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Introducing English Syntax
Typeset in Goudy
by Swales & Willis Ltd, Exeter, Devon, UK
Introduction 1
0.1 Who this book is for 1
0.2 What this book does 1
0.3 What is syntax? 3
0.4 The role of meaning 4
0.5 The connection to language teaching and training 5
Bibliography 261
Index 262
Symbols and abbreviations
Symbols
[ ] square brackets are used to indicate a subordinate clause at
sentence level.
/ / slants are used to show subordinate clauses inside phrases (i.e. at
phrase level).
Ø indicates omission of a certain element.
indicates that the particular unit could be analysed further.
arrows indicate a general connection between two items (as
discussed in the accompanying text).
a kinked left-pointing arrow indicates the relation of a clause inside
a phrase to the head of the phrase.
» indicates a relation of presupposition between two elements.
→ indicates an implicative relation between two elements.
→ indicates the negation or destruction of a former implicative relation.
Sentence function
S Subject
P Predicator
Oi Indirect object
Od Direct object
A Adverbial
Cs Subject complement
Co Object complement
Symbols and abbreviations ix
Other abbreviations
ELT English Language Teaching
EFL English as a Foreign Language
ESL English as a Second Language
Reference abbreviations
LGSWE Biber, D. et al. (1999). The Longman Grammar of Spoken and
Written English. Harlow: Longman.
Fenn, P. (2010). A Student Advanced Grammar of English.
SAGE
Tübingen: Narr Francke Attempto.
Introduction
Picking out examples of ‘grammar’ here we can say, for instance, that the verb
enjoy has the third person singular ending, the verb watch is in the gerund, and
the noun films is in the plural. What we have now described is the morphology
of those words, i.e. the particular grammatical form in which they appear in this
sentence. Morphology, then, is what we might call word grammar. But the sen-
tence does not consist of just isolated words, of course. In every sentence there
is a grammatical relationship between the different words. This second level of
4 Introduction
grammar (‘beyond the word’) is what we call syntax. When we say, for example,
that Amy is the subject of the sentence, watching sad films is the direct object
of enjoys and sad films is the direct object of watching, then we are referring to
the grammatical level of syntax. Other syntactic points we might observe could
concern word order: this type of sentence conveys a statement (in contrast, for
instance, to a question) and therefore has to have declarative word order, with
the subject Amy in front of its verb enjoys. Another point is that here the adjec-
tive sad has to precede the noun that it describes. And so on.
What must also be taken into account is the connection between syntax and
morphology: the grammatical form of a word often depends on its relationship
to other words. The reason for the third person singular -s-ending on the verb
enjoy, for example, is that it has to agree grammatically with its subject Amy, a
noun that also has the morpho-semantic characteristic of third person singular.
Or take the gerund form of watching. This is triggered by the verb enjoy in front
of it. With some other verb, e.g. want, we would need an infinitive, i.e. a differ-
ent morphological form of watch:
The syntax of a sentence, then, can affect the morphology of the individual
words. On the other hand, the morphology of the words often tells us some-
thing about their actual or possible syntactic relationships to other words in the
same sentence. When we look at enjoys, say, we know that it has to have a third
person singular noun as subject before it. A clause with a gerund verb, like watch-
ing sad films, is a typical direct object. Other possible positions would be as subject
(Watching sad films is Amy´s favourite hobby), or following a preposition (Amy is
always for watching sad films). The morphology of a word can therefore indicate its
syntactic role and position in a given or possible sentence.
So, although they deal with different areas of grammar, syntax and morphology
are really two sides of the same coin and have a two-way relationship:
(3) Grammar
Syntax Morphology
(4) Grammar
Syntax Morphology
Meaning (Semantics)
Note that here too we have a two-way relationship. The grammar conveys the
meaning, but the intended meaning also determines the grammar.
Though this book is specifically about syntax, we will often refer to its close
relation to morphology and semantics.
1.0 Structure
The term structure is used in this book to cover the following:
All this concerns grammatical characteristics of words and groups of words that
are permanent and individual, and do not depend on particular sentences. What
contrasts with structure is the idea of function (subject, object, etc.), which, as
we will see later, is a sentence-dependent concept. For the moment we will stay
with structure. Function is discussed in the next chapter. The aspect of structure
that we want to look at more closely now is the word-class, which needs some
detailed explanation.
To say more, we might follow this with another noun and extend this further
with an adverb:
But the options are restricted. The second noun cannot swap positions with the
verb (*Jenny tea drinks regularly)1 and an adjective could not replace the adverb
(*Jenny drinks tea regular). On the other hand, there is nothing to be said against
putting adjectives before the nouns:
This is not just about position. Some word-classes are more closely associated
than others. Adjectives, we can see here, relate typically to nouns, whereas
adverbs relate to verbs and verb sequences. Further examples of close neighbours
are articles and nouns, and prepositions and nouns. Conjunctions, on the other
hand, combine the larger parts of sentences that we call phrases and clauses
(see 1.4 below for a detailed discussion of these terms).
So we can see that word-classes tell us a great deal about what goes where in
a sentence.
Finally, semantics also plays a large role in the character of word-classes.
Traditionally, in fact, it is meaning, rather than syntax or morphology, that is
used to define word-classes, especially in the teaching of children. This is not sur-
prising, as meaning is more easily understood by young learners than grammar. In
this approach, nouns, e.g. are said to refer to things and people, verbs are labelled
‘doing words’, signifying actions, and adjectives are thought of as ‘describing
nouns’. Linguists have often criticised descriptions of this kind as vague and unre-
liable. And it is true that they can easily be contradicted. For instance, abstract
nouns (such as love and hate) do not really mean ‘things’. Words like action and
8 Basic elements of grammatical structure
movement refer, obviously, to ‘actions’, yet they are not verbs. On the other hand,
verbs are not just ‘doing words’: they can mean states (Vanessa strongly resembles
her sister) or experiences (Alan caught a cold).
Nevertheless, there is a lot of truth in semantic characterisation. It is not
enough for a full definition, but gives us a good indication of typical cases or
prototypes. Not all nouns refer to ‘things’ or people, certainly. But the reverse is
usually true, i.e. that almost all words referring to things or people do belong to
the class of nouns. Similarly, the typical meaning of a verb is that it refers to an
event or state, even though a few nouns do the same thing. Furthermore, verbs
always link other elements in the sentence together as participants in the event
or state. This is not only a grammatical relationship, but a semantic one. For
instance, in
the verb tells us that John and Mary became involved with each other, and
moreover in a certain general way: John caused what happened and he caused it
to happen to Mary. This is what we call in semantics an agent–patient relation-
ship. It is not exclusive to verbs, nor is it always present when verbs are used,
but it is prototypically part of verb meaning in sentences that have the pattern
Noun + Verb + Noun. This shows generally that when we use grammar, we also
think meaning. In the more detailed discussion of the individual word-classes
further below, we will therefore examine matters from both grammatical and
semantic perspectives. The next section, meanwhile, introduces the important
concept of phrase, an analytical category closely allied to word-class.
Young and Jenny on the one hand, and green and tea on the other, belong
together. The verb drinks and the adverb regularly are just single words. But we
could expand these too (grammatically speaking, that is) into groups, e.g. has
drunk and quite regularly:
(7) (Green tea) (has been drunk) (quite regularly) (by (young Jenny)).
Though there are certain exceptions to this rule, phrases in principle remain
together and act as a group. This applies particularly to sentence functions
(discussed in detail in Chapter 2), which relate to phrases as a whole: for instance,
the subject of (6) is Young Jenny and the direct object green tea, which becomes
the subject in the passive version in (7). It is phrases, therefore, rather than indi-
vidual words, that comprise the first level of sentence organisation.
Notice that each phrase has a main word (respectively Jenny, drunk, tea and regu-
larly). This is called the head of the phrase. The word-class of the head gives its
name to the phrase. As Jenny and tea are nouns, young Jenny and green tea are noun
phrases. The phrase quite regularly has the adverb regularly as its head, and is there-
fore an adverb phrase. The verbs in a sentence form the verb phrase, here has drunk
(with drunk as the head). Similarly, there are adjective phrases (e.g. very big, with
the adjective big as the head), and prepositional phrases (e.g. in the house, with the
preposition in as the head). Phrases can also include others, as shown in (7) by the
prepositional phrase by young Jenny, which contains the noun phrase young Jenny.
The concept of being ‘included’ or ‘contained’ within a particular unit of sen-
tence organisation is expressed by the linguistic term constituent, which refers to
component elements of larger units. Words are therefore constituents of phrases
and phrases can be constituents of sentences or of other phrases.
