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Learn Wireshark
Second Edition

A definitive guide to expertly analyzing protocols and

troubleshooting networks using Wireshark

Lisa Bock

BIRMINGHAM—MUMBAI
Learn Wireshark
Second Edition
Copyright © 2022 Packt Publishing
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or
transmitted in any form or by any means, without the prior written permission of the publisher,
except in the case of brief quotations embedded in critical articles or reviews.
Every effort has been made in the preparation of this book to ensure the accuracy of the
information presented. However, the information contained in this book is sold without warranty,
either express or implied. Neither the author, nor Packt Publishing or its dealers and distributors,
will be held liable for any damages caused or alleged to have been caused directly or indirectly by
this book.
Packt Publishing has endeavored to provide trademark information about all of the companies
and products mentioned in this book by the appropriate use of capitals. However, Packt Publishing
cannot guarantee the accuracy of this information.

Group Product Manager: Vijin Boricha

Publishing Product Manager: Prachi Sawant
Content Development Editor: Romy Dias
Technical Editor: Rajat Sharma
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First Published: August 2019

Second Edition: June 2022

Production reference: 1010722

Published by Packt Publishing Ltd.
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B3 2PB, UK.

ISBN 978-1-80323-167-9
www.packt.com
To all dreamers, know that there isn't always a clear path to achieving your dream.
In addition to celebrating and rejoicing each milestone, there will be times of
great sorrow and despair along the way. Nonetheless, keep moving toward your
dream while being authentic, harmonious, and true to yourself. One day you'll
see a sign, and you'll say to yourself with a smile, "I have arrived."
 Contributors
About the author
Lisa Bock is an experienced author with a demonstrated history of working in the
e-learning industry. She is a security ambassador with a broad range of IT skills and
knowledge, including Cisco security, CyberOps, Wireshark, biometrics, ethical hacking,
and the IoT. Lisa is an author for LinkedIn Learning and an award-winning speaker who
has presented at several national conferences. She holds an MS in computer information
systems/information assurance from UMGC. Lisa was an associate professor in the IT
department at Pennsylvania College of Technology (Williamsport, PA) from 2003 until
her retirement in 2020. She is involved with various volunteer activities, and she and her
husband, Mike, enjoy bike riding, watching movies, and traveling.

I want to thank my friends and family for their ongoing support. I am

also grateful to the entire Packt team, who work very hard to create an
exceptional product. Finally, I'd like to thank my students, who push me to
deliver the very best educational content.
About the reviewer
Nick Parlow is a Fujitsu Fellow and Distinguished Engineer, and has been an escalation
engineer for Fujitsu in the UK for nearly 20 years, specializing in messaging technologies
and networks. He has fixed stuff for central government, the Ministry of Defence, and
his local school. He has master's degrees in network engineering from Sheffield Hallam
University and software engineering from the University of Northumbria.
Nick is a Microsoft Certified Trainer and holds many other credentials, but is most proud
of being a Raspberry Pi Certified Educator and Code Club volunteer. When he's not
working, writing books, reviewing books, soldering things, or taking blurry photos of the
night sky, he likes to play with chainsaws.

I'd like to thank the author, Lisa Bock, and the team at Packt for giving me
the opportunity to do something that has been wholly enjoyable – reviewing
this great book. Most thanks, however, go to my long-suffering family and
colleagues for giving me the time and support to do so. Thank you, Chris,
Bryn, Jon, Caroline, Craig, and everybody else. You're brilliant.
 Table of Contents
Preface

Part 1 Traffic Capture Overview

1
Appreciating Traffic Analysis
Reviewing packet analysis 4 Identifying where to
Exploring early packet sniffers  5 use packet analysis 17
Evaluating devices that Analyzing traffic on a LAN 17
use packet analysis 6
Capturing network traffic 7 Outlining when to
use packet analysis 19
Recognizing who benefits Troubleshooting latency issues 19
from using packet analysis 8 Testing IoT devices 20
Assisting developers 8 Monitoring for threats 20
Helping network administrators Baselining the network 21
monitor the network 9
Educating students on protocols 12 Getting to know Wireshark 22
Alerting security analysts to threats 13 Summary  23
Arming hackers with information 14 Questions24

2
Using Wireshark
Examining the Finding information 34
Wireshark interface 28
Understanding the phases of
Streamlining the interface 28
packet analysis 34
Discovering keyboard shortcuts 31
Gathering network traffic 34
Recognizing the Wireshark authors  32
Decoding the raw bits 37
viii Table of Contents

Displaying the captured data 38 Dissecting protocols 44

Analyzing the packet capture 41
Summary 45
Using CLI tools with Wireshark 42 Questions46
Exploring tshark 42

3
Installing Wireshark
Discovering support for Beginning the installation 58
different OSes 50 Choosing components 58
Using Wireshark on Windows 50 Creating shortcuts and selecting
Running Wireshark on Unix  50 an install location 62
Installing Wireshark on macOS 51 Capturing packets and completing
the installation 63
Deploying Wireshark on Linux 51
Working with Wireshark Reviewing available resources 65
on other systems 52
Viewing news and help topics 65
Comparing different Evaluating download options 67
capture engines 54
Summary69
Understanding libpcap 54
Questions69
Examining WinPcap 54
Grasping Npcap 55 Further reading 71

Performing a standard
Windows installation 58

4
Exploring the Wireshark Interface
Opening the Wireshark Printing packets and closing Wireshark 82
welcome screen 74
Discovering the Edit menu 84
Selecting a file 74
Copying items and finding packets 84
Capturing traffic 75
Marking or ignoring packets 88
Exploring the File menu 76 Setting a time reference 89
Opening a file, closing, and saving 77 Personalizing your work area 90
Exporting packets, bytes, and objects 78
Exploring the View menu 91
 Table of Contents ix

Enhancing the interface 91 Refreshing the view 98

Formatting time and name resolution 93
Modifying the display 96
Summary101
Questions101

Part 2 Getting Started with Wireshark

5
Tapping into the Data Stream
Reviewing network Comparing conversations and
architectures108 endpoints119
Comparing different types of networks 108
Realizing the importance
Exploring various types of media 110 of baselining 123
Learning various Planning the baseline 123
capture methods 113 Capturing traffic 123
Providing input 114 Analyzing the captured traffic 124
Directing output 114 Saving the baselines 125
Selecting options 116
Summary126
Tapping into the stream 118 Questions 127

6
Personalizing the Interface
Personalizing the layout  130 Adding, editing, and deleting columns 141
Altering the appearance 130 Refining the font and colors 145
Changing the layout 132
Adding comments 148
Creating a tailored Attaching comments to files 148
configuration profile 136 Entering packet comments 148
Customizing a profile 136 Viewing and saving comments 149
Crafting buttons 139
Summary 150
Adjusting columns, Questions 151
font, and colors 141
x Table of Contents

7
Using Display and Capture Filters
Filtering network traffic 154 Understanding the
Analyzing traffic 154 expression builder 168
Comparing the filters' files 156 Building an expression 170

Comprehending display filters 159 Discovering shortcuts

Editing display filters 160 and handy filters 172
Using bookmarks 161 Embracing filter shortcuts 172
Applying useful filters 175
Creating capture filters 162
Modifying capture filters 164 Summary 177
Bookmarking a filter 168 Questions 177
Further reading 179

8
Outlining the OSI Model
An overview of the OSI model 182 Traveling over the Physical layer 197
Developing the framework 182
Exploring the
Using the framework 183
encapsulation process 198
Discovering the purpose Viewing the data 199
of each layer, the protocols, Identifying the segment 199
and the PDUs 183 Characterizing the packet 200
Evaluating the Application layer 185 Forming the frame 200
Dissecting the Presentation layer 186
Demonstrating frame
Learning about the Session layer 188
formation in Wireshark 201
Appreciating the Transport layer 190
Examining the network bindings 202
Explaining the Network layer 193
Examining the Data Link layer 196 Summary203
Questions203
 Table of Contents xi

Part 3 The Internet Suite TCP/IP

9
Decoding TCP and UDP
Reviewing the transport layer 210 Dissecting the window size 229
Describing TCP 211 Viewing additional header values 232

Establishing and maintaining a Understanding UDP 234

connection211
Studying a single UDP frame 235
Exploring a single TCP frame 214
Discovering the four-field
Examining the 11-field TCP
UDP header 236
header219
Analyzing the UDP header fields 236
Exploring TCP ports 220
Sequencing bytes 222 Summary 237
Acknowledging data 225 Questions238
Following the flags 228
Further reading 239

10
Managing TCP Connections
Dissecting the Permitting SACK 257
three-way handshake 242 Using timestamps 259
Isolating a single stream 243
Understanding TCP
Identifying the handshake packets 248
protocol preferences 260
Learning TCP options 252 Modifying TCP preferences 262
Grasping the EOL option 254
Tearing down a connection 264
Using NOP 254
Defining the MSS 255
Summary266
Scaling the WS 256 Questions266
Further reading 268
xii Table of Contents

11
Analyzing IPv4 and IPv6
Reviewing the network layer 270 Editing protocol preferences 287
Understanding the purpose of IP 271 Reviewing IPv4 preferences 287
Adjusting preferences for IPv6 290
Outlining IPv4 272
Dissecting the IPv4 header 273 Discovering tunneling protocols291
Modifying options for IPv4 282 Summary292
Exploring IPv6 282 Questions293
Navigating the IPv6 header fields 283 Further reading 295

