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Third Edition
Elements of
Advanced
Mathematics
Elements of
Advanced
Mathematics
Steven G. Krantz
Washington University
St. Louis, Missouri, USA
This book contains information obtained from authentic and highly regarded sources. Reasonable
efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot
assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and
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and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been obtained. If any
copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any
future reprint.
Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced,
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Trademark Notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are
used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe.
Visit the Taylor & Francis Web site at
http://www.taylorandfrancis.com
and the CRC Press Web site at
http://www.crcpress.com
To the memory of R. P. Boas, 1912–1992.
For his commitment to mathematics, and for the clarity of his vision.
v
Table of Contents
1 Basic Logic 1
1.1 Principles of Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Truth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 “And” and “Or” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 “Not” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.5 “If - Then” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.6 Contrapositive, Converse, and “Iff” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.7 Quantifiers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.8 Truth and Provability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2 Methods of Proof 29
2.1 What is a Proof? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.2 Direct Proof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.3 Proof by Contradiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
2.4 Proof by Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
2.5 Other Methods of Proof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.5.1 Proof by Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.5.2 Proof by Contrapositive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2.5.3 Counting Arguments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3 Set Theory 57
3.1 Undefinable Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.2 Elements of Set Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.3 Venn Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.4 Further Ideas in Elementary Set Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.5 Indexing and Extended Set Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
vii
viii Table of Contents
Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Bibliography 341
Index 345
Preface to the Third Edition
On the whole, we have retained the content and character of the first two editions. But
we have added material on point-set topology (Chapter 8), on theoretical computer
science (Chapter 9), on the P/NP problem (Chapter 10), and on zero-knowledge proofs
and RSA encryption (Chapter 12). The topology chapter, of course, builds on the
existing material on real analysis. The computer science chapters show connections of
basic set theory and logic with current hot topics in the technology sector. The material
on cryptography is exciting, timely, and fun. These new chapters help to make the book
more current and significant. It should of course be understood that these four chapters
may be considered to be optional. Skipping them will in no way detract from reading
the rest of the book.
Some readers consider Chapter 5 on axiomatics and rigorous logic to be optional.
To be sure, it is a more demanding chapter than some of the others. But it contains
important material, some of which is at least alluded to later in the book. Readers who
do not want to spend much time on Chapter 5 might wish to at least have a look at it.
The main message here is that Chapters 5, 8, 9, 10, and 12 provide an open-ended
venue for students to explore and to learn. My experience with teaching this course
is that the aggregate material causes many of the students to get really turned on to
mathematics. They need to have a means for further exploration and reading. These
chapters give them that opportunity, and exercises to back up the reading.
The new Chapter 12 is dessert. It presents the very new ideas of zero-knowledge
proofs and RSA encryption. A lovely application of elementary groups theory (which
is introduced in Chapter 11) and logic, these ideas are at the cutting edge of modern
cryptography and security analysis. If students want to see what mathematics is good
for, this is grist for their mill.
We have also beefed up the exercise sets in all the chapters. We have expanded
the treatment of proofs, and added some new proof techniques. Of course errors and
omissions in the existing chapters have been handled, and the text as a whole has been
polished and improved.
We are happy for the positive reception that this book has received, and look for-
ward to further interactions with the readers.
xi
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Preface to the Second Edition
Prologue
The audience for a “transitions course” for mathematics students continues to grow.
The gap between the rote, calculational learning mode of calculus and ordinary dif-
ferential equations and the more theoretical learning mode of analysis and abstract
algebra is ever more distinct. A pathway is needed to help students to understand rigor,
axiomatics, set theory, and proofs. Especially because the modern high school cur-
riculum is ever more lacking in these traditional mathematical artifacts, the need for a
transitions book is increasingly pronounced.
The present book has been well received and widely used. It is a pleasure to have
this opportunity to update the book, to add new material, and to correct some errors.
We have augmented the references and the exercises, and we have expanded the scope
of some sections.
A new chapter that explores deeper properties of the real numbers. This includes
topological issues and the construction of the Cantor set.
