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Graduate Texts in Physics

Walter Dittrich
Martin Reuter

Classical and
Quantum
Dynamics
From Classical Paths to Path Integrals
Fourth Edition
Graduate Texts in Physics

Series editors
Kurt H. Becker, PhD
New York, USA
Sadri Hassani
Urbana, Illinois, USA
Bill Munro
Kanagawa, Japan
Richard Needs
Cambridge, UK
William T. Rhodes
Boca Raton, Florida, USA
Professor Susan Scott
Canberra, Australia
Professor H. Eugene Stanley
Boston, Massachusetts, USA
Martin Stutzmann
Garching, Germany
Andreas Wipf
Jena, Germany
Graduate Texts in Physics publishes core learning/teaching material for graduate
and advanced-level undergraduate courses on topics of current and emerging fields
within physics, both pure and applied. These textbooks serