form, and of avoiding the
typographical errors inevitable under such circumstances. It may be
worth while here to mention that by a slip of the pen Mr. Knowlton
has recorded Wilson’s Plover (Ochthodromus wilsonius) instead of
Wilson’s Snipe.—C. F. B.

Krukenberg on the Coloring Matter of Feathers.[55]—This

paper, the first of a series, seems to be the product of more careful
work than previous publications on the subject. The author first
states positively that the color may change after growth, the feather
becoming lighter or darker as the case may be, but postpones
deciding whether the change is the result of external or internal
causes. Judging from the effects of stimulants upon Canaries with
fully grown feathers, I have no doubt that internal changes play an
important part. At least, almost white Canaries will become very
yellow, gray sometimes appearing, if properly fed.
Turacin, a red or purple-violet pigment, found in the feathers of
the Musophagidæ is first considered. Attention was first called to
this pigment by Verreaux, who found that the purple-violet in the
wing feathers of Corythaix albicristatus was destroyed by wetting,
but returned on drying. Later it was observed that the water in which
these birds bathed became colored dark red. Facts worthy of
consideration by all systematic ornithologists. Turacin is soluble in
weak alkalies, insoluble in acids, and slightly soluble in water,
especially if warm. It may be precipitated as an amorphous red
powder by the action of acids. In solution the spectrum of Turacin is
marked by two absorption bands, between D and E, much
resembling those of oxyhemoglobin. Carbon dioxide and oxygen,
however, have no effect on the color or the spectrum. As to its
chemical composition the author differs from his predecessors in
that he denies the presence of nitrogen, though copper and iron are
both present in considerable quantities. By the action of
concentrated sulphuric acid two products are formed, named α
Turaceïn and β Turaceïn by the author.
Zoönerythrin, another red pigment of much wider distribution, is
found in red feathers, as those of the Flamingo and the Cardinal
Grosbeak. It is soluble in alcohol, ether, bisulphide of carbon, and
the like, from which it can be precipitated by evaporation. The
solution of this pigment is often favored by first digesting the feather
in a trypsin or pepsin solution. Unlike Turacin, Zoönerythrin has no
absorption bands, but all is absorbed beyond E.
 Zoöfulvin, a yellow pigment of much the same solubility as the
preceding, occurs in the yellow feathers of the European Oriole, the
Canary, and the like. The spectrum has two bands between F and G
which vary in position according to the solvent used.
As yet Dr. Krukenberg has been unable to extract any green, blue,
or purple pigment from feathers, so that he agrees with Bogdanon
that blue feathers have no pigment as proved by transmitted light. Of
this any one can at once convince himself by holding the feather of a
Bluebird immersed in water between himself and a window.—J.
Amory Jeffries.