12
Discovering ICMP
Understanding the purpose of Providing information using ICMPv6 312
ICMP298
Evaluating type and code values315
Understanding the ICMP header 299
Reviewing ICMP type and code values 315
Investigating the data payload 302
Defining ICMPv6 type and code values 317
Dissecting ICMP and ICMPv6 305
Configuring firewall rules 318
Reviewing ICMP 305
Acting maliciously 318
Outlining ICMPv6 306
Allowing only necessary types 323
Sending ICMP messages 307
Summary324
Reporting errors on the network 308
Issuing query messages 311
Questions324
Further reading 326

Part 4 Deep Packet Analysis of

Common Protocols
13
Diving into DNS
Recognizing the Mapping an IP address 330
purpose of DNS  330 Types of DNS servers 333
 Table of Contents xiii

Transporting DNS 335 Evaluating queries and

responses 345
Comparing types
Caching a response 346
and classes of RRs 336
Calculating response times 347
Breaking down DNS types  336
Testing using nslookup 351
Examining the RR structure 337
Securing DNS 353
Reviewing the DNS packet 338 Summary 354
Examining the header  339
Questions 354
Dissecting the packet structure 343
Outlining the query section 344
Further reading 356

14
Examining DHCP
Recognizing the purpose of Understanding DHCP messages 375
DHCP  360 Comparing DHCP options 376
Configuring the client's IP address 361
Following a DHCP example  377
Using a DHCP relay agent 361
Releasing an IP address 377
Working with IPv6 addresses 363
Broadcasting a discover packet 379
Addressing security issues 365
Delivering an offer  380
Stepping through Requesting an IP address 382
the DORA process 366 Acknowledging the offer 383
Moving through DHCP states 366
Summary384
Obtaining an IP address 367
Leasing an IP address 370 Questions 385
Further reading 387
Dissecting a DHCP header 372
Examining DHCP field values 373

15
Decoding HTTP
Describing HTTP 390 Keeping track of the connection394
Dissecting a web page 390 Evaluating connection types  395
Understanding HTTP versions 393 Maintaining state with cookies  396
Recognizing HTTP methods 394
Comparing request and
response messages  398
xiv Table of Contents

Viewing an HTTP request 398 Responding to the client 407

Responding to the client 400 Ending the conversation 412

Following an HTTP stream 402 Summary  412

Beginning the conversation 405 Questions413
Requesting data  406 Further reading 414

16
Understanding ARP
Understanding the role and Reversing ARP 427
purpose of ARP 418 Evaluating InARP 428
Resolving MAC addresses 419 Issuing a gratuitous ARP 430
Investigating an ARP cache 421 Working on behalf of ARP 430
Replacing ARP with NDP in IPv6 423
Comparing ARP attacks and
Exploring ARP headers defense methods 432
and fields 423 Comparing ARP attacks and tools 432
Identifying a standard ARP Defending against ARP attacks 435
request/reply  423
Summary436
Breaking down the ARP header fields 425
Questions 437
Examining different types Further reading 438
of ARP 427

Part 5 Working with Packet Captures

17
Determining Network Latency Issues
Analyzing latency issues 442 Common transmission errors 450
Grasping latency, throughput, and
Discovering expert information 454
packet loss 442
Viewing the column headers 456
Learning the importance of time values446
Assessing the severity 457
Understanding coloring rules 447 Organizing the information 458
Exploring the
Summary461
Intelligent Scrollbar 449
Questions462
 Table of Contents xv

18
Subsetting, Saving, and Exporting Captures
Discovering ways Recognizing ways to
to subset traffic 466 export components 477
Dissecting by an IP address 467 Selecting specified packets 478
Narrowing down by conversations 470 Exporting various objects 480
Minimizing by port number 471
Breaking down by protocol 472
Identifying why and how
to add comments 482
Subsetting by stream 473
Providing file and packet comments 482
Understanding options Saving and viewing comments 484
to save a file 474
Using Save as 476
Summary 487
Questions 487

19
Discovering I/O and Stream Graphs
Discovering the Statistics menu 492 Comparing TCP stream graphs 506
Viewing general information 493 Using time sequence graphs  506
Assessing protocol effectiveness 494 Determining throughput  512
Graphing capture issues 497 Assessing Round Trip Time 514
Evaluating window scaling  515
Creating I/O graphs 499
Examining errors 500 Summary 517
Graphing duplicate ACKs 501 Questions 517
Modifying the settings 502
Exploring other options 504

20
Using CloudShark for Packet Analysis
Discovering CloudShark 522 Outlining the various
Modifying the preferences 523 filters and graphs 532
Uploading captures 525 Displaying data using filters 533
Working with capture files 526 Viewing data using graphs 534
xvi Table of Contents

Evaluating the different Locating sample captures 544

analysis tools 537 Examining captures 544
Following the stream and viewing Finding more captures 546
conversations 538
Viewing packet lengths and Summary 546
VoIP activity 540 Questions 547
Exploring HTTP analysis Further reading 548
and wireless traffic  541
Monitoring possible threats 542
Assessments
Index
Other Books You May Enjoy
 Preface
In the early 2000s, a coworker introduced me to Ethereal, the precursor to Wireshark.
I remember looking at the screen as my laptop gobbled up traffic and thinking, "I don't
know what this is, but I want to know!" Over the next few years, I immersed myself in
learning as much as possible about packet analysis using Wireshark. I attended training,
watched videos, and read books that helped me compile and curate my knowledge and
respect for what the packets tell us.
I have taught network and security courses and presented at conferences about the many
benefits of using Wireshark. In this second edition of Learn Wireshark, I want to share my
knowledge with you. Each chapter has multiple opportunities for a hands-on approach.
Using the examples, you will make sense of the data and understand what the packets
are telling you. I'll outline how to conduct a detailed search, follow the data stream, and
identify endpoints so that you can troubleshoot latency issues and actively recognize
network attacks. Join me on this journey, and you'll soon realize that the ability to
understand what's happening on the network is a superpower!

Who this book is for

This book is for network administrators, security analysts, students, teachers, and anyone
interested in learning about packet analysis using Wireshark. Basic knowledge of network
fundamentals, devices, and protocols, along with an understanding of different topologies,
will be beneficial as you move through the material.

What this book covers

Chapter 1, Appreciating Traffic Analysis, describes the countless places and reasons to
conduct packet analysis. In addition, we'll cover the many benefits of using Wireshark, an
open source protocol analyzer that includes many rich features.
Chapter 2, Using Wireshark, starts with an overview of the beginnings of today's
Wireshark. We'll examine the interface and review the phases of packet analysis. Finally,
we'll cover the built-in tools, with a closer look at tshark (or terminal-based Wireshark),
a lightweight alternative to Wireshark.
xviii Preface

Chapter 3, Installing Wireshark, illustrates how Wireshark provides support for different
operating systems. We'll compare the different capture engines, such as WinPCap,
LibPcap, and Npcap, walk through a standard Windows installation, and then review the
resources available at https://www.wireshark.org/.
Chapter 4, Exploring the Wireshark Interface, provides a deeper dive into some of the
common elements of Wireshark to improve your workflow. We'll investigate the welcome
screen and common menu choices, such as File, Edit, and View, so that you can easily
navigate the interface during an analysis.
Chapter 5, Tapping into the Data Stream, starts with a comparison of the different network
architectures and then moves on to the various capture options. You'll discover the
conversations and endpoints you'll see when tapping into the stream, and then learn about
the importance of baselining network traffic.
Chapter 6, Personalizing the Interface, helps you to realize all the ways you can customize
the many aspects of the interface. You'll learn how to personalize the layout and general
appearance, create a tailored configuration profile, adjust the columns, font, and color, and
create buttons.
Chapter 7, Using Display and Capture Filters, helps you to make examining a packet
capture less overwhelming. We'll take a look at how to narrow your scope by filtering
network traffic. We'll compare and contrast display and capture filters, discover the
shortcuts used to build filters, and conclude with a review of the expression builder.
Chapter 8, Outlining the OSI Model, provides an overview of the Open Systems
Interconnection (OSI) model, a seven-layer framework that outlines how the OS prepares
data for transport on the network. We'll review the purpose, protocols, and Protocol Data
Units (PDUs) of each layer, explore the encapsulation process, and demonstrate the frame
formation in Wireshark.
Chapter 9, Decoding TCP and UDP, is a deep dive into two of the key protocols in the
transport layer – the Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) and the User Datagram
Protocol (UDP). We'll review the purpose of the transport layer and then evaluate the
header and field values of both the TCP and the UDP.
Chapter 10, Managing TCP Connections, begins by examining the three-way handshake.
We'll discover the TCP options, get a better understanding of the TCP protocol
preferences, and then conclude with an overview of the TCP teardown process.
Chapter 11, Analyzing IPv4 and IPv6, provides a breakdown of the purpose of the Internet
Protocol (IP). We'll outline IPv4 and the header fields and then explore the streamlined
header of IPv6. We'll summarize with a discussion of the protocol preferences and see
how IPv4 and IPv6 can coexist by using tunneling protocols.
 Preface xix