A final word must be said on single words: drinks and regularly in (5) above
were ‘expanded’ into units of more than one word. We did this in order to
explain the term phrase and demonstrate its central features. In actual fact,
however, linguistics treats single words already as phrases. It does so precisely
because they are capable of extension into a multi-word unit with themselves
as potential heads. Looked at from the opposite point of view, most multi-word
phrases can be reduced syntactically to their heads alone and the phrase struc-
ture of the sentence will remain intact. Drinks and regularly, then, represent
phrases (a verb phrase and an adverb phrase respectively), i.e. phrases with only
one constituent. And by the same token the single-word constituents of (1), (2)
and (4) can now be described, more accurately in a syntactic sense, as phrases:
1.3.1 Nouns
•• Semantics:
Nouns denote entities, i.e. living things (person, woman, plant, animal),
objects (table, road, car), other physical phenomena (weight, distance, elec-
tricity, rain, wind), and abstractions like concepts and ideas (wish, religion,
memory, economics, friendship). Names such as Peter, London, Christianity,
Communism are called proper nouns and are spelt with capital letters.
Nouns have further semantic features that not only identify them as nouns
but also influence their morphology and syntax. Many can be counted, but
others cannot. Those referring to persons can imply male or female identity
(i.e. sex or gender).
•• Morphology:
An important feature of nouns is what we call number: that is, they can be
singular or plural. The singular is the ‘normal’ or unmarked form (cat) and
the plural is marked, usually just by adding the ending -s (cats). There are
various irregular plural forms, e.g. internal change of vowel (man→ men,
goose→ geese), same form as singular (sheep→ sheep), etc.
Another important feature related to this is countability. Most nouns
are what we call count nouns, i.e. they appear in the singular and plural
with numbers (one girl, ten girls). But there are also many non-count nouns.
These cannot appear with numbers. Some are only singular (tea, wheat, infor-
mation), others are only plural (surroundings, clothes).
And finally, a third central feature of nouns is their person status. This is a
wholly semantic factor, but it has a kind of ‘sleeping’ morphological charac-
ter that appears grammatically in the relationship to other word-classes like
pronouns and verbs. Consider the sentence:
Basic elements of grammatical structure 11
(11) Our neighbour is celebrating in her garden, but although we like her, she
has not invited us.
Note that the noun neighbour ‘controls’ the choice of any following pronoun
that refers back to it. As the garden belongs to the (apparently female) neigh-
bour we have to say her garden and not *our garden, followed by we like her
(and not, for instance, *We like them), and she has not. . . (rather than *You
have not. . .). This is the morphology of a category that we call person. It
forces pronouns to correspond in certain ways to their ‘parent’ nouns (i.e.
their antecedents), which can only be referred back to by he, she, it or they.
As these are known grammatically as third person pronouns, nouns are also
regarded as having third person status. (The division of person status into
three sub-categories numbered first, second and third is explained fully under
Pronouns below). Example (11) also shows us that pronoun choice (in the
singular at least) is further restricted by whether the noun refers to a thing
or a person and in the case of a person whether the person is male or female.
This is known as gender, and is differentiated according to masculine (he), for
male persons, feminine (she), for female persons, and neuter (it) for things.
•• Syntax:
Nouns
{{ can be preceded by determiners, such as articles (see below), and also
by adjectives:
The big cat.
These accompanying words form a unit with the noun that we call a
noun phrase.
Nouns
{{ occur (alone or in a phrase) before and after verbs:
The dog followed the boy.
{{ occur (alone or in a phrase) after prepositions:
On the table; in anger; under a large tree.
1.3.2 Pronouns
Pronouns are specialised semantic and morphological variants of nouns. They
are not really a separate word-class, but form a sub-division of nouns. Basically,
they are used to stand for nouns, i.e. represent them, in certain grammatical and
communicative contexts.
•• Semantics:
Pronouns step in as substitutes for full nouns that speakers cannot use, or do
not wish to use, in particular circumstances. The most general reason is to
avoid repeating a noun (and more usually a whole noun phrase) which has
already been mentioned:
(12) The milkman usually comes around 11 o’clock, but today he´s very late.
Maybe his cart has broken down. That was the reason why he was late on
one day last week. The cart is an old one that he’s been driving for years.
12 Basic elements of grammatical structure
Back-reference to previous elements of texts and dialogues is known
generally as anaphora. The back-referring item is called the anaphor.
Pronouns are one of the most common examples of anaphor. In (12) the
pronouns printed in bold type all show this anaphoric relationship. Note,
however, that what they refer back to is different in each case. That is,
each pronoun here represents a particular sub-category with its own dis-
tinct kind of use:
First I we
Second you you
Third he, she, it they
A point to note is that gender is marked only in the third person singular. A
further point is that, unlike full nouns, the personal pronouns are marked for
case. That is, their syntactic status in a sentence (position and function) is
marked morphologically. There are two case forms, subject (= those in the
box above), and object, as follows:
First me us
Second you you
Third him, her, it them
First my our
Second your your
Third his, her, its their
Demonstrative pronouns are marked for number, i.e. they have separate
forms for singular (this/that) and plural (these/those). The same applies to the
prop pronoun: one (singular), ones (plural).