Minor Ornithological Papers.—161. The Ruddy Duck

(Erismatura rubida). By Spencer Trotter, Chicago Field, Vol. XIII, p.
23.—Brief general account, including reference to their occasional
great abundance in Chesapeake Bay.
162. Bibliographical Manuals of American Naturalists. Chapter
II. Dr. Elliott Coues, U. S. A. By William Hosea Ballou. Ibid., XIII,
pp. 92, 103, 123, 189, 205, 221.—Rather more than 400 titles of
papers and works, relating mainly to ornithology.
163. Nomenclature of the North American Grouse. By Spencer
Trotter. Ibid., XIII. pp. 314, 315.—Common and scientific names of
North American Grouse, with their principal synonymy and habitats.
163. The California Quails in Missouri. By H. Clay Ewing. Ibid.
XIII, p. 413.—Six or seven pairs, turned out near the junction of the
Missouri and Osage Rivers in March 1879, raised broods the
following season near where they were liberated.
164. Bibliographical Manual of American Naturalists Chapter III.
The Literature of Prof. Edward D. Cope. By Wm. Hosea Ballou. Ibid.
XIV, pp. 19, 20.—Contains a few ornithological titles.
165. Can the Pinnated Grouse be successfully propagated? By H.
W. Merrill. Forest and Stream, XVI, Feb. 10, 1881, p. 28.—Believes
they can be “successfully propagated” with proper “regard to cover,
food and range.”
166. Pine Grosbeak (Pinicola enucleator, L., V.) and Robin
(Turdus migratorius, L.) in Winter [in Nova Scotia]. By. J.
Matthews Jones. Ibid., XVI. March 13, 1881, p. 86.—The former
“quite common”; small flocks of the latter frequent the spruce woods
every winter, in Point Pleasant Park, Halifax peninsula.
167. The “Crane’s Back.” By J. C. Merrill. Ibid., XVI, March 10,
1881, p. 105.—A Cree Indian account of the napite-shu-utle, a bird
said to migrate by taking passage on the backs of Cranes. The bird is
believed to be a Grebe.
168. A Hawk new to the United States. By Robert Ridgway. Ibid.,
XVI, Apr. 14, 1881, 206.—From Oyster Bay, Fla., provisionally
referred to Buteo fuliginosus. (See this Bull., VI, Oct. 1881, p. 207.)
169. The Pine Grosbeak. By Chas. E. Ingalls. Ibid., XVI. Apr. 14,
1881, pp. 206, 207.—Observations on its habits in winter in
Massachusetts.
170. Our unique Spoon-billed Sandpiper, Eurinorhynchus
pygmæus (Linn.). By Tarleton H. Bean. Ibid., XVI, Apr. 21. 1881, p.
225.—Brief general history of the species, with record of its capture
at Plover Bay, Eastern Siberia, and Point Barrow, Alaska.
171. Domesticated Quail. By Henry Benbrook. Ibid., XVI, May 5,
1881, p. 266.—Ortyx virginianus successfully reared in captivity to
the third generation. Believes that under favorable circumstances
they could be bred “as easily as Turkeys.”
172. Great Carolina Wren. By William Dutcher. Ibid., XVI, July
14, 1881, p. 473.—Record of its capture at Greenville, N. J., within
four miles of New York City.
173. The Rail we shoot. [By George B. Grinnell.] Ibid.. XVII, Sept.
22, 1881, pp. 146, 147.—Classification, diagnoses and habitats of the
Rallidæ of the United States.
174. Range and Rotary Movements of Limicolæ. By W. Hapgood.
Ibid., XVII, Oct. 20, 1881, pp. 225–228.—An important and
suggestive paper on the migrations and range of American Limicolæ.
The greater part of the species of this group are noticed at length.
The paper relates especially to the winter haunts of these birds, and
the conclusion is pretty fairly sustained that many of them pass
beyond the tropics to winter in the Southern Hemisphere.
175. Migration of Shore Birds. By M. H. Simons. Ibid., XVII, Nov.
10, 1881, p. 288.—Apropos of Mr. Hapgood’s paper (see No. 174). the
writer calls attention to the fact that many kinds of Shore Birds
winter in Florida and the other Gulf States. “Didymus.” under the
same caption, has some pertinent suggestions in reference to Mr.
Hapgood’s paper.
176. The Herring Gull and the Ring-bill on Georgian Bay. By Rev.
J. A. Langille. Ibid., XVII, Nov. 17, 1881, p. 307.—On the habits, etc.,
of these species at their breeding haunts in Georgian Bay.
177. Beechnuts and Woodpeckers. By C. Hart Merriam, M.D. Ibid.,
XVII, Dec. 1, 1881, p. 347.—A reply to several pseudonymous articles
in previous numbers of this journal (Forest and Stream) in reference
to the Red-headed Woodpecker’s habit of eating beechnuts. Other
notes on the same subject, by various contributors, follow in this and
succeeding numbers.
178. The Enemies of Game Birds. By Adolphe B. Covert [and
others]. Ibid., XVII, Dec. 8, 1881, p. 366, Dec. 22, p. 407, and Dec.
29, p. 428.—Various enemies are mentioned, among whom the Red
Squirrel is prominent.
179. Habits of Woodpeckers. By W. Beeke [and others]. Ibid.,
XVII, Dec. 15, 1881, p. 387.—In reference to their laying up stores of
beechnuts for winter use, particularly refers to the Red-headed
Woodpecker.
180. Inquiries about the Snow Grouse [lege Goose]. By William
Dutcher. Ibid., XVII, Dec. 22, 1881, p. 407.—In reference to the
distribution of Anser hyperboreus on the Atlantic coast, and to the
change of plumage in the Blue Goose (A. cærulescens) in captivity.
181. The Sparrow Curse in Australia. Ibid., XVII, Dec. 22, 1881,
pp. 407, 408.—Abstract of a “progress report” of a government
commission appointed to investigate “alleged injuries caused to fruit
growers, gardeners, farmers and others by [the imported] Sparrows.”
The analysis of the testimony taken is suggestive reading in its
bearing upon the “Sparrow Pest” of our own country.
182. The Snow Goose and Blue Goose. By C. S. Wescott. Ibid.,
XVII, Jan. 5, 1882, p. 447.—Respecting their specific diversity, and
on the occurrence of the Snow Goose in Delaware Bay. This is
followed by a communication (under the same caption) from Arthur
Edward Brown, who states that seven Blue Geese have lived seven
years in the Philadelphia Zoölogical Garden without showing any
material change of color.
 183. Der Schwalbenweih (Nauclerus forficatus). Von H. Nehrling.
Ornithologisches Centralblatt, VI. No. 2, 15 Jan. 1881, pp. 9, 10.—
Account of its habits, etc., as observed in Texas.
184. Der Gelbkopfstärling oder Gelbkopftrupial (Xanthocephalus
icterocephalus Baird). Von H. Nehrling. Ibid., VI, No. 11. 1 Juni,
1881, pp. 81–84, No. 13, 1 Juli, 1881, pp. 97, 98.—General history.
185. Die Wandertaube [Ectopistes migratorius]. Von Chas L.
Mann. Ibid., VI, No. 21, 1 Nov. 1881, pp. 164–166. (Aus: Jahresber.
des Naturhist. Vereins in Wisconsin 1880–81.)—On the great
numbers destroyed by pigeon hunters for the market. Contains
interesting statistics of the slaughter and the manner in which it is
prosecuted.
186. Zwei amerikanische Prairiefinken. Von H. Nehrling.
Monatsschrift des Deutschen Vereins zum Schuke der Vogelwelt, VI
Jahrg., No. 3, März, 1881, pp. 58–64.—General account of the
“Lerchenfink (Chondestes grammica Bp.)” and the “Savannenfink
(Passerculus savanna Bp.).”
187. Ornithologische Beobachtungen aus Texas. II. Von H.
Nehrling. Ibid., VI, No. 5, Mai, 1881, pp. 111–121. (See this Bulletin,
VI, p. 109.)
188. Nordamerikanische Vögel im Freileben geschildert. Von H.
Nehrling. Die gefiederte Welt. Zeitschrift für Vogelliebhaber, -
Zuchter und -Händler, X Jahrg., 1881.—Under this title Dr. Nehrling
contributes a series of well-written popular articles on various North
American birds. In the present volume are the following: (1) Das
Rubingoldhähnchen (Regulus calendula Lichtst.), l. c. pp. 14–16,
24–26. (2) Der blauköpfige oder Brewer’s Stärling, Scolecophagus
Breweri, Nehrl. (S. cyanocephalus Cab....) pp. 44–46, 57, 58. (3) Der
Kentuckysänger oder Buschsänger (Sylvia-Opornis [sic.]—formosa
Wils. ...), pp. 100–102. (4) Die Einfiedlerdrossel (Turdus Pallasi
Cab. ...), pp. 173, 174. (5) Der Gold- oder Kukukspecht (Colaptes
auratus Swns. ...), pp. 228–230, 240, 241, 251–253, 265, 266. (6)
Der Scherentyrann, Scheren- oder Gabelschwanz (Milvulus
forficatus, Swains. ...), pp. 325, 326, 333–335. (7) Der blaugraue
Fliegenfänger oder Mückenfänger (Polioptila cærulea Scl.), pp. 368–
370, 380, 381, 393. (8) Der Satrap oder das Gelbkrongoldhähnchen
(Regulus satrapa, Lichsts. ...), pp. 435, 436. (9) Die Bergdrossel
(Oreoscoptes montanus Brd. ...), pp. 528–530.
 189. Rocky Mountains-Hüttensänger oder Steinschmätzer (...
Sialia arctica Swns.) Eine Vogelstudie aus den Felsingebergen. Von
Fr. Trefz. Ibid., p. 81.
 General Notes.