A more thorough treatment of the Axiom of Choice and its equivalents. This
includes a discussion of the Banach–Tarski paradox.
xiii
xiv PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION
— Steven G. Krantz
St. Louis, Missouri
Preface to the First Edition
Overview
The character of lower division mathematics courses in universities in the United States
is, and should be, different from that of upper division mathematics courses. Oversim-
plifying a bit, we might say that lower division courses concentrate on technique while
upper division courses treat theory.
In order to achieve any depth, an upper division mathematics course must use a pre-
cise language and methodology. The standard mathematical language includes logic,
set theory, the use of functions, equivalence relations, rigorous proofs, axiomatic struc-
tures, and so forth. We frequently find ourselves, when teaching an upper division
mathematics course, giving a whirlwind treatment of these basic ideas during the first
week or two of the class; we also find ourselves playing catch-up during the remainder
of the term.
Such a practice results in needless repetition of these common tools. It seems
logical, and practical, to give the student a considered exposure to these ideas once and
for all, before upper division work is commenced. That is the purpose of the present
book.
Audience
Let me stress that this is not, in the strict sense, a book of logic; nor is it a book
of set theory. Logicians may disapprove of my dismissal of certain subtleties. For
instance, I shall not compare the merits of various versions of set theory, nor shall
I discuss attempts (such as Martin’s axiom) to work around the independence of the
continuum hypothesis. Rather, my purpose is to give the student, typically a second
semester sophomore or first semester junior, a quick introduction to one version of the
foundations of mathematics. In short, this is not a book for mathematicians; it is a book
for students.
The student who has spent a semester studying this book should, in principle, be
properly prepared for a course in real analysis or elementary Riemannian geometry or
abstract algebra. Of course there is no substitute for mathematical sophistication and
hard work. This book merely provides the student with the tools of the trade.
Prerequisites for this book are minimal. Formally, the only prerequisite is an abil-
ity to read English. But, truth be told, a certain amount of exposure to mathematics
xv
xvi Preface to the First Edition
Acknowledgments
I am grateful to Harold P. Boas for reading an early draft of the manuscript of the book
and contributing numerous remarks and suggestions. Joseph A. Cima, C. David Minda,
and Harold R. Parks served as reviewers of the manuscript for CRC Press. I am happy
to thank them for their ideas and contributions.
I developed this material while teaching a course on the subject of mathematical
foundations at Washington University in St. Louis. I thank the university and the math-
ematics department for giving me this opportunity.
— Steven G. Krantz
St. Louis, Missouri
Chapter 1
Basic Logic
1
2 CHAPTER 1. BASIC LOGIC
1.2 Truth
In everyday conversation, people sometimes argue about whether a state-
ment is true or not. In mathematics there is nothing to argue about. In
practice a sensible statement in mathematics is either true or false, and
there is no room for opinion about this attribute. How do we determine
which statements are true and which are false?
The modern methodology in mathematics works as follows:
We define certain terms.
We assume that these terms have certain properties or truth at-
tributes (these assumptions are called axioms).
We specify certain rules of logic.
Any statement that can be derived from the axioms, using the rules
of logic, is understood to be true (we call such a derivation a proof). It
is not necessarily the case that every true statement can be derived in
this fashion. However, in practice this is our method for verifying that a
statement is true. See Section 1.8 for a more detailed discussion of truth
versus provability.
On the other hand, a statement is false if it is inconsistent with the
axioms and the rules of logic. That is to say, a statement is false if
the assumption that it is true leads to a contradiction. Alternatively, a
statement P is false if the negation of P can be established or proved.
1.3. “AND” AND “OR” 3
“A and B”
means both that Arvid is old and Arvid is fat. If we meet Arvid and he
turns out to be young and fat, then the statement is false. If he is old
and thin then the statement is false. Finally, if Arvid is both young and
thin then the statement is false. The statement is true precisely when
both properties—oldness and fatness—hold. We may summarize these
assertions with a truth table. We let
A = Arvid is old.
and
B = Arvid is fat.