The relative pronouns who, which and that are differentiated in use
according to semantic criteria, which we will not discuss further here (see
Ch. 10.1, on relative clauses). Who has an object form (whom) and a geni-
tive (whose). Note that who and which can also be interrogative pronouns.
Basic elements of grammatical structure 15
A further Doppelgänger is that, which, as we have just seen, also features as
a demonstrative pronoun (see below under Syntax).
•• Syntax:
Anaphoric reference with most pronouns generally involves the whole noun
phrase, and not just part of it:
(15) The big brown dog had hurt itself badly. It could not stand on its back legs.
An exception here is the prop pronoun, whose job is to replace just the
noun part of a noun phrase:
I wanted to buy red shoes for my daughter, but she preferred white ones.
Other major syntactic points are the following:
{{ Possessive pronouns, as was said above, are not pronouns syntacti-
cally, but determiners (see further below). That is, they have the
function of article words in larger noun phrases. We will therefore
refer to them from now on as possessive determiners. Only what we
called above the pronoun possessives have real pronoun status syntac-
tically. The same is true of demonstrative pronouns. Only when they
appear without a following noun, as in (12) above, are they pronouns
in a syntactic sense. But with a noun following (this problem, that cat)
they are demonstrative determiners.
{{ Anaphora is a semantic relationship (i.e. it is a form of reference).
But it also has a variety of morphological consequences, as we saw
above, e.g. personal pronouns, reflexive pronouns, possessive deter-
miners, pronoun possessives have to agree morphologically with
their antecedents. This is therefore a syntactic relationship too,
as the grammar of one word in a sentence affects the grammar of
another. Another example is the case of personal pronouns. Case
is a morphological feature, but is dependent on sentence function
(see next chapter), which is a syntactic relation. This is just a
further pointer to what we said at the beginning of this chapter:
semantics, morphology and syntax interact in a sentence to pro-
duce its total meaning.
{{ Relative pronouns introduce relative clauses.
{{ Interrogative pronouns introduce questions and interrogative clauses
(see Chapter 3, 3.1).
1.3.3 Verbs
•• Semantics:
Verbs, as we have already said, typically denote actions and states, i.e. things
that ‘happen’, ‘last’ and ‘go on in time’:
16 Basic elements of grammatical structure
(16) a. The dog followed the boy.
b. Karen is a teacher.
The close relation to time is shown by the fact that we can ask questions
referring to the verb using expressions like When? and How long?:
For how long/When did the dog follow the boy?
How long has Karen been a teacher?
Another close connection to time is that verbs always show us, through
tense, how an occurrence or state relates to the moment of speech,
e.g. before it (past), simultaneous with it (present), both at once (present
perfect), and so on. Tense is part of morphology, as we will see immediately.
Nevertheless, it points to something semantic, i.e. a time reference that is a
basic component of verb meaning.
In a more general way we can say that verbs have a semantically con-
necting effect: they link the other ‘participants’ named (typically the
subject noun and any elements following the verb) with each other. In
doing so they produce a message, or what is sometimes referred to as a
proposition. In (16)a. above, for instance, the two noun phrases the dog and
the boy are brought into a meaningful relationship with each other through
the verb. The same applies to Karen and a teacher in (16)b. Some verbs, it
is true, can create a proposition without anything following:
(17) a. David snores.
b. Karen sang.
But they still form a link, i.e. bind the noun to themselves to form a sense
unit or message.
It is the semantic conception of a proposition that lies behind the sen-
tence as a grammatical unit (see below under Syntax).
•• Morphology:
In English the verb is the word-class with the most complex system of forms.
We can see this already in a relatively simple statement like
(18) Jenny drinks coffee.
Firstly, the verb has an ending (-s) that is connected grammatically with the
noun Jenny, which refers to the ‘doer’ (or agent) of the action. The agent, in
sentences like this one, generally has the function of subject. Functions belong
in the next chapter, as we have said, but the term subject is important here
already, as it is this (or, more exactly, the noun in that function) that deter-
mines the ending of the verb. It does this according to the person status of the
noun, here third person singular. In other words a third person singular noun
requires this characteristic to be shown also in the verb ending. Syntactically,
this is another example of agreement, this time subject–verb agreement, also
known as concord. Verbs, then, are also marked for person, or, more exactly,
they are marked according to the person status of their subject noun (since
person is properly speaking a characteristic of nouns, not verbs).