Description of a Nest of the Water Ouzel.—The nest of the

Water Ouzel (Cinclus mexicanus) is perhaps not so well known as to
make the following description of one wholly uninteresting. The nest
when found was in good condition, and had evidently been used the
past season. It was built under a slightly overhanging wall of
limestone, on a ledge projecting seven or eight inches from the wall,
and about four feet above low-water mark, the deepest part of a swift
mountain stream flowing directly beneath. The material of
construction was a bright green moss, forming a rather conspicuous
object for some distance along the opposite bank. The nest has a
nearly spherical interior seven inches in diameter. The entrance is
triangular, one side of the triangle forming the top and being three
and one-half inches across and three inches above the lower angle.
The most exposed side of the nest varies from three to four inches in
thickness, the top and remainder being only an inch and a half
through. At time of finding, the interior of the nest was perfectly
clean, but outside, just below the opening, the rock was discolored
for some distance by excrement of the birds. Side by side with this
nest was an older one partially destroyed, and I fancied I could see
traces of still another on the same ledge not far off. The birds had
evidently lived in the locality for some time.—R. S. Williams, Gold
Run, Montana.

The Short-billed Marsh Wren in New Hampshire.—On the

24th of August, 1881, while investigating the recesses of a fresh water
marsh at Rye Beach, N. H., I found a colony of Short-billed Marsh
Wrens (Cistothorus stellaris) in a small meadow about a mile from
the sea. One bird was shot, and five or six others seen and heard.
Mr. Wm. Brewster in 1872 found this bird in the same vicinity, but
in a locality about five miles farther inland.
 These two records extend the northern range of the Short-billed
Marsh Wren, and give it a place among the birds of New Hampshire.
—Henry M. Spelman, Cambridge, Mass.

Early Arrival of the Yellow-rump in Southern Maine.—This

morning—March 21, 1882—I found a solitary Yellow-rumped
Warbler (Dendræca coronata) flitting about in a straggling growth of
spruces, on Cape Elizabeth. His arrival is unprecedentedly early for
this vicinity. The Yellow-rumps usually reach Portland in the last
week of April, sometimes not until after May 1, and up to to-day I
have never seen one before April 21, which was the date of their
appearance in 1879. My little friend of this morning was probably
only an accidental and temporary visitor. Snow still lies from two to
three feet deep in the woods, and much blustering, wintry weather
must be expected, before the earliest Warblers come to us in earnest.
—Nathan Clifford Brown, Portland, Maine.

Late Stay (probable Wintering) of Dendrœca pinus in

Massachusetts.—A few individuals of the Pine-creeping Warbler
remained so late with us the last season, that their courage deserves
a record. I found four of them on December 5, 1881, in company with
Chickadees, in a rocky run thickly set with maples and alders. There
were no pines, but a small bunch of them not far away. I shot one,
according to rule, to make sure of the species. Being desirous of
ascertaining if they proposed to spend the winter in that cheerful
company, on January 1, 1882, I sent a young friend, who is well
posted and a good observer, to the locality, and he reported seeing
two of the Warblers so near at hand, perhaps twenty feet, as to make
the identification positive. I intended to look for them again in
February, but was unable to do so.—F. C. Browne, Framingham,
Mass.

The Hooded Warbler in Western New York.—From various

points in the dense forest, on the balmy days of May, comes the
common and familiar song of the Hooded Warbler,—che-reek, che-
reek, che-reek, chi-dì-eê, the first three notes with a loud bell-like
ring, and the rest in very much accelerated time, and with the falling
inflection. Arriving early in May, this is one of our common summer
residents throughout the dense upland forests, occupying the lower
story of the woodland home, while the Cœrulean Warbler occupies
the upper. Here let me say that in addition to its alarm note, a sharp
whistling or metallic chip which is very clearly characterized, the
Hooded Warbler has two distinct songs, as different as if coming
from different species. Never shall I forget how I was once puzzled by
this trick. I was strolling in a thick forest, near the corner of a
slashing, in an evening twilight in June, when I was surprised by a
strange whistling melody.—whee-reeh, whee-ree-eeh—with a
marked emphasis on the second syllable, and a still more marked
one on the last. Part of the time this utterance was somewhat varied,
a few notes being sometimes added, and again a few being dropped.
My curiosity was greatly excited, for I had supposed myself familiar
with the voices of all the birds in the neighborhood; but it became
too dark to identify the bird. For nearly a week I went to that spot
every day, always hearing the song, but never being able to get a clear
sight of the bird. It seemed exceedingly shy. In vain did I crawl on
hands and knees among the undergrowth to get near to it; for just as
I would seem about to gain a good view of it the song would cease at
the point under observation and come from one more distant. Just as
I was about to give the matter up one evening, down came the singer,
stage by stage through the thick foliage, and alighting within a few
feet of me and in clear sight, gave the full effect of his whistling song.
I have since heard the same song a number of times and in different
places from the Hooded Warbler. So I conclude that in the case of
this species there are, occasionally at least, two distinct and
altogether different songs.
The Hooded Warbler is one of those which make their home on or
near the ground. Here it keeps itself for the most part well concealed
among the foliage of the thick undergrowth, having a rather slow and
dignified movement for a bird of its kind.
It builds its nest from a foot to eighteen inches from the ground,
generally in the upright or somewhat leaning fork of a little bush. I
once found it on a beech limb, lying on the ground, but still retaining
the dry leaves. It is somewhat bulky, but quite neat, the lower part
being of dry or skeleton leaves, the upper part, especially the high
and well-defined rim, of long fibrous bark, as that of the grape vine,
ash, basswood, or elm, laid almost as nicely as coiled cords, the
whole structure being bound together by a webby material, and lined
with fine grasses, bark-fibres, and horse-hair. In location, material,
and structure, it is quite unique, and, like most other birds’ nests, is a
much more certain means of identification than the eggs themselves.
These, two to four in number, varying from .63×.52 to .75×.50, are
clear white, delicately specked and spotted, sometimes even
blotched, with reddish, brown, and lilac. In form and coloration the
eggs are very variable. They may be found fresh from the last week in
May till the middle of June. A second set may be found in July. The
male aids in incubation.
Confined to the eastern part of the United States, and barely
entering the southern part of New England, Western New York, and
Central New York where it is quite common, must be about the
northern limit of this species.—J. H. Langille, Knowlesville,
Orleans Co., N. Y.