Chapter 12, Discovering ICMP, details the purpose of the Internet Control Message
Protocol (ICMP). We'll dissect ICMP and ICMPv6, compare query and error messages,
and discuss the ICMP type and code values. We'll cover how ICMP can be used in
malicious ways and outline the importance of configuring firewall rules.
Chapter 13, Diving into DNS, outlines the significance of the Domain Name System
(DNS). You'll learn how DNS works when resolving a hostname to an IP address. We'll
compare the different types of records, step through a query and response, review the
DNS header, and calculate the DNS response time using Wireshark.
Chapter 14, Examining DHCP, begins by explaining the need for the Dynamic Host
Configuration Protocol (DHCP). We'll then outline the DORA process – Discover Offer
Request Acknowledge. We'll dissect a DHCP header and review all the field values, flags,
and port numbers, and then finish by stepping through a DHCP example.
Chapter 15, Decoding HTTP, highlights the Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP),
an application layer protocol used when browsing the web. We'll learn the details of
HTTP, explore common methods of transport, and dissect the header and fields. We'll
then compare request and response messages, and then summarize by following an
HTTP stream.
Chapter 16, Understanding ARP, takes a closer look at the Address Resolution Protocol
(ARP), which is a significant protocol in delivering data. We'll outline the role and
purpose of ARP, explore the header and fields, describe the different types of ARP, and
take a brief look at ARP attacks.
Chapter 17, Determining Network Latency Issues, outlines how even a beginner can
diagnose network problems. We'll explore coloring rules and the Intelligent Scrollbar, and
then conclude with an overview of the expert information, which divides the alerts into
categories and guides you through a more targeted evaluation.
Chapter 18, Subsetting, Saving, and Exporting Captures, helps you to explore the many
different ways in which to break down a packet capture into smaller files for analysis. We'll
cover the different options when saving a file, discover ways to export components such as
objects, session keys, and packet bytes, and then outline why and how to add comments.
Chapter 19, Discovering I/O and Stream Graphs, begins by covering the many ways the
statistics menu can help us when analyzing a capture file. We'll create basic I/O graphs to
help visualize network issues and summarize by comparing how the different TCP stream
graphs provide a visual representation of the streams.
xx Preface

Chapter 20, Using CloudShark for Packet Analysis, covers CloudShark, an online
application that is similar to Wireshark. You'll learn how to filter traffic and generate
graphs. We'll then review how you can share captures with colleagues and outline where
you can find sample captures so that you can continue improving your skills.

To get the most out of this book

To prepare for working with Wireshark, download and install the latest version on your
system. Detailed instructions are listed in Chapter 3, Installing Wireshark.
To get the most out of each chapter, when there is a reference to a packet capture,
download the files so that you can follow along with the lessons.
In addition to this, practice your skills on your own and, in particular, review the common
protocols in the TCP/IP suite so that you can deepen your knowledge and become more
proficient in packet analysis.

Download the example code files

All Wireshark capture files are referenced within the book. Download the appropriate
capture files from the online repositories so that you can follow along with the lessons.

Download the color images

We also provide a PDF file that has color images of the screenshots and diagrams used in
this book. You can download it here: https://packt.link/iF8Fj.

Conventions used
There are a number of text conventions used throughout this book.
Code in text: Indicates code words in text, database table names, folder names,
filenames, file extensions, pathnames, dummy URLs, user input, and Twitter handles.
Here is an example: "To write to a file, use -w, then the filename and path."
Any command-line input or output is written as follows:

C:\Program Files\Wireshark>tshark -i "ethernet 2" -w Test-

Tshark.pcap -a duration:10
 Preface xxi

Bold: Indicates a new term, an important word, or words that you see onscreen. For
instance, words in menus or dialog boxes appear in bold. Here is an example: "Once
you're in CloudShark, select the Export | Download File drop-down menu."

Tips or Important Notes

Appear like this.

Get in touch
Feedback from our readers is always welcome.
General feedback: If you have questions about any aspect of this book, email us
at customercare@packtpub.com and mention the book title in the subject of
your message.
Errata: Although we have taken every care to ensure the accuracy of our content,
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you would report this to us. Please visit www.packtpub.com/support/errata
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we would be grateful if you would provide us with the location address or website name.
Please contact us at copyright@packt.com with a link to the material.
If you are interested in becoming an author: If there is a topic that you have expertise
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 Part 1
Traffic Capture
Overview

In this section, we’ll outline the value of traffic analysis, learn about the evolution of
Wireshark, and step through the phases of packet analysis. We’ll then discuss some of
the command-line interface tools, outline how to download and install Wireshark, and
explore the interface along with commonly accessed menu choices.
The following chapters will be covered under this section:

• Chapter 1, Appreciating Traffic Analysis

• Chapter 2, Using Wireshark
• Chapter 3, Installing Wireshark
• Chapter 4, Exploring the Wireshark Interface
 1
Appreciating Traffic
Analysis
Today's networks are complex, and many times, when faced with issues, the only way you
can solve the problem is if you can see the problem. For that very reason, packet analysis,
using tools such as Wireshark, has been around for many years. In addition to manually
conducting packet analysis using Wireshark, today's devices incorporate the ability to
pull data from the network and examine its contents. This function helps the network
administrator to troubleshoot, test, baseline, and monitor the network for threats.
This chapter will help you to recognize the many benefits of using Wireshark for packet
analysis. You'll learn about its history as an exceptional open source software product,
which includes many rich features. You'll discover how various groups can benefit from
using packet analysis, such as network administrators, students, and security analysts. In
addition, we'll cover the many places in which to conduct packet analysis, including on
a Local Area Network (LAN), on a host, or in the real world. Finally, you'll learn how
Wireshark has the ability to decode hundreds of different protocols and is constantly
being improved, making it the optimal tool for monitoring the network.
4 Appreciating Traffic Analysis

In this chapter, we will address all of this by covering the following topics:

• Reviewing packet analysis

• Recognizing who benefits from using packet analysis
• Identifying where to use packet analysis
• Outlining when to use packet analysis
• Getting to know Wireshark

Reviewing packet analysis

Packet analysis examines packets to understand the characteristics and structure of
the traffic flow, either during a live capture or by using a previously captured file. The
analyst can complete packet analysis by either studying one packet at a time or as a
complete capture.
When monitoring the network for analysis, we capture traffic using specialized software
such as Wireshark or tshark. Once the data is captured and we save the file, the software
stores the data in a file that is commonly called a packet capture or PCAP file.
Packet analysis benefits many groups, including the following:

• Network administrators: Use packet analysis to gain information about current

network conditions.
• Security analysts: Use packet analysis to determine whether there is anything
unusual or suspicious about the traffic when carrying out a forensic investigation.
• Students: Use packet analysis as a learning tool to better understand the workings
of different protocols.
• Hackers: Use packet analysis to sniff network traffic while conducting footprinting
and reconnaissance in order to gain valuable information about the network.

We use packet analysis in many places, including on a LAN, on a host, or in the real world.
Additionally, we use packet analysis when troubleshooting latency issues, testing Internet
of Things (IoT) devices, and as a tool when baselining the network.
Today, packet analysis using Wireshark is a valuable skill. However, analyzing packets has
been around in the networking world for many years. As early as the 1990s, various tools
enabled analysts to carry out packet analysis on the network to troubleshoot errors and to
monitor server behavior. In the next section, we'll examine some of the early tools used to
monitor network activity.
 Reviewing packet analysis 5

Exploring early packet sniffers

Packet analysis has been around in some form for over 20 years, as a diagnostic tool, to
observe data and other information traveling across the network. Packet analysis is also
referred to as sniffing. The term refers to early packet sniffers, which sniffed or captured
traffic as it traveled across the network. In the 1990s, Novell, a software company,
developed the Novell LANalyzer, which had a graphical UI and dashboard to examine
network traffic. Concurrently, Microsoft introduced its Network Monitor.
Over the last 20 years, there have been many other packet analyzers and tools to sniff
traffic, including the following:

Table 1.1 – Packet analyzers and tools

Most packet analyzers work in a similar manner. They capture data and then decode the
raw bits in the field values according to the appropriate Request for Comment (RFC) or
other specifications. Once done, the data is presented in a meaningful fashion.
Packet analysis tools range in appearance and functionality, as follows:

• They provide simple text-based analysis, such as terminal-based

Wireshark (tshark).
• They deliver a rich graphical UI with advanced artificial intelligence (AI)-based
expert systems that guide the analyst through a more targeted evaluation.

In the next section, we'll take a look at the various devices that use packet analysis today.
6 Appreciating Traffic Analysis

Evaluating devices that use packet analysis

Packet analysis and traffic sniffing are used by many devices on the network, including
routers, switches, and firewall appliances. As data flows across the network, the devices
gather and interpret the packet's raw bits and examine the field values in each packet to
decide on what action should be taken.
Devices examine network traffic in the following manner:

• A router captures the traffic and examines the IP header to determine where to
send the traffic, as part of the routing process.
• An IDS examines the traffic and alerts the network administrator if there is any
unusual or suspicious behavior.
• A firewall monitors all traffic and will drop any packets that are not in line with
the Access Control List (ACL).

For example, when data passes through a firewall, the device examines the traffic and
determines whether to allow or deny the packets according to the ACL.

Using an ACL
When using a firewall, an ACL governs the type of traffic that is allowed on the network.
For example, an ACL has the following entries:

• Allow outbound SYN packets. The destination port is 80.

• Allow inbound SYN-ACK packets. The source port is 80.