Basic elements of grammatical structure 17
Tables like the following, showing all the person forms of a particular
verb (here be) are familiar to every language learner:
First I am we are
Second you are you are
Third he/she/it is they are
Finite verbs like drinks in (18) consist of just a single verb. Most, however,
are composed of two or more separate verbs in partnership, such as have
drunk, were drinking, have been drinking, will drink, can drink, and so on. These
are composite verb forms. Most of them are made up of one auxiliary verb +
lexical (or main) verb, though some have two or even three auxiliaries:
have + drunk
were + drinking
can + drink
have been + drinking
should have been + drunk
18 Basic elements of grammatical structure
Auxiliary verbs are ‘helping’ verbs. They form a supporting partnership
with main verbs in various ways. For instance, they help in creating tense
(have + past participle = perfect), aspect (be + present participle = progressive),
the passive (be + past participle = passive form), and so on. These are purely
morphological operations, and the auxiliaries concerned (be and have) are
therefore called grammatical auxiliaries. These contrast with modal auxiliaries,
like can, must, should, etc., which have individual meanings (as well as helping
with grammar). Auxiliaries are also essential for certain syntactic operations,
such as forming questions and negatives (see below). A further grammatical
auxiliary for this purpose is do. Note that the lexical verb here is always a parti-
ciple or infinitive. It is the auxiliary that gives the partnership its finite features
(i.e. concord, tense and aspect). Nevertheless, the partnership as a whole, as a
unit, is regarded as finite. All the verbs involved work together, as one phrase.
For this reason we call these units verb phrases. A composite verb form is always
one verb phrase, and the cases listed here are all finite verb phrases.
Voi, kuinka minä pelkään sinun katsettasi, kun saat nähdä poikasi!
Hän on kaunis kuin enkeli, mutta niin pieni ja heikko… ehkä kesä
vahvistaa häntä. Kaikessa tapauksessa täytyy sinun häntä rakastaa
— muuten en voi elää. Ja se joulu-ilta, jonka me ensi kerran
vietämme yhdessä, yhdessä lapsemme kanssa, varmaan
muodostuu pyhäksi juhlaksi.
Tämä oli ainoa kohta, missä Wolrat viittasi siihen elämään, jota he
tulisivat viettämään yhteisen katon alla.
Talven loppu ja pitkä kevät oli raskain aika, mitä Antonia koskaan
oli elänyt. Sen lisäksi oli hän nyt jälleen paljon yksin.
Brandtille osoitettu kirje sisälsi hieman toista, eli haava oli hyvin
vaikea, ja että riippuisi erinäisistä ilmaantuvista seikoista, saisiko
kapteeni pitää vasemman käsivartensa. Tätä kaikkea kiellettiin
kertomasta hänen vaimolleen..
Uusi murhe, joka äkkiä valtasi Antonian tunteet, esiintyi lisänä, jota
hän tosin oli kauan pelännyt, mutta ei ollut voinut siihen vielä
suhtautua. Hänen poikansa, joka oli ollut heikko syntymästään
saakka, sairastui nyt erääseen vaaralliseen lasten kulkutautiin, ja
lääkärien lausunnon mukaan oli hyvin vähän toiveita siitä, jaksaisiko
hän kauankaan pitää valkeata palamassa pienessä, lepattavassa
elämänlampussaan. Voi, niitä öitä, jotka Antonia oli valvonut
pienokaisen vuoteen vieressä! Millä kauhulla hän ajatteli kallista
vastuunalaisuuttaan, kun täytyi ehkä jo huomenna ilmoittaa miehelle,
että ainoan siteen, johon tämä nykyisin näytti kiinnittävän elämänsä,
oli kuolema katkaissut! Tuska siitä tukahutti hänen oman surunsa.
Niin, kuinka hän voisikaan kestää ilman sitä…!
— Aavistan — mitä?
— Niin.
Hän palaa.
Marraskuu oli kulunut loppuun ja sijaan oli tullut joulukuu, kun koitti
se päivä, jolloin Antonia kirjeellisen tiedon mukaan vihdoinkin sai
odottaa miestään kotiin. Ennen tätä viimeistä kirjettä oli Wolrat
kirjoittanut hänelle pari riviä, joissa hän ilmoitti "esilläolevien
seikkojen vuoksi" hyväksyneensä sen, ettei Antonia ollut
matkustanut Tukholmaan. Samalla hän pyysi, ettei hänen autuaan
setänsä kahdessa huoneessa mitään muutettaisi, vaan että ne
ainoastaan olisivat järjestyksessä. Makuuhuone tosin oli raskaiden
tummanvihriäisten verhojen vuoksi jotenkin pimeä, mutta sellainen
voitaisiin jälkeenpäin muodostaa maun mukaan.
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