Breeding of the Pine Grosbeak (Pinicola enucleator) in Lower

Canada.—Last summer I had the rare good fortune to accompany, as
his guest, the Hon. Judge H. E. Taschereau (Chief Justice Supreme
Court of Canada) on his annual salmon fishing excursion to the
Godbout River, which empties into the St. Lawrence from the north,
about six miles from the Pointe des Monts where the river widens
into the Gulf.
One rainy afternoon about the middle of July, while the Judge was
catching salmon at the famous “Upper Pool” on the Godbout, Mr.
Nap. A. Comeau and I climbed a high and densely wooded hill that
rises from the western border of the pool, and when near the summit
saw a Pine Grosbeak, in the slate and golden plumage, hopping about
amongst the branches of a large Balsam (Abies balsamea). I was
within twenty feet from the bird, but having only a rifle was unable to
secure it. Mr. Comeau, who lives at the mouth of the Godbout, told
me that this species was by no means rare here, and that he regarded
it as a resident. He has since written me that he shot several after I
left, and that “the bird is quite common here both summer and
winter.” Although he has never taken its nest, he says “I have no
doubt they breed here, and I have often seen them in the early part of
the fall while out trapping. They seem to be fond of keeping near
streams and lakes.”
Dr. Coues found the Pine Bullfinch breeding on the Labrador
Coast, and I have no doubt that it breeds all along the north shore of
the Gulf of St. Lawrence, and perhaps extends even as far west as the
Saguenay, along the north shore of the St. Lawrence River. It is
asserted, on high authority, that it breeds in some parts of Northern
New England.—C. Hart Merriam, M.D., Locust Grove, N. Y.

Coturniculus lecontei, C. henslowi, and Cistothorus

stellaris in Florida.—Mr. C. J. Maynard has kindly placed at my
disposal the following notes made during his recent trip to Florida.
In November, 1881, he spent three weeks collecting at Rosewood, a
small settlement on the northern edge of the Gulf Hummock, about
eighteen miles northeast of Cedar Keys. Around the outskirts of this
town were a number of old fields, grown up to rank grass and tall
weeds, but nevertheless perfectly dry. Here he found Leconte’s
Buntings, Henslow’s Buntings, Yellow-winged Sparrows, and Short-
billed Marsh Wrens, associating together in comparative numbers
ranking in the order in which their names are mentioned. The first C.
lecontei was shot November 4. Shortly afterwards they became so
abundant that as many as twenty were sometimes seen in a day, but
notwithstanding their numbers, it was by no means easy to obtain
specimens. The chief difficulty arose from their excessive tameness,
for they could rarely be forced to take wing, while in the long grass it
was impossible to see them at a greater distance than a few yards.
Indeed so very fearless were they that on several occasions Mr.
Maynard nearly caught them in his insect net. All four species were
apparently established for the winter.
The detection of Leconte’s Bunting at Coosada, Alabama, by Mr.
Brown,[56] and more recently in Chester County, South Carolina, by
Mr. Loomis,[57] has prepared us to expect it almost anywhere in the
Southern States, but I believe that this is its first Florida record. The
occurrence of Henslow’s Bunting is also of importance, as confirming
Audubon’s more or less discredited statement that it wintered
numerously in Florida; while that of the Short-billed Marsh Wren is
interesting from the exceptional character of the locality and the
distinguished society in which the little bird was found.—William
Brewster, Cambridge, Mass.

Ammodramus caudacutus.—A somewhat inland Record on

the Atlantic Coast.—On June 21, 1881, in company with my friends
Messrs. Chamberlain and Daniel, of St. John. N. B., I found a few
pairs of Sharp-tailed Finches in the tall grassy marshes bordering the
Kenebecasis River at Hampton, which is about twenty miles to the
north of the above named city and the Bay of Fundy, and about at the
head of tide water. The birds were singing, and undoubtedly
breeding, but a severe hunt for their nests was unsuccessful.
Although a closely allied variety (nelsoni) is known to occur in
certain western States, I think our maritime form has not before
been observed away from the immediate coast on the Atlantic
seaboard. It might however be looked for up our rivers and creeks as
far as or a little above the flow of tide water. See this Bulletin. II pp.
27, 28; III, pp. 48, 98; V, p. 52.—H. A. Purdie, Newton, Mass.

The White-throated Sparrow in Winter near Worcester,

Mass.—I saw White-throated Sparrows (Zonotrichia albicollis) at
different dates during December, 1879. I also saw some on January 1,
1880. I, myself, had not observed it before, though possibly it may
not be uncommon.—J. A. Farley, Worcester, Mass.

Peucæa ruficeps eremœca.—In Gillespie County, Texas, which

adjoins Kendall Co. on the north, where Mr. Nathan C. Brown’s
specimens were taken, I collected on April 24, 1878, a pair of
Sparrows which Mr. J. A. Allen identified as Peucæa ruficeps. From
the fact that Mr. Brown collected no typical ruficeps it is more than
likely that my specimens were var. eremæca.
My specimens were sent to the late Greene Smith, Esq., Peterboro,
New York, and are Nos. 961 and 962 in his Museum.—G. H.
Ragsdale, Gainesville, Texas.
 The Canada Jay at Portland, Maine.—A specimen of the Canada
Jay (Perisoreus canadensis) was killed in Scarborough on October
15, 1880, by Mr. Luther Redlon, of Portland, and delivered into my
hands a few hours after its capture. The specimen is worth noting
from its being the first that I have ever known to occur in the vicinity
of Portland, although its kind is said by Professor Verrill (Proc. Ess.
Inst., Vol. III, p. 151) to winter commonly at Norway, Maine, only
forty miles farther north.—Nathan Clifford Brown, Portland,
Maine.

The White-throated Swift Breeding on Belt River, Montana.

—About the middle of last July, while hunting on Belt River, I
happened to approach the edge of the high limestone cliffs which rise
above the stream for several miles after leaving the mountains.
Watching the Violet-green and Crescent Swallows, which were
abundant, for some time, I was about to leave, when I noticed a Swift
evidently flying directly towards me. It passed only a few yards
overhead, displaying at the same time the extensive white throat-
patch of Cypselus saxatilis. Further search revealed some half a
dozen altogether. A small opening in the rock which a bird of this
species was seen to enter and reappear from several times, I
approached, near enough to hear a vigorous twittering at each visit of
the parent bird, from which I presume the young were well
advanced. This is the only species of Swift I have yet seen in the
Territory.—R. S. Williams, Gold Run, M. T.