To decide whether to allow or deny a packet, the firewall must check each header as it
passes through the device. It will determine variables such as IP addresses, Transmission
Control Protocol (TCP) flags, and port numbers that are in use. If the packet does not
meet the ACL entry, the firewall will drop the packet. As shown in the following diagram,
an inbound SYN packet with a destination port of 80 is blocked because it does not match
the rule:
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 CHAPTER V
CROSS-COUNTRY FLYING
Cross-country flying differs from ordinary airdrome flying in that it
takes you a long way off from your landing field. On the airdrome
your chief anxiety is to learn how to fly, how to work the controls,
how to bank; but in cross-country work, you are supposed to have
all the technique of airplane operation well in hand, so that you do
not have to think much about it. In cross-country flying, then, your
chief anxiety will be to arrive at your destination and to be
constantly searching out available landing fields in case of engine
failure. The first cross-country flight you make may be a short, easy
one, in which there are plenty of available landing places, and on
which you will be able to make a regular reconnaissance report.
Further experience in cross-country work will involve more and more
difficult trips, until you will think nothing of flying, for example, on
long raiding tours over unfamiliar enemy country.
Equipment.—Knowing that you may have to land far away from
any headquarters, you must take a complete set of tools and covers
for the airplane. Your clothing need not be different from usual, and
will comprise helmet, goggles, leather suit, and gloves. Do not forget
your handkerchief, which you frequently need to clean off your
goggles.
The instruments needed on a cross-country trip are: a compass,
which should be properly adjusted before starting and the variation
angle noted. A wrist watch is necessary; ordinary dashboard clocks
go wrong on account of the vibration. Take an aneroid barometer
with adjustable height reading. Of course you will depend upon a
revolution indicator, for no matter how experienced a pilot may be in
“listening out” faulty engine operation, after a long flight his ear
loses its acuteness, and he will fall back on the revolution indicator
for assistance. The air-speed meter, whether of the Pitot type or
pressure-plate type, will prove invaluable in flying through clouds or
mist when the ground is obscured. Also the inclinometer is able to
give the angle of flight when the earth is not visible, although the
speed indicator usually is sufficient to give the angle of flight, for an
increase of speed means downward motion and decrease of speed
means upward motion. Additional instruments may be used.
Map.—The map is essential for cross-country work. It should be
tacked on to the map board if the flight is short, but made to run on
rollers if the flight is long. In the latter case the map is in the form of
a single long strip, while your flight may be full of angles; therefore
you will have to practice using this sort of map, in which the corners
of your flight are all drawn as straight lines. The scale of maps may
be 2 or 4 miles to the inch for long flights. This scale is sometimes
spoken of as a fractional figure; that is, 2 miles to the inch is the
same as 1/127,000 scale. The map should be studied most carefully
before the start of the trip. The course which you propose to fly
should be marked out on it; all available landmarks which could be
of service as guides should be distinctly noticed and marked on the
map where necessary. These landmarks will in case there is no wind
enable you to make your trip without using the compass at all, and
in case of wind, are essential as a check on the compass. Mark off
the distance in miles between consecutive points of your course.
Mark the compass bearing of each leg of this course.
As landmarks towns are the best guides, and they should be
underscored on the map, or enclosed in circles. It is customary not
to fly actually over towns. Railways are very good assistance to
finding your way, and these should be marked on the map in black
wherever they approach within 10 miles of the course. Mark water
courses with blue color, and roads with red.
Landmarks.—Only practice can make a pilot good at observing
the various features of the ground beneath him. The various
features which can be used as guides are those which are most
visible. After towns, railways come next in importance. Their bridges,
tunnels, etc., make good landmarks. On windy days when relying on
the compass, it will be well to keep in sight of a railway even if this
be the longer way around, because the railway gives a constant
check upon the compass bearing. In this case you will have noted on
your map a general magnetic bearing of the railway, which bearing
you can readily compare with your compass reading. Moreover, the
railway is good in case you become involved in a fog or mist for a
time. It should be remembered, however, that on most of the maps
no distinction is made between one and two-track roads; also that it
is easy to make mistakes where branch lines are not shown on the
map because they are dead ends leading to private quarries, etc.,
and may be taken for junctions. Railways sometimes seem to end
abruptly, which means that you are looking at a tunnel.
Water is visible from a great distance. Cautions to be observed are
that after a heavy rain small flooded streams may take on the
appearance of larger bodies of water or lakes, which you will have
difficulty in reconciling with the map. Small rivers are often overhung
with foliage, and to follow them in all their curves will waste a lot of
time.
The use of roads as guides may be governed by the fact that
paved roads are usually main roads, and telegraph wires may be
expected along them. In the newer parts of the United States the
system of laying out roads provides a very useful means of gaging
distances; I refer to the section system which is in use, for instance,
in Illinois, where there is a road every mile running north and south,
so that the entire country is cut up into squares 1 mile on each side,
with occasional roads of course at ½-mile and ¼-mile points.
Navigation by Landmarks.—In all cases of cross-country flying
the pilot will have two independent systems of maintaining his
proper directions: first, the computed compass bearing; second, the
use of landmarks whose position is known. In comparing his
computed course with the course actually indicated by passing over
these landmarks the rule should be made that, in case of doubt
when a landmark is not distinctly recognized, take the compass
course; there are many chances that a landmark may be altered or
even removed without being so recorded on the pilot’s map,
whereas the errors of the compass of course are presumably
understood by the pilot who has secured every opportunity to check
it when passing previous landmarks.
It is important to note the time of completing successive stages of
the flight, that is when passing over predetermined landmarks. Time
is a very uncertain condition to ascertain in airplane flying for it
seems to pass quickly on calm days but slowly when the journey is
rough. If the pilot does not check the time interval between
successive objects he is quite likely to expect the next before it is
really due.
Landing Fields.—Next to the ever-present worry which the pilot
has regarding the perfect operation of his engine, the most
important thing about cross-country flying is that wherever he may
be he must have available a landing field within gliding distance in
case his engine defaults. The question is of course immediately
raised, “What if there is no landing field within gliding range?” The
answer to this is that the pilot will instinctively learn to keep his eyes
open for landing possibilities every minute of his progress whether
he expects to use them or not; in cross-country flying the lookout for
fields is first and foremost in his mind; if there are no fields, it is up
to him to pick out a spot of ground which is the least objectionable
for a landing. In the State of Illinois the question of landing fields is
almost non-existent, because there are large, flat fields and pastures
in almost every square mile of the farming district, and a cross-
country flight from Rantoul to Chicago could have no terrors for the
beginner as regards the choice of a landing ground.
When it comes to a cross-country flight like Ruth Law’s, from
Chicago to New York, these favorable conditions begin to disappear
after the middle of the journey, that is, east of Buffalo. The most
ideal condition for cross-country flying would be one like that on the
London-Edinburgh route, where landing grounds are so frequent
that by flying at a height of a couple of miles the pilot can free his
mind completely of the worry of suitable landing places; but in the
United States we have very few established airdromes, and the only
approach to the London-Edinburgh route is the St. Louis-New York
route, where the jumps are approximately 150 miles; namely, St.
Louis, Champaign, Indianapolis, Dayton, Sandusky, Erie,
Hammondsport, Philadelphia, and New York. That is why long cross-
country trips are such an adventure in this country and such an
ordinary affair in England.
The beginner will have special difficulty in training his mind to pick
out available landing places; first of all because the earth looks so
different from the sky that it is only with practice a beginner learns
the shades and hues of color which mean certain kinds of ground, or
learns to spot the different features of flat and hilly country. Even for
an accomplished pilot it is hard to tell whether a field is good or bad
from a height of over 1000 ft.; and as it is dangerous to fly this low
over unknown territory, you can at once see what is meant by the
worry of scanning the countryside for available fields.
Choose the best field that you can get, having a smooth surface
and being easy to get out of in all directions. The following
considerations are intended as a guide to what constitute the best
field, in case you have a choice between several possibilities.
1. Choose a field near a town if possible, or failing that, near a
main road or at least a good road. Remember that a field which
appears to be near a town from the air may actually turn out to be a
long walk after you have landed there and find that there are various
trips to be made to and fro between your chosen landing spot and
the town for the purpose of securing ropes, gasoline, supplies, etc.
If you land near a main road there will probably be telegraph wires
along it, which are undesirable in the case of a small field and wind
direction such that you have to rise off the field over the telegraph
wires. It is often hard to distinguish between main roads and minor
roads, and it will be wise to look for the number of vehicles on any
road in determining whether or not it is the main road.
 2. The best field is a stubble field, and is most numerous of course
in the fall when the crops are in. It will have a lightish brown color
when seen from a height, and is pretty sure to be smooth, without
ditches or mounds. Grass land is next best, but is often full of
mounds. Plowed, furrow fields are to be avoided. It might be said
that stubble fields will be hard to get out of after a wet night.
Vegetable and corn fields have a dark green appearance which the
pilot must learn to distinguish from grass pastures, etc. If you
choose pasture land, remember that in summer evenings the farm
animals will generally be lying down near the hedges.
3. Avoid river valleys for landing over night, as there is liable to be
a fog in the morning.
4. Any field which has been previously used for landing with
success by an army officer can be wisely chosen.
The final determination of landing field characteristics can be
made when your airplane has descended to a height of 1000 ft. off
the ground, and in case you are not making a forced landing and
your engine is still going, you can check up your estimate by
descending to this level.
Proper Dimensions of Fields and Airdromes.—There are
three kinds of flying fields. One is the airdrome which is used
exclusively for flying, and may be as large as a mile square; very few
of these will be found in cross-country flights in the United States.
Second, there is what is called the “one-way” field, a long, narrow,
open space which is usable when the wind blows parallel to its
length. Third, there is the “two-way” field, which has two sufficiently
long runways at right angles to each other. A two-way field is very
much better than a one-way field, inasmuch as you can always head
within 45° of the wind, whereas in a one-way field an extreme case
would be 90°. Moreover, two-way fields, such as the crescent-
shaped field at Dayton, Ohio, sometimes permit of almost universal
direction of flight. The two-way field may be crescent-shaped, T-
shaped, or L-shaped. An L-shaped field should have each arm 200 by
300 yd. Under certain conditions there may be buildings located
inside or outside the angle which do no harm aside from creating
eddies in case of strong wind. A T-shaped field should also have its
arms 300 by 200 yd. in size.
Regarding the size of fields it can be said that, while the JN-4
machine will rise off the ground after a run of 100 yd. or so, a field
of this length is of course not big enough for frequent use, especially
if bordered by trees, telegraph lines, fences, and so forth. A field for
temporary use should be at least 200 by 200 yd., about 9 acres. If
obstructions at the edges are more than 5 ft. high add to this 200
yd. a distance equal to twelve times the height of the obstruction.
For a permanent field 300 yd. is the minimum dimension necessary
for clearing obstacles and must be increased if the trees exceed 50
ft. in height. This minimum dimension assumes hard ground and the
possibility of starting in any direction. Training fields are ½ mile
square or more.
Whatever field is used either temporarily or permanently by the
pilot should be absolutely familiar to him over every inch of its
surface. The adjacent country should also be absolutely familiar to
him from the standpoint of possible forced landings which he may
have to make during his flight; he should make a habit of informing
himself as to all the woods and hills, etc., which can affect air
currents in the neighborhood of the field from which he is going to
start.
Guide Posts on Airdromes.—Some fields have pot holes in
them, and these holes should be marked in each case with a large
high red or yellow flag. Do not use short, small flags, as they will
frequently be invisible to pilots taxying on the ground. All telephone
wires, etc., should have large blankets or other suitable signals hung
over them to warn the pilot away.
Commonly accepted marks for designating a landing spot on
airdromes are as follows:
For day use a large letter “T” lying on the ground, made out of
white cloth strips 15 by 3 ft. This letter T is shifted with the wind so
that its long leg always points in the direction of the wind and the
pilot will therefore have nothing to do in landing but approach the
letter “T” from the bottom, so to speak.
For night flying a system of four flares is used, so arranged that
the pilot in making a proper landing will pass flare A on his left;
within 50 yd. further on, flare B; then 100 yd. further on, flare C,
also on his left. In passing flare C he will have a fourth flare, D, 50
yd. to his right. That is to say, the four flares make the outline of a
letter “L” and the pilot approaches the letter having the long leg on
his left. The flares may be made by putting half a gallon of gasoline
into a pail. This will burn for 30 min. and will be visible 8 miles away.
Sometimes at night instead of flares white sheets can be spread on
the ground and a shaded lamp used to illuminate the sheets.
All searchlights on the landing field should point in the direction of
landing. All other lights within a distance of a mile should be
extinguished, and red lamps should be used at danger points.
On moonlight nights the same signals and guides may be used as
in the daytime.
Pegging Down an Airplane.—In landing for the night do not
stay up until it gets dark but choose a landing place which will allow
you to come down 1 hr. before dark; this amount of time will be
needed for laying up the machine over night. As you come to the
landing ground note the time so that you can compute the actual
duration of your flight in your report, then make a good landing.
Taxy the machine to the spot where you intend to leave it over
night, such as the lee of a hedge, etc.; or if there is no choice of
position taxy the machine to the approximate location from which
you will make your start next morning; this will save trouble when
you get ready to start.
Dismount from your machine, lift up the tail enough to leave the
wings edgewise to the wind, the machine, of course, facing the
wind, and jack up the tail in this position by the use of any
convenient prop. Lash the control wheel or joy stick fast in a fixed
position so that the wind can not flap the control surfaces around
and damage them.
Choose a sunken trench if possible in which the wheels may be
sunk; if the wind is going to blow and there is no sunken trench it
will be wise to dig one so that the effect of the wind on the airplane
will be lessened. If the trench is not necessary, at least put chocks
under the wheels. Peg down the wings and the tail to stakes driven
into the ground using rope if you can get some or lacking this in an
emergency fence wires which you can secure by means of your wire
cutters. Do not lash tightly enough to induce strains in the
framework of the machine.
Next, fill up the tanks if a supply of gasoline or oil is available. Put
the covers on the propellers, engine, cowls, etc., in order that rain
and dew shall do no damage to these parts. The wings and body are
varnished waterproof and will not be seriously damaged by a little
moisture; to avoid the collection of moisture in the wings small
eyelet holes are sometimes set in the wings at the trailing edge to
let out the water.
Of course, you will engage a guard to watch the machine all night;
see that a rope is strung around the airplane to keep off the crowd
which may collect.
AERIAL NAVIGATION