The expression
A^B
will denote the phrase “A and B”. We call this statement the conjunc-
tion of A and B. The letters “T” and “F” denote “True” and “False,”
respectively. Then we have
A B A^B
T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F
Notice that we have listed all possible truth values of A and B and the
corresponding values of the conjunction A^B.
In a restaurant, the menu often contains phrases such as
soup or salad
This means that we may select soup or select salad, but we may not
select both. This use of “or” is called the exclusive “or”; it is not the
meaning of “or” that we use in mathematics and logic. In mathematics
we instead say that “A or B” is true provided that A is true or B is
true or both are true. This is the inclusive “or.” If we let A_B denote “A
or B” then the truth table is
A B A_B
T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F
1.3. “AND” AND “OR” 5
1.4 “Not”
The statement “not A,” written A; is true whenever A is false. For
example, the statement
A A
T F
F T
EXAMPLE 1.4.1 Here is the truth table for A^B :
1.5. “IF - THEN” 7
A B A^B A^B
T T T F
T F F T
F T F T
F F F T
A B A B .A/_.B/
T T F F F
T F F T T
F T T F T
F F T T T
Notice that the statements .A^B/ and .A/_.B/ have the same
truth table. As previously noted, such pairs of statements are called
logically equivalent.
The logical equivalence of .A^B/ with .A/_.B/ makes good
intuitive sense: the statement A^B fails precisely when either A is false
or B is false. Since in mathematics we cannot rely on our intuition to
establish facts, it is important to have the truth table technique for es-
tablishing logical equivalence. The exercise set will give you further
practice with this notion.
One of the main reasons that we use the inclusive definition of “or”
rather than the exclusive one is so that the connectives “and” and “or”
have the nice relationship just discussed. It is also the case that A_B
and .A/^.B/ are logically equivalent. These logical equivalences
are sometimes referred to as de Morgan’s laws.
A B A)B
T T T
T F F
F T T
F F T
A)B
is false. For A)B asserts that “whenever A is true then B is true,” and
A is not true!
Put in other words, when A is false, then the statement A)B is
not tested. It therefore cannot be false. So it must be true.
[Notice that the “if” part of the sentence and the “then” part of the sen-
tence need not be related in any intuitive sense. The truth or falsity of
an “if - then” statement is simply a fact about the logical values of its
hypothesis and of its conclusion.]
A B A .A/_B
T T F T
T F F F
F T T T
F F T T
You should think for a bit to see that .A/_B says the same thing as
A)B. To wit, assume that the statement .A/_B is true. Now suppose
that A is true. Then the first half of the disjunction is false; so the second
half must be true. In other words, B must be true. But that says that
A)B. For the converse, assume that A)B is true. This means that if
A holds, then B must follow. But this may be rephrased as saying that
if the first half of the disjunction .A/_B is false, then the second half
is true. That merely affirms the disjunction. So the two statements are
equivalent, i.e., they say the same thing.
Once you believe that assertion, then the truth table for .A/_B gives
us another way to understand the truth table for A)B.
There are in fact infinitely many pairs of logically equivalent state-
ments. But just a few of these equivalences are really important in
practice—most others are built up from these few basic ones. Some
of the other basic pairs of logically equivalent statements are explored in
the exercises.
EXAMPLE 1.5.3 The statement
If x is negative, then 5x is positive.
is true. For if x < 0, then 5 x is indeed > 0I if x 0, then the
statement is unchallenged.
EXAMPLE 1.5.4 The statement
If .x>0 and x2 <0/, then x10:
is true since the hypothesis “.x > 0 and x 2 < 0/” is never true.
EXAMPLE 1.5.5 The statement
If x>0, then .x2<0 or 2x<0/.
is false since the conclusion “.x 2 < 0 or 2x < 0/” is false whenever
the hypothesis x > 0 is true.
EXAMPLE 1.5.6 Let us construct a truth table for the statement
.A_.B//)..A/^B/.