Capture of the Golden Eagle (Aquila chrysaëtus canadensis)

near Columbus, O.—December 13, 1881, I received a male specimen
of the Golden Eagle, killed five miles west of the city.
This bird, according to information which I have gathered from
various sources, had caused the farmers in the neighborhood in
which it was killed a great amount of annoyance. A reward was
offered, and published in our city papers, for the capture of a “Bald
Eagle” (as they called it), which had killed several young calves. By
further inquiry I ascertained that the bird was seen eating at two of
the calves, but was not seen in the act of killing them.—Oliver
Davie, Columbus, O.
 The Little Blue Heron in Maine.—During the summer of 1881 a
small white Heron took up his abode in a dense swamp bordering the
eastern side of Scarborough Marsh. He foraged regularly about the
neighboring ponds and rivers, and before autumn had been seen and
unsuccessfully shot at by many covetous gunners. In September,
however, he fell captive to the wiles of Mr. Winslow Pilsbury, and
now reposes in the cabinet of Mr. Chas. H. Chandler, of Cambridge,
Mass. Upon writing Mr. Chandler, to ascertain the species
represented by his specimen, I learned that Mr. Henry A. Purdie[58]
had seen the bird and pronounced it the Little Blue Heron (Florida
cærulea). No previous instance of its occurrence in Maine is on
record.—Nathan Clifford Brown, Portland, Maine.

Baird’s Sandpiper on Long Island, N. Y.—A Correction.—In the

Bulletin for January, 1882, p. 60, it is stated that the record of a
specimen of this species from Long Island is apparently its first from
any point south of New England. A note to the editors from Dr. E. A.
Mearns calls attention to a previous record of the species for Long
Island in an article by Newbold T. Lawrence, entitled “Notes on
Several Rare Birds Taken on Long Island, N. Y.,” published in
“Forest and Stream,” Vol. X, No. 13, p. 235, May 2, 1878, as follows:
—
“Tringa bairdii, Baird’s Sandpiper.—Four specimens taken at
Rockaway. The first two in September, 1872, shot on a small piece of
meadow, out of a flock of Tringa minutilla. The third was taken
August 26, 1873, while snipe shooting on a low strip of sand that
separates the ocean and bay. My attention was first called to it by
hearing a peculiar long-drawn whistle, and soon after I perceived a
small snipe flying very high. The next moment it darted down and
settled among my decoys, where I secured it. The fourth was taken in
the same locality as the first two, September 20, 1874. Three of the
above specimens were males.”—Edd.

Pelidna subarquata on the Maine Coast.—I have to thank Mr.

C. H. Chandler of Cambridge, for allowing me to view a mounted
specimen of the Curlew Sandpiper, which he shot on the beach at
Pine Point, Scarborough, Cumberland Co., on September 15, 1881.
The plumage is immature—probably a bird of the year. It was in
company with Peeps, but its larger size and lighter coloration were
noticed, hence this visit to American shores is registered. The species
is new to the Maine fauna, at least this is the first instance of actual
capture within the limits of that State.[59]—H. A. Purdie, Newton,
Mass.

The King Rail in New England.—It seems that in making up the

New England record of the King Rail (Rallus elegans)[60] I
overlooked a note on this species, published in “Forest and Stream”
of March 11, 1880. In this note Mr. Jno. H. Sage announces the
capture of a female specimen at Portland, Conn., September 19,
1879.—Nathan Clifford Brown, Portland, Maine.

Purple Gallinule (Ionornis martinica) in Rhode Island.—Mr.

Newton Dexter states that some years ago Mr. P. W. Aldrich showed
him a fine Purple Gallinule just received in the flesh from Westerly,
R. I. Mr. Dexter bought, and now has the bird. He is not able to give
the exact year, but thinks it was in 1857.—Fred. T. Jencks,
Providence, R. I.

Note on the Habits of the Young of Gallinula galeata and

Podilymbus podiceps.—Mr. N. R. Wood, who collected quite a
number of young Grebes and Gallinules this summer at Montezuma
Marsh, near Clyde, N. Y., tells me that the little Gallinules use the
thumb to aid them in moving about. The thumb in the young of this
bird is quite long and sharp, and the nestlings, when unable to walk,
hook it into any yielding substance, and drag themselves along. The
young Grebes are more vigorous than the Gallinules, and progress by
little hops.—Frederic A. Lucas, Rochester, N. Y.

Rhynchops nigra.—An early Record for the Massachusetts

Coast.—Champlain,[61] while cruising along the sandy shores of Cape
Cod on a voyage of exploration in July, 1605, makes mention of the
Black Skimmer, as his narration, p. 87, shows.
 “We saw also a sea-bird with a black beak, the upper part slightly
aquiline, four inches long and in the form of a lancet; namely, the
lower part representing the handle and the upper the blade, which is
thin, sharp on both sides, and shorter by a third than the other;
which circumstance is a matter of astonishment to many persons,
who cannot comprehend how it is possible for this bird to eat with
such a beak. It is of the size of a pigeon, the wings being very long in
proportion to the body, the tail short, as also the legs, which are red;
the feet being small and flat. The plumage on the upper part is gray-
brown, and on the under part pure white. They go always in flocks
along the seashore, like the pigeons with us.”
That this species was found on our shores early in this century is
proved by the older natives of the Cape telling me, since the bird’s
recent occurrence, that “them cutwater or shearwater birds used to
be with us summer times.” Also Mr. Brewster informs me that
Nantucket fishermen assert that Skimmers bred on Muskegat Island
fifty years ago.—H. A. Purdie, Newton, Mass.

Notes on the Habits of the Kittiwake Gull.—Some fishermen

whom I lately employed to get a few Kittiwake Gulls on the winter
fishing grounds off Swampscott, Massachusetts, gave me the
following interesting account of the habits of this species, and the
way in which my specimens were procured.
A number of small schooners sail from Swampscott every winter
morning, and reach the fishing banks, which are some twelve miles
off shore, about daybreak. The men then take to their dories, and
buckets of bait—generally cod-livers or other refuse—are thrown out
to attract the fish to the spot. Of this custom the Kittiwakes—or
“Pinny Owls,” as these men invariably call them—are well aware, and
swarms of them quickly collect around the boats to pick up the
morsels before they sink. They are very tame, and if one of the flock
is shot the others hover over it as Terns will do on similar occasions.
The usual way of taking them, however, is with hook and line, the
bait being allowed to float off on the surface, when it is quickly seized
by one of the greedy horde. In this manner great numbers are
annually taken by the fishermen, who either skin and stew them or
use the flesh for bait. I was assured that a “Pinny Owl” stew is by no
means an unpalatable dish.
 After the morning fishing is at an end the vessels start for their
anchorage in Swampscott harbor, and the fish are dressed on the
way. This gives the Gulls another chance which is not neglected, for
the entire flock follows closely in their wake. When the catch has
been a large one, and the work of cleaning the fish is continued at the
anchorage, they remain about the spot for hours picking up this offal
directly under the sides of the vessels. Here again the poor birds are
often mercilessly slaughtered by city gunners who shoot them for
sport or practice, leaving the dead and wounded to float out to sea
with the ebbing tide. The fishermen admit that their numbers have
greatly diminished of late years, but they are said to be still very
abundant through the winter months.—William Brewster,
Cambridge, Mass.