Effect of Wind.—Navigating in an airplane is complicated only on

account of the fact that there is a wind blowing which may not be in
the desired direction. While on the sea navigation is simple through
the assistance of the magnetic compass (because side winds can not
materially drift the ship sideways), in the air this is not the case; for
if the pilot using the compass points the nose of the airplane directly
north while a west wind is blowing, this wind will cause the machine
to drift in an easterly direction so that in an hour of flight the
airplane will be off its course by an amount equal to distance which
the wind travels in 1 hr.; and the joint result of the motion of the
airplane forward and the motion of the wind sideways will cause the
machine to drift in a northeasterly direction at a speed quite
different from its rated velocity, and in this case somewhat larger.
Victor Carlstrom in his Chicago-New York flight found while he was
over Cleveland that a side wind was deviating his course 17° away
from what it should be, and if he had not had such landmarks as the
shore of Lake Erie for guidance he might easily have lost
considerable time.
The question of making allowance for this wind drift is very
important where there are no landmarks, as in the case of night
flying, flying over the sea, or flying over the clouds; and the only
way the pilot can make allowances for these conditions is to figure
them out before he starts from the airdrome, and plan to circumvent
them. That is to say, the pilot in flight has no means, aside from
visual observation of the ground, to determine whether or not the
wind is blowing him off his course. He must determine the whole
situation before he starts, and the process of doing so is as follows.
Graphical Method for Determining Direction to Steer.—The
pilot will ascertain from the weather vane and anemometer of the
airdrome (1) the velocity and (2) the direction of the wind, (3) the
speed of the airplane he is to fly, (4) the compass bearing of the
actual course which he desires to follow. With this data it is possible
to construct a simple diagram and to determine the direction to be
steered and the actual velocity which will result in the proposed
journey. A draftsman’s scale, protractor and dividers, a pencil and a
piece of paper are the necessary equipment.
When the wind blows at an angle with the desired course it is
necessary to steer the airplane in such a direction that its own
forward motion will neutralizer the side effect of the drift of the wind
from moment to moment. The problem is to determine this direction
for steering, as it is not known. We are not concerned with distances
in this problem, for the direction is going to be the same whether
our flight is of 100 or 200 miles. We are, however, vitally concerned
with velocities; and we will assume that the velocity of the airplane
is known to be 75 miles per hour, and from observation on a local
anemometer the velocity of the wind is known to be 20 miles an
hour. We also know, of course, the direction of the wind, which
should be given in terms of an angle whose other leg points directly
north. Now if the flight is to be made at a height of 2000 ft., as is
usual in cross-country flight over average country, we will find that
the speed of wind will increase as we rise up; moreover, that its
direction will change. In the present case the wind will be 88 per
cent. higher in 2000 ft. than it is on the ground; that is to say, the
velocity at the altitude we are going to use is twenty times 1.88, or
about 38 miles per hour. Moreover, as the height increases the
direction of the wind changes, shifting around always in a clockwise
direction as the height increases, in the present case shifting around
16° from its ground direction. (The change of velocity and direction
for various heights is indicated on the subjoined table.) Thus a west
wind becomes at a height of 2000 ft. a slightly northwest wind, or, to
be exact, blows from a direction which is 74° west of north.
Our treatment of the problem then has for starting points: velocity
of wind, 38 miles per hour; direction of the wind, 74° west of north;
velocity of airplane 75 miles per hour; desired direction of flight
(which has been determined by laying out on the map and reading
the compass bearing with the protractor), say 60° east of north. In 1
hr. of flight the machine would travel in this unknown direction a
distance of 75 miles were it not for the wind, but for every hour of
such flying the wind is blowing it 38 miles sideways; and the desired
direction must be such that its joint effect, together with the 38 mile
sideways wind, will leave the machine exactly on its proper course at
the end of the hour.
On the map or piece of paper denote the starting point by A (see
Fig. 37). From A draw a line parallel to the wind (that is to say, 74°
west of north), and let this line represent, to any convenient scale,
the speed of the wind, 38 miles per hour. The far end of the line
may be called B, and may be given an arrow to represent the
direction of wind. Now draw on the map a line from A to the desired
destination (C), giving it, of course the proper compass bearing.
Take the dividers, and with B as a center, describe an arc at such
distance as to represent 75 miles per hour, the speed of the
machine; this arc will intercept the line AC at D, and BD then gives
the direction to steer, for it is that direction which will permit the
airplane in 1 hour exactly to neutralize the sidewise drift of the wind.
The distance AD on this diagram can be measured off and will give
the actual velocity of movement along the line of flight in miles per
hour. Notice that it is 97 miles per hour, quite different from the
speed of the airplane.