Sterna forsteri breeding off the Eastern Shore of Virginia.

—An impression seems to prevail among ornithologists that Forster’s
Tern breeds only in the interior of North America. At least I cannot
learn that Dr. Coues’ comparatively recent ruling[62] to that effect has
been publicly corrected, or that it is generally known that the bird
nests on the Atlantic Coast.[63] On this account it may be worth while
to state that during a visit to Cobb’s Island, Va., in July, 1880, I
found Forster’s Terns breeding in moderate numbers on all the
neighboring islands. They nested apart from the other Terns, but
often in company with Laughing Gulls, on the salt marshes or on
marshy islets, where their eggs were almost invariably laid on tide-
rows of drift-weed that fringed the muddy shores. The largest colony
seen in any one place comprised perhaps twenty-five pairs, but it was
more usual to find from six to a dozen mingled with a countless
number of Gulls. I was late for the eggs, but secured a few far
advanced in incubation, besides several downy young and many
adult birds in full nuptial dress.—William Brewster, Cambridge,
Mass.

Note on the Foot of Accipiter fuscus.—On the plantar surfaces

of each foot of the Sharp-shinned Hawk two papillae may be noticed,
which differ from the others, more properly described as pads, in
their greater length and more symmetrical form. These pads are
placed at the second phalangeal joint of the third toe, and at the third
phalangeal joint of the fourth toe, that is, at the bases of the
penultimate phalanges of the third and fourth toes. These papillae
are shown to be modified pads, the same as those at the other two
joints, by the less developed papillae of Circus, Astur, and others.
This transition can readily be traced in the sketches of the feet given
in the systematic works on Hawks, though the special prominence of
the papillae in the Sharp-shinned Hawk does not seem to be
particularly noted. On removing the skin, however, a marked
difference at once comes in view. While all the pads are nearly
obliterated, the papillae still remain as solid cones of connective
tissue (?), having much the same shape and sizes as the entire
papillae. These cones or cores are internally connected with the
superficial fascia of the toes and seem to straddle the flexor tendons
running below.
On noting the structural difference, the cause or function of these
papillae at once becomes a point of interest. Why have these two
pads been modified into long papillae (.12 inch in a dried specimen),
and provided with a solid core? Now the foot of Accipiter is so
constructed that the first toe opposes the second toe, and their claws
move in nearly parallel arcs. This is not the case with the third and
fourth toes, which are longer and not opposable to one another. Thus
the claws can be opposed to nothing except the middle portions of
the toes to which they belong. But when the claw is thus flexed a
small space well adapted for grasping twigs and feathers is formed by
the papillae, the penultimate phalanx and the claw, the point
projecting beyond resembling the feet of certain crustacea and lice.
Hence the function of the papillae would seem to be to aid the third
and fourth claws in grasping small objects, and it is an interesting
point to notice that the foot of Accipiter fuscus is thus drawn in
North American Birds, by Baird, Brewer and Ridgway.
How far the same considerations hold in other species I cannot
say, but as mentioned above, allied forms seem to possess the
character to a less degree.—J. Amory Jeffries, Boston, Mass.

Supplementary Notes on two Texas Birds.—In a recent paper[64]

on a collection of birds made in southwestern Texas, I referred a
series of Hylocichla unalascæ to the restricted form, with the remark
that several specimens closely approached var. auduboni. Upon
reading the article, an esteemed correspondent wrote me that one of
these aberrant examples, which had passed into his hands, appeared
to him to be true auduboni. In this opinion, after a reëxamination of
the specimen, I concur. The bird in question has a wing of 3.82
inches, which, though decidedly under the average of auduboni, is
more than should be allowed unalascæ proper.[65] Here, then, is
another species, besides those previously cited, which is represented
by two distinct varieties in the tract of country explored.
The single specimen of Coturniculus passerinus taken in the same
locality represents the western variety perpallidus, under which, by
an oversight, it was not included.—Nathan Clifford Brown,
Portland, Me.

Addenda to the Preliminary List of Birds ascertained to

occur in the Adirondack Region, Northeastern New York.[66]—
178. Dendrœca striata (Forst.) Baird. Black-poll Warbler.—
In the collection of the late A. Jenings Dayan (of Lyons Falls, N. Y.) is
a female of this species that he killed in the town of Lyonsdale in
Lewis Co., May 23, 1877.
179. Dendrœca pinus (Wilson) Baird. Pine-creeping Warbler.
—Mr. Dayan took a full-plumaged male D. pinus at Lyonsdale, Lewis
Co., May 8, 1877. I have never observed the species within the limits
of the Adirondack Region, and it must be regarded as a rare bird
here.
180. Asio accipitrinus (Pallas) Newton. Short-eared Owl.—I
have seen two specimens of the Short-eared Owl that were taken
within the limits of the Adirondack Region, in Lewis County. They
were both killed east of the Black River Valley—one in the town of
Greig, and the other in Lyonsdale.
181. Nyctiardea grisea nævia (Bodd.) Allen. Night Heron.—I
have seen a Night Heron that was shot at Crown Point (in Essex Co.)
on Lake Champlain. There were two of them together, and both were
killed.
182. Calidris arenaria (Linn.) Illig. Sanderling.—On the 5th of
October, 1881 Mr. O. B. Lockhart killed, from a flock, four
Sanderlings at Lake George, in Warren Co. (Dr. A. K. Fisher.)
 183. Chen hyperboreus (Pallas) Boie. Snow Goose.—Dr. A. K.
Fisher writes me that he saw a flock of one hundred and fifty or two
hundred Snow Geese on Lake George (in Warren County) Nov. 19,
1881. In company with Mr. O. B. Lockhart he rowed out to within a
hundred yards of them, when they were frightened by another boat
and took flight, showing plainly the black tips of their primaries as
they left.
184. Phalacrocorax dilophus (Sw. and Rich.) Nuttall. Double-
crested Cormorant.—Mr. F. H. Knowlton, from Brandon, Vermont,
writes me: “I shot, on September 24, 1879, at St. Regis’ Lake
[Franklin County], two miles from Paul Smith’s, a young female
example of Graculus dilophus. The bird was not wild and was easily
shot from the shore.”
185. Dytes auritus (Linn.) Ridgway. Horned Grebe.—On Little
Tuppers Lake (Hamilton Co.), Oct. 22, 1881. Dr. A. K. Fisher and I
saw about eight Horned Grebes and I killed one of them. While
crossing Raquette Lake, the same day, Dr. Fisher shot another. At
Big Moose Lake (in Hamilton and Herkimer Counties) we saw this
species every day from Oct. 26 to Nov. 8, 1881. Nov. 5 I shot one out
of a flock of nine. They were all in the plain fall dress, so that the size
alone enabled us to distinguish young from old. In all the iris was of
a bright orange red. They are excellent divers and can remain under
water an astonishingly long period.—C. Hart Merriam, M.D.,
Locust Grove, N. Y.

Errata.

In Vol. VII, page 26, line 6, for “An indistinct, dusky” read “A
black.” Same page, foot note, for “οὐκέω” read “οἰκέω.”
Bull. Nutt. Ornith. Club., Vol. VII., No.
3. Plate 7.

Jeffries & Blake, del. The Heliotype

Printing Co. 211 Tremont St. Boston
 BULLETIN
OF THE
NUTTALL ORNITHOLOGICAL CLUB.
VOL. VII. July, 1882. No. 3.
 THE COLORS OF FEATHERS.
BY J. AMORY JEFFRIES.

Feathers have been studied from the earliest days of the

microscope, indeed long before the modern microscope came into
existence. Malpighei, Hooke and Leeuwenhoek all wrote on the
subject, and not a little of our knowledge dates from their time. Since
then authors have constantly written on feathers and their colors,
until the papers on the subject may be counted by hundreds.
Accordingly little that is new can be expected from this short article,
nor even a history of the literature of the subject. My only object is to
give an idea, so far as is known, how the colors of feathers are
produced, the literature of the subject being out of the track of most
American ornithologists.
Color may be the result of any one or more of the following causes:
a pigment, interference and diffraction of light in their various
phases, fluorescence, and phosphorescence. Of these causes only
three have been called upon to explain the colors of feathers, the last
two apparently playing no part. The fluorescence noted by Dr.
Krukenberg in solutions of certain feather-pigments probably plays
no part, or at most an insignificant one, in the colors of feathers.
Pigments act by absorbing all rays of light but those which enter into
their color, that is turn them into heat.
Interference acts in several different ways, all of which are based
on the same principle, and so films may be taken as an example. If a
beam of light, xy (figure 1), is allowed to fall on any thin plate, or
film, part of the rays will be reflected in the direction yz, the angles
byx and ayz being equal. The rest of the rays will pass through the
film to the other surface, being slightly refracted in their course.
Here part will be reflected, and being again refracted at the first
surface, will emerge in a line wz′ nearly coincident with yz, the
balance passing out into the air. Now the waves composing the white
light of two beams yz and wz′ will run together and partially
obliterate each other, after the manner of ripples on water.
Accordingly certain waves will be obliterated, and since white light is
due to the blending of waves of the different colors, the light reflected
from the film will be that of the colors not interfered with, the waves
thus obliterated depending upon their length and the thickness of the
film traversed. So as we look at the film from different points the
conditions vary, and with them the resultant color.
Interference may also produce colored light by means of fine
particles diffused through another substance, as milk in water, the
particles in the air, and the like. Colored light produced in this way is
known as opalescent, the transmitted light tending to the red end of
the spectrum, and the reflected to the other portions. This result can
be obtained by mixing black and white grains, an experiment which
all have tried as school boys, by soaking chalk in ink, the result being
a bluish color.
Diffraction acts apparently by bending the light rays different
amounts, and thus spreading out the spectrum. Explanations of the
various phenomena of this sort are difficult, and need not be entered
into here.
Feathers are classed, according to their appearance, into ordinary,
metallic and iridescent, the peculiarities of which are well known and
so need not delay us.
The ordinary feathers are colored by simple pigments, by contrast
of light and darkness and mechanically, as in the case of the Bluebird
(Sialia sialis). Pigments of various colors are known to occur in
feathers, and have received special names, as turacin, zoönerythrin,
zoöfulvin, zoöxanthin, zoöchlorin, zoömelanin. These evenly
distributed, as turacin, zoönerythrin, and zoöfulvin, or in patches, as
zoömelanin, impart their respective colors to the feather parts in
which they exist.[67] The color of the mass of the feather may,
however, owing to various colors in the small feather parts, be
different from that of any part.
Of these pigments none seem to be peculiar except turacin. This
pigment is altered by wetting the feathers, and comes from the
feathers into the water in which the birds bathe, a fact of
considerable interest, since the birds maintain their normal color,
thus necessitating a new supply of pigment.
White feathers are the result of the light being reflected as a whole
from the finely divided feather parts. Some grays are the result of
small black nodes in the barbules, which nodes are of considerable
size, and do not disperse the light, being distributed along the
barbules. Other grays are the result of a small quantity of black
pigment.
Yellow feathers colored with zoöfulvin receive their hue from this
pigment, which is pretty evenly distributed through the texture like a
dye.
Red feathers, as those of the Flamingo, Cardinal Bird, and the like,
are so colored by a red pigment similar to the yellow one. Brown
feathers are colored by a brown pigment in the feathers, which is for
the most part collected in patches within the cells of the feather.
Violet pigments are said by some to exist, while others have never
been able to extract them, so the causes of this color still remain in
doubt.
Green feathers owe their color to various causes. In some it is due
to a green pigment, as Turacoverdin or zoöchlorin, in others it is said
to be due to a mixture of yellow and blue dots. The olive-greens are
sometimes produced by a yellow pigment overlying a dark brown or
black.
All the above pigments seem to be blended and used in gaudily
colored birds much after the manner of paints by artists. So that a
great variety of colors may be produced from a few pigments by the
skilful hand of nature.
Metallic feathers, properly speaking, are those which partake of
the characters shown by the red crests of the Woodpeckers. The
metallic appearance is limited to the barbs, the barbules not showing
this peculiarity, and being quickly shed. If a feather from the crest of
a Woodpecker, say Picus pubescens, be examined, it will at once be
noticed that the red barbs have few if any barbules, and that the
barbs themselves are enlarged. Such barbules as are present, are not
red but black, and only serve to diminish the effects of the red parts.
They would seem accordingly to be properly classed among useless
hereditary organs. That the red color is due to a pigment is proved by
dissolving it out and by its persistence when examined by
transmitted light. But what causes the brilliancy which has led to
their being called metallic? This is due to the extreme smoothness of
the barbs, the horn-cells of which they are composed being fused
together and solid. Thus the unabsorbed rays of the beam of light
which strikes them are reflected as a whole, instead of being sent in
every direction by the walls of the cells as in most cases. The metallic