Fig. 37.—Graphical method for determining direction to steer to

counteract wind-drift.
 Assuming that the pilot has determined the proper angle toward
which the airplane nose must be pointed, has maintained this angle
throughout his flight by means of the compass and has safely
reached his objective; for the return trip this diagram must be
completely reconstructed (unless the wind is exactly parallel to his
course). The pilot should not make the mistake in returning to the
starting point of steering the airplane nose in a direction exactly
opposite to the outward trip; the reader may make this clear to
himself by drawing the return diagram and comparing it with the
outward-bound diagram.
To summarize flying when a cross wind is blowing, it will be said
that the direction of actual travel will not be the direction indicated
by the axis of the airplane; and that therefore while in a picture of
the situation the airplane appears to skid sideways along the whole
course it must be borne in mind that actually there is no skidding
whatever but the air is meeting the airplane in normal manner. The
situation is analogous to that of a fly going from one side to the
other of the cabin of a moving ship, where the actual course through
space of the fly is an apparent skid, due to the resultant of its own
and the ship’s movement.

Variation ofVelocity and Direction With Height

(25 miles per hour wind)
Height in feet At surface 500 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Velocity change in per cent 100 135 172 188 196 200 200
Clockwise deviation in degrees 0 5 10 16 19 20 21

Effect of Wind on Radius of Action.—Not only is the direction

of flight altered by the wind but also the radius of action from a
standpoint of gasoline capacity is altered. In the above machine the
gasoline capacity is sufficient for 3½ hr. of flight. How far can it go
across country and return before the gasoline is used up? Always
allow ½ hr. gasoline for climbing and for margin; this leaves 3 hr.,
which at 75 miles an hour is 225 miles, or 112 miles out and 112
miles back. Now suppose that a flight is to be made across country
directly in the teeth of a 40-mile wind; the radius of flight will be
altered as indicated by the following calculation: Speed outward is
obviously 75 minus 40 or 35 miles per hour. Speed on the return trip
is obviously 75 plus 40 or 115 miles per hour—3.29 times as fast—
and occupying a time which may be designated by the letter x. The
time on the outward trip may be designated by 3.29x, a total time of
x + 3.29x which we know equals 180 min. before the gas runs out.
Solve the equation x + 3.29x = 180 and we find that x is equal to 42
min., that is, the return trip requires 42 min., and the outward trip
requires 138 min. The distance covered on the outward trip is then
138
/60 of 35, which equals 80.5 miles. The radius is then reduced
from 112 miles to 80.5 miles.
In cases where the wind is not parallel to the line of flight the
actual velocity of course can not be obtained by adding up the
airplane and wind velocities, but must be obtained by the graphical
method mentioned above; thenceforward the calculation is the
same.
Effect of Height.—Of course if one has to fly in the teeth of a
wind and can choose one’s own altitude, it is desirable to fly low
where the head wind has its smaller velocity, and when flying with
the following wind to rise to considerable altitudes. The proper
height at which to fly will be about 1500 to 3000 ft., for cross-
country trips over ordinary country; but may be increased when the
wind is unsteady or decreased when there are low-lying clouds. The
steadiness as well as the speed of the wind increases with the
height. The character of the country should be carefully investigated
from the profile maps before starting; all hilly parts should be
marked on the map as a warning against landing. Contour is not
readily distinguished from a height of 2000 ft. and for this reason
points may be indicated on the map where poor landing places make
it desirable to fly high. The character of the country or the scarcity of
landing places may make it advisable to fly at high altitudes for the
following reasons: (1) in case of engine failure a good margin of
height is necessary to provide length of glide to reach distant
landing places; (2) there is then plenty of space for righting the
airplane in case of bumps, side slips, etc.; (3) eddies or local
currents due to inequalities of the ground do not exist to great
heights; (4) landmarks can be better distinguished from high
altitudes because the vision is better (however, one must never trust
to landmarks only in navigating but should constantly use a compass
if only as a check, and especially in passing through clouds). Having
selected in advance the proper height to use during the trip climb to
this height in circles; note the direction of wind drift meanwhile to
check up your estimate. Pass directly over the point of departure
and when over it point the nose of the airplane for a moment
directly toward the desired objective (which can be done with the
aid of the magnetic compass); select some distant object which is
dead ahead, and therefore directly in the course; then head the nose
of the machine up into the wind just enough so that the direction of
movement will be straight toward this distant object. The direction of
the nose of the machine thus set by a method distinct from the
graphical method above mentioned should exactly correspond,
however, with the calculated direction; and thus a means of checking
is obtained.
Effect of Fog.—The effect of fog upon navigating an airplane is
that it prevents the use of landmarks in aiding the pilot; also that it
upsets the pilot’s sense of level. These two effects are, of course,
independent of the fact that proper landing places are obscured,
with resultant peril in case of engine failure. Therefore, a fog should
be avoided whenever possible; when one comes up, the airplane
should descend, and should never attempt to get above it, as in
certain localities it may turn out to be a ground fog. If the fog is very
bad, land at the earliest opportunity. It is on account of fog that the
pilot avoids river valleys where frequently there is a haze from the
ground up to a height of 700 ft., preventing the view of proper
landing places in case of necessity.
 Effect of Clouds on Navigation.—Flying in or above the clouds
is a similar case, inasmuch as landmarks can not be seen. It is not
wise to go above the clouds when on the sea coast, as offshore
winds may, unknown to the pilot, carry him out to sea; and any
flight over the sea which is to a distance greater than the safe return
gliding distance is, of course, perilous.
Navigation by Means of the Drift Indicator.—The drift
indicator is an instrument for determining directly the side drift of an
airplane. It enables the pilot by looking through a telescope at the
ground to determine exactly what his direction of motion is with
relation to the ground. The telescope is mounted vertically and is
rotatable about its own axis; it has a cross-hair which appears in the
field of view during the pilot’s observation of the ground. As the
airplane speeds overhead objects on the ground will appear through
the telescope to slip backward in the given direction; and when
accustomed to the use of this instrument the pilot can rotate the
telescope until the cross-hair is exactly parallel to the apparent line
of motion of objects on the ground. The telescope cross-hair is
parallel to the axis of the airplane normally and the scale attached to
the telescope will in this case read zero. When the pilot rotates the
telescope so that the cross-hair becomes parallel to the relative
backward motion of the ground the scale will read something
different from zero and will give the angle between the actual line of
motion and the axis of the airplane.
Such a drift indicator is, of course, useful only when the ground is
visible. The pilot knowing the angle between the airplane axis and
the line of motion and therefore knowing the deviation between the
supposed course and the actual course is able to make corrections
and steer the machine in its proper direction. This may be done by
altering the “lubber-line” or his compass just enough to offset the
side drift of the machine; after which the desired course may be
followed by simply keeping to the proper compass bearing. An
instrument has been devised wherein the rotation of the drift-
indicator telescope simultaneously alters the lubber-line zero. The
operator then has merely to take an occasional observation of the
apparent drift line of the ground, which observation automatically
shifts the lubber-line and navigation proceeds as if there were no
side wind blowing whatever. Knowing the angle between the
direction of movement and the airplane axis, the pilot may then
compute the speed of motion in a manner analogous to the
graphical method previously mentioned; or he can make use of a
chart for the determination of this speed.
Navigation over Water.—In flying over water the presence of
waves is a valuable guide to the aviator, for he knows that these
waves extend in a direction normal to the wind. Moreover, he knows
that the velocity of the waves bears some relation to the velocity of
the wind. In order to estimate the velocity of the waves it is only
necessary to know their wave length, that is, the distance between
two consecutive wave crests. The rule is that for a wave length of 10
ft. the velocity is 10 miles per hour, and will vary as the square root
of this wave length; that is, if the wave length is half, the velocity
will be 10 divided by the square root of 2, or 7.1 miles per hour.
 CHAPTER VI
THE RIGGING OF AIRPLANES
Object.—The object of this chapter is to teach the elementary
principles of correct rigging. It is not expected that the student will
become an expert mechanic, but with this treatment as a basis and
through practice he will be able to judge whether or not a machine
is correctly and safely rigged. In other words, he will not have to
depend on someone else’s judgment as to whether panels, wires,
controls, struts, etc., of a machine are in good order, but he will be
able to observe understandingly that they are. If the engine goes
wrong he can land, if the rigging goes wrong he is in great difficulty.
Moreover, if the rigging is wrong, speed is lessened and the stability
is uncertain.
The first thing to be learned in rigging is a knowledge of the
peculiar terms which have come into use in aeronautics defining
different parts of the machines. Our present list of terms is derived,
partly from French, partly from English, and partly from American
terms. Thus different names may refer to the same part.
NOMENCLATURE

1. Tractor.—An airplane that is pulled through the air by a propeller situated in

front of the machine, is called a tractor.
2. Pusher.—If the propeller is back of the main lifting planes the machine is
called a pusher.
3. Fuselage or Body.—The main body of the airplane in which the pilot sits
and to which the landing gear, motor, controls, and sustaining surfaces are fixed. A
small body, especially in pusher types of machines, is called a Nacelle.
4. Cockpit.—The openings and space in the fuselage where pilot or observer
sits.
5. Stream-line Body.—The shape of a body or part which permits a regular
flow of air around and along it with the least resistance, in other words with
minimum, obstruction and eddying.
6. Fairing.—Building up a member or part of the plane with a false piece that it
may have a stream-line body.
7. Wings, Planes, Panels.—The main supporting surfaces of an airplane are
called wings, although the terms planes and panels are probably as frequently
used and even preferred by many. The term panel refers properly to a section of
the wings with the included struts and wires. The small panel directly above the
body is called the engine section panel or the center panel, while the panels to the
right and left of the body or fuselage are called the main panels. The main panels
are the right and left panels as seen from the seat. Each main panel may be
subdivided into the inner wing bay, the outer wing bay, and the overhang.
8. Landing Gear, Chassis or Undercarriage.—The wheels and the struts and
wires by which they are attached to the fuselage.
9. Horizontal Stabilizer or Horizontal Fin.—The horizontal fixed tail plane.
10. Vertical Stabilizer or Vertical Fin.—The small vertical fixed plane in front
of the rudder.
11. Rudder.—The hinged surface used to control the direction of the aircraft in
the horizontal plane. As with a boat, for steering or “yawing” or changing its
direction of travel.
12. Elevator or Flap; Flippers.—A hinged horizontal surface for controlling
the airplane up and down, usually attached to the fixed tail plane; for pitching the
machine or “nosing up” and “nosing down.”
13. Tail or “Empennages.”—A general name sometimes applied to the tail
surfaces of a machine.
14. Mast or Cabane.—The small vertical strut on top of the upper plane used
for bracing the overhang.
15. Ailerons.—Movable auxiliary surfaces used for the control of rolling or
banking motion. Other definitions are that they are for the lateral control or for
maintaining equilibrium. When they are a part of the upper plane they are
sometimes called wing flaps.
16. Landing Wires or Ground Wires (Single).—The single wires which
support the weight of the panels when landing or on the ground.
17. Flying Wires, or Load Wires (Double).—The wires which support the
body or fuselage from the planes when in flight.
18. Drift Wires.—The horizontal wires which lead from the nose of the
fuselage to the wings and thus keep them from collapsing backward. For the same
reason the wings have interior drift wires.
 19. Diagonal Wires.—Any inclined bracing wires.
20. Skids.—(a) Tail Skid.—The flexible support under the tail of the machine.
(b) Wing Skid.—The protection under the outer edge of the lower wing.
(c) Chassis Skids.—Skids sometimes placed in front of the landing gear.
21. Horns, or Control Braces.—The steel struts on the controls to which the
control wires are attached.
22. Struts; Wing Struts.—The vertical members of the wing trusses of a
biplane, used to take pressure or compression, whereas the wires of the trusses
are used to take pull or tension. There are also fuselage struts and chassis struts.
23. Spar or Wing Bars.—The longitudinal members of the interior wing
framework.
24. Rib (Wing).—The members of the interior wing framework transverse to
the spars.
25. The Longerons or Longitudinals.—The fore and aft or lengthwise
members of the framing of the fuselage, usually continuous across a number of
points of support.
26. Engine (Right and Left Hand).—In the ordinary tractor machine, when
viewed from the pilot’s seat a right-handed engine revolves clockwise and right-
handed.
27. Propeller.—
28. Pitch (Propeller).—The distance forward that the propeller would travel in
one revolution, if there were no slip, that is, if it were moving in a thread cut at
the same inclination as the blade. Pitch angle refers to the angle of inclination of
the propeller blade.
29. Slip.—Slip is the difference between the actual travel forward of a screw
propeller in one revolution and its pitch.
30. Dope.—A general term applied to the material used in treating the cloth
surface of airplane members to increase strength, produce tautness, and act as a
filler to maintain air and moisture tightness. Usually of the cellulose type.
31. Controls.—Since there are three axes or main directions about which an
airplane may turn or rotate it follows that three controlling devices are required.
These are: (1) the elevator for pitching; (2) the rudder for steering or yawing; (3)
the ailerons for lateral, rolling or banking control.
The term controls is a general term used to distinguish the means provided for
operating the devices used to control speed, direction of flight and attitude of the
aircraft.
 32. Cotter Pins.—Must be on every nut.
33. Castelled Nuts.—Admit cotter pins.
34. Turnbuckles.—Must be well and evenly threaded and locked with safety
wires.
35. Safety Wires.—For locking turnbuckles and hinge pins.
36. Shackle and Pin.—
37. Hinge Connections.—
38. Leading Edge or Entering Edge.—The front edge of a plane.
39. Trailing Edge.—The rear edge of a plane.
40. Stagger.—The horizontal distance that the entering edge of the upper wing
of a biplane is ahead of the entering edge of the lower wing.
41. Dihedral Angle.—A term used to denote that the wings are arranged to
incline slightly upward from the body toward their tips. The angle made with the
horizontal by this inclination of the wing is called the dihedral angle.
42. Angle of Incidence.—The angle at which a wing is inclined to the line of
flight.
43. Decalage.—Difference in angle of incidence between any two distinct
aerofoils on an airplane.
44. Chord.—Distance between the entering edge and trailing edge of a wing
measured on a straight line touching front and rear bottom points of a wing.
45. Camber.—The depth of the curve given to a sustaining surface such as a
wing. Thus it will be observed that the planes are not straight in cross-section but
are concave slightly upward. The depth of this concavity is the camber. Another
way of expressing this is that camber is the greatest distance between the surface
of a wing and its chord line.
46. Gap.—The distance between the lower and upper wings of a biplane.
47. Spread.—The distance over all from one wing tip to the other wing tip.
48. Aerofoil.—A general name applied to any wing or lifting surface of an
airplane.
49. Deadhead Resistance.—Each part of an airplane against which the wind
strikes offers a resistance against being moved through the air. This is called the
deadhead resistance or the parasite resistance. It is for the purpose of lessening
this resistance that the parts of a machine are stream-lined. Remember that force
or power must be applied to overcome this resistance and the lessening of such
resistance decreases the power necessary. A parallel illustration is to think of the
power necessary to push a board sideways through water.
50. Drift.—When the air strikes the inclined wing of an airplane its force has
two components. One part called the lift (see 52) acts up and tends to lift the
machine. The other part, called drift, tends to push the machine backward. This
drift must also be overcome by applying power enough to drive the machine
forward.
51. Total Resistance.—Sometimes called drag. (49) Deadhead resistance
added to (50) drift, gives the total forces opposing the forward movement of the
airplane. This is called the total resistance and is overcome by the thrust of the
propeller.
52. Lift.—(See 50). The upward or vertical part of the air pressure acting
against the wings, and which is utilized to lift or support the airplane.
53. Center of Gravity.—The point of balance of an airplane which may be
otherwise defined as the point through which the mass of an airplane acts. If the
weight is too far forward the machine is nose-heavy. If the weight is too far behind
the center of lift the machine is tail-heavy.
54. Aspect Ratio.—The ratio of span to chord of a wing or any other aerofoil.
55. Gliding Angle (Volplane).—The angle made to the horizontal by the flight
path of an airplane with the engine shut off; e.g., an airplane is 1000 ft. high,
when its engine fails. Suppose its gliding angle is 1 in 6. Therefore, in still air it can
glide 6000 ft. forward. The general term glide refers to flying without power.
56. The Angle of Best Climb.—The steepest angle at which an airplane can
climb.
57. Stability.—The property of an airplane to maintain its direction and to
return easily to its equilibrium or balance with a minimum of oscillation. This is
sometimes called dynamical stability. An airplane may have (first) inherent
stability, which is the stability due to the arrangement and disposition of its fixed
parts. It may also have stability with regard to any one of the three directions in
which it may move. These are named as follows: (1) directional stability, with
reference to the vertical axis; (2) lateral stability with reference to the longitudinal
(or fore and aft) axis; (3) longitudinal stability, stability with reference to the
lateral (or thwartship) axis.
58. Flying Position.—Refers to the position of the fuselage when flying. With
the Curtiss JN-4 machines in this position the top longerons are horizontal and
level both ways. The engine bearers are also level, and the wings have an angle of
incidence of 2°.
 59. Capacity.—The weight an airplane will carry in excess of the dead load
(dead load includes structure power plant and essential accessories).
60. Flight Path.—The path of the center of gravity of an aircraft with reference
to the air.
61. Stalling.—A term describing the condition of an airplane which from any
cause has lost the relative speed necessary for support and controlling, and
referring particularly to angles of incidence greater than the critical angle.
62. Sweepback.—The horizontal angle (if any) that the leading edge of a
machine makes with the crosswise or lateral axis of an airplane.
63. Nose Dive or Vol-pique.—A dangerously steep descent, head on.
 CHAPTER VII
MATERIALS OF CONSTRUCTION
The materials of construction for airplanes should be of such
material, size and form as to combine greatest strength and least
weight. With metal parts in particular it may be necessary to
substitute less strong material for the sake of getting non-corrosive
qualities, ability to withstand bending, ductility or ease of bending,
etc. With wood, absence of warping is important as well. The
materials which are considered are the following: wood, steel,
including wires; special metals as aluminum, brass, monel metal,
copper, etc., and also linen and dope.
Strength of Materials.—It is important in a general way to
understand the terms used in speaking of strength of materials.
Thus we may have strength in tension, strength in compression, or
strength in shearing, bending and torsion. Some material fitted to
take tension will not take compression, as for example wire; some
material, as bolts, are suited to take shear, etc.
In general all material for airplanes has been carefully tested and
no excess material is used above that necessary to give the machine
the necessary strength.
Tension.—This means the strength of a material which enables it
to withstand a pull. Thus wires are used where strength of this kind
is required.
Compression.—This refers to strength against a pressure. Wire
has no strength for this purpose, and wood or sometimes steel is
used.
Shearing.—Refers to strength against cutting off sideways. Thus
the pull on an eyebolt tends to shear the eyebolt, or the side pull on
any bolt or pin tends to shear the pin.
 Bending.—In bending material the fibres on the outside tend to
pull apart; those on the inside tend to go together. Thus on the
outside we have tension, and on the inside compression. Along the
center line there is neither tension or compression, it is the “neutral
axis.”
Torsion.—Torsion is a twisting force, such as an engine propeller
shaft receives.
Testing for Strength.—If a wire is an inch square in cross-
section and breaks when a load of 150,000 lb. is hung on it, we say
that the strength of the wire is 150,000 per square inch. Smaller
wires equally strong have a strength of 150,000 lb. per square inch
also, but they in themselves will not support a load of 150,000 lb.
but only the fraction of that, according to the fraction of a square
inch represented by their cross-section.
In the same way, a square inch of wood under a compressive load
may break at 5000 lb. If, however, the piece of wood is long in
proportion to its thickness, it will bend easily and support much less
weight. For example, a perfectly straight walking cane could perhaps
have a ton weight put on it without breaking but if the cane were
not set squarely or if it started to bend it would immediately break
under the load.
These cases illustrate the importance of having struts perfectly
straight, not too spindling and evenly bedded in their sockets. Some
training machines are built with a factor of safety of 12. That is to
say, the breaking strength of any part is twelve times the ordinary
load or stress under which the piece is placed. It should be
remembered, however, that under any unusual condition in the air,
such as banking, etc., extra strains are placed on the parts and the
factor of safety is much less than 12. Factor of safety of 12 thus
does not mean exactly what it does in other engineering work,
where allowances are made for severe conditions. The so-called
factor of safety of 12 in airplane work is probably no greater than a
factor of safety of 2 or 3 in regular engineering work.
 There are three all-important features in the flying machine
construction, viz., lightness, strength and extreme rigidity. Spruce is
the wood generally used for parts when lightness is desired more
than strength, oak, ash, hickory and maple are all stronger, but they
are also considerably heavier, and where the saving of weight is
essential, the difference is largely in favor of the spruce. This will be
seen in the following condensed table of U. S. Government
Specifications.