feathers differ from ordinary feathers in the same way that window
or glass paintings differ from ordinary pictures. They simply give off
much more light, and thus produce more marked effects on our eyes.
The colors of metallic feathers seem to be limited to the red end of
the spectrum, the colors varying from yellow or orange to red; blue,
green or purple feathers constructed on this principle do not seem to
abound.
So far we have only had to deal with pigments, and all has been
plain sailing, but the various accidental colors shown by feathers are
far more difficult of explanation. Not only are the parts extremely
small, but the entire subject of accidental colors as regards organic
structures has been in large part dealt with from a theoretical point
of view. The question has not been how is the feather part made, but
what kinds of structures will produce such color effects. Accordingly
divers opinions have been expressed on the subject, the most
probable of these we shall now endeavor to sketch out.
Blue colors seem to be accidental, that is, the result of other causes
than pigments. Not only have all efforts to extract the pigments
failed, but blue feathers appear gray when examined by transmitted
light. Again, no blue can be found in transverse sections of blue
feather parts. This method of studying the colors of feathers is
worthy of more extended use than it has yet had. By this means all
physical effects of the outer coat are avoided, and the exact position
of the pigments can be seen. Sections are quickly prepared by
fastening the feather on to a piece of pith with collodion, and
mounting sections pith and all. The pith keeps the sections on end, a
result otherwise difficult to obtain.
Gray-blues, such as those seen in Dendrœca cœrulescens, are due
to opalescence. The feather is full of fine granules of black or darkish
pigment, which in a manner already described produces a blue color.
 Brilliant blues, as those shown by Sialia sialis, Cyanospiza
cyanea, Cœreba lucida, and the like, do not seem to be susceptible of
a like explanation. The color is too intense and pure to be produced
in such a small space by opalescence. So most authors have simply
ascribed it to some other form of interference, as a thin outer plate,
which would seem on examination to be the true cause. Figure 2,
drawn from a section of a Bluebird’s barb enlarged about one
thousand diameters, will give an idea of the structure found in such
cases. The central cells are full of some dark pigment, probably
zoömelanin, while the surface is bounded by a transparent layer of
horn varying from ¹⁄₃₀₀₀₀ to ¹⁄₁₀₀₀₀ of an inch in thickness. Thus we
have a contrivance not ill adapted to the production of interference
colors, the black pigment absorbing all rays which are not reflected
by the horn coat on the outside. Yet there are decided difficulties in
this view. Thin as it is, the outer horn coat is thick compared to the
length of light waves, and again the blue color is constant. However,
in spite of these objections, the color must be ascribed to the action
of the outer coat of cells. The structure of other bright blue feathers is
much the same, though differences in minutiae exist. Thus the outer
layer of cells, the external walls of which form the outer coat of the
barb, are devoid of pigment in the Blue Jay. (Fig. 3.)
Here it is of interest to note that the barbs of the brown female
Indigo bird differ but slightly from the bright blue barbs of the male.
In the female the pigment is more diffuse, and the outer horny coat is
thicker and less dense and lustrous.
The above feathers with their smooth outer coat are connected
with true iridescent feathers by an intermediate group. I refer to the
highly-colored blue and green feathers of such birds as
Chlorophanes atrocristatus (Fig. 2) and Cœreba lucida. In these the
ends of the barbs are enlarged and the barbules reduced to a
minimum, after the manner of the Woodpeckers; unlike them,
however, the surface is rough, each cell being rounded out. When
examined under a microscope such barbs appear as if covered with a
mosaic of gems. Sections show, whatever may be the shape of the
barb, that the walls of the iridescent parts are extremely thin, so thin
that exact measurements cannot be made with the instruments at my
disposal. The thickness got when reduced to fractions of an inch, is
approximately ¹⁄₁₀₀₀₀₀₀ of an inch, a film sufficiently thin for all
purposes of interference. Many of these feathers when magnified
show that the color is not uniform, but that all the colors contribute
their quota to the final color. The figure of a section of a barb of
Chlorophanes atrocristatus will give some idea of such a feather. In
this case the final color seems to be the result of mixing the light
reflected from the dark end with that from the yellow triangular part.
We now naturally come to the true iridescent feathers, of which
the Peacock may be taken as an example. The iridescent barbules are
made up of flat, wonderfully thin cells, arranged end to end, as
shown in figure 5. When examined with transmitted light, they are
seen to be films full of a brownish pigment more or less evenly
dispersed through the mass. When cut in sections and looked at on
edge they resemble, even under quite high powers, the edge of a
piece of paper. Here we have the most admirable contrivance for the
production of iridescent light, the plates being fully thin enough, and
all white light which may get through the walls being taken up by the
brown pigment within. All the parts of the eye are constructed on the
same plan, and only provided with brownish pigments, hence the
color must be due to variations in the thickness. Here it is well to
notice that the colors are quite constant.
The brilliant colors of these feathers have often been ascribed to
irregularities of surface, the traces of the cell cavities being mistaken
for pits on the surface. That this is an error is at once shown by
examining a section.
Before leaving the subject I cannot refrain from calling attention to
the wonderful diversity of means employed, as well as their
complexity in the production of feather colors. Among the Parrots we
have the most skilful painting combined with accidental colors. Yet
all ornithologists base specific differences on slight variations of
color, and this in spite of the fact that birds may change their color
according as they are wet or dry, owing to the nature of their food, or
to slight differences in the quantity of pigment.
In this they are no doubt often right, but when we come to
varieties based on the very faintest distinctions of color and form, we
may well pause till more is known of avian physiology.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE I.
 Fig. 1. Diagramatic representation of the effect of a film on light.
Fig. 2. Transverse section of a barb of Chlorophanes atrocristatus; Hartnack 3–
9 im. the light part yellow, the dark part dark brown.
Fig. 3. Transverse section of a barb of Cyanocitta cristata. Hart. 3–9 im.
Fig. 4. Same of Cyanospiza cyanea ♂.
Fig. 5. Two sections of a barbule of a Peacock.
Fig. 6. Section of barb of Sialia sialis much magnified.