Modulus of rupture,
Weight per cubic foot, Compression strength,
Wood pounds per square
pounds (15% moisture) pounds per square inch
inch
Hickory 50 16,300 7,300
White
46 12,000 5,900
Oak
Ash 40 12,700 6,000
Walnut 38 11,900 6,100
Spruce 27 7,900 4,300
White
29 7,600 4,800
Pine

A frequently asked question is: “Why is not aluminum or some

similar metal, substituted for wood?” Wood, particularly spruce, is
preferred because, weight considered, it is much stronger than
aluminum, and this is the lightest of all metals. In this connection
the following table will be of interest.

Weight in cubic Tensile strength per Compression strength

Material
feet, pounds sq. in pounds per sq. in pounds
Spruce 27 7,900 4,300
Aluminum 162 15,000 12,000
Brass (sheet) 510 20,000 12,000
Steel (tool) 490 100,000 60,000
Nickel steel 480 100,000[1]
Copper (sheet) 548 30,000 40,000
Tobin bronze
... 80,000
(Turnbuckles)
Monel metal 540 90,000 30,000

Wood.—Present practice in airplane construction is to use wood

for practically all framing, in other words, for all parts which take
pressure or compression. Although wood is not as strong for its size
as steel and therefore offers more air resistance for the same
strength yet the fact that frame parts must not be too spindling, in
other words, that they must have a certain thickness in proportion to
their unsupported length, has led to the use of wood in spite of the
greater strength of steel. Some airplanes, however, as the
Sturtevant, are constructed with practically a steel framing.
It should be borne in mind that any piece or kind of wood will not
answer for framing, and more especially for repair parts. There is a
tremendous difference in the strength and suitability among different
woods for the work. For instance, a piece of wood of cross or
irregular grain, one with knots, or even one which has been bored or
cut or bruised on the outside, may have only half or less the
strength of the original piece. Air drying doubles the strength of
green wood, proper oven drying is better yet.
Notice how the ends of each piece are ferruled, usually with
copper or tin. This is to prevent the bolt pulling out with the grain of
the wood, and also prevents splitting and end checking and gives a
uniform base on which the pressure comes.
It is generally advised not to paint wood as it tends to conceal
defects from inspection. So varnish only.
Wrapping wooden members with linen or cord tightly and doping
this, both to make waterproof and to still further tighten, increases
the resistance to splitting. The absence of warping tendencies
determine often what wood to choose.
The selection of lumber and detection of flaws is a matter of
experience and should be cultivated. It is, however, nothing more
than the extension of the knowledge that leads a man to pick out a
good baseball bat.
Woods.—1. Spruce.—Should be clear, straight-grained, smooth
and free from knot holes and sap pockets, and carefully kiln-dried or
seasoned. It is about the lightest and for its weight the strongest
wood used. It is ordinarily used as a material for spars, struts,
landing gear, etc., as it has a proper combination of flexibility,
lightness and strength.
2. White Pine.—A very light wood used for wing ribs, and small
struts.
3. Ash.—Springy, strong in tension, hard and tough, but is
considerably heavier than spruce. Used for longerons, rudder post,
etc.
4. Maple.—Used for small wood details, as for blocks connecting
rib pieces across a spar or for spacers in a built-up rib.
5. Hard Pine.—Tough and uniform and recommended for long
pieces, such as the wooden braces in the wings.
6. Walnut, Mahogany, Quarter-sawed Oak.—The strength,
uniformity, hardness and finishing qualities make these woods
favorites for propeller construction.
7. Cedar Wood.—Is used occasionally for fuselage coverings or for
hull planking in hydroplanes as it is light, uniform and easily worked.
Veneers, or cross-glued thin layers of wood, are sometimes used for
coverings.
Laminated or built-up wooden members have been much used for
framing and for ribs and spars. The engine bearers are always of
wood on account of vibration and are also laminated. In lamination
the wooden strut is built up of several pieces of wood carefully glued
together. The grains of the different layers run in different directions,
consequently a stronger and more uniform stick often is secured.
The objection to laminated pieces comes from the weather causing
ungluing. Laminated pieces should be wrapped in linen or paper and
freshened with paint or varnish from time to time.
Forms.—Attention should be called to the hollowed form of many
of the wooden members. In any beam or strut, material at the
center of the cross-section is of far less value in taking the load than
the material away from the center. Therefore, to secure greatest
strength with least weight, it is permissible to lighten wooden
members if done understandingly.
Steel.—There is a tremendous difference in the strength, wearing
and other desirable qualities among different steels and irons. For
airplane work none but the best qualities are allowed. For this
reason the use of ordinary iron bolts (as stove bolts) or metal
fastenings or wire not standardized and of known qualities should
not be permitted. The airplane is no stronger than its weakest
fitting. This does not mean that the hardest and strongest steel must
necessarily be used, as ease of working and freedom from
brittleness may be just as important qualities, but the steel on all
metal fittings should be of high-grade uniform stock. A ductile, not
too easily bent, mild carbon steel is usually recommended for all
steel plate, clips, sockets and other metal parts. If any parts are
required to be tempered or hardened it must be remembered that
they become brittle and can not afterward be bent without annealing
or softening. Tool or drill steel is a name given to uniform or rather
reliable grades of steel adapted to heat treatment as tempering or
annealing. Often the bolts, clips, nuts, pins, devices and other
fittings are of special heat-treated nickel steel which must not be
heated locally for bending or for attachment. Such work seriously
weakens the steel. The steel is often copper-or nickel-plated and
enamelled to prevent rusting. Do not forget that the proper material
may be twice as strong as other material which looks the same but
which has not received special treatment.
Wires.—Only the highest grade of steel wire, strand and cord is
allowable. Manufacturers, as Roebling of Trenton, N. J., manufacture
special aviator wire and cord, which is given the highest possible
combination of strength and toughness, combined with ability to
withstand bending, etc. Steel wire ropes for airplane work are
divided into three classes as follows:
1. The solid wire = 1 wire (as piano-wire grade) and known as
aviation wire.
2. The strand stay, consisting either of 7 or 19 wires stranded
together and known as “aviator strand.” Flying and landing wires on
Curtiss.
3. Cord or Rope Stay.—Seven strands twisted together forming a
rope, each strand being of 7 or 19 wires and known to trade as
aviator cord. The wires are either tinned or galvanized as protection
against rust, etc. Ordinarily galvanizing is used, but hard wires and
very small wires are injured by the heat of galvanizing and they are
therefore tinned.
No. 1. The single wire is the strongest for its weight. Single wires
will not coil easily without kinking and are easily injured by a blow,
therefore their use is confined to the protected parts of the machine
such as brace wires in the fuselage and in the wings.
The strand stay (No. 2) of 7 or 19 wires is generally used for
tension wires, as it is more elastic (can be bent around smaller
curve) without injury, as the flying and landing wires on the Curtiss.
The smaller strands usually have 7 wires, the larger ones 19 wires.
No. 3. The Tinned Aviator Cord.—The 7 by 19 cord is used for
stays on foreign machines. It is 1¾ times as elastic as a solid wire of
the same material. On the Curtiss it is used for control wires. For
steering gear and controls extra flexible aviator cord is also
recommended. This has a cotton center which gives extra flexibility
and is used for steering gear and controls. It is 2¼ times as elastic
as a single wire.
Although wire strands or cords are not quite as strong for the
same size as a single wire they are preferred for general work, being
easier to handle and because a single weak spot in one wire does
not seriously injure the whole strand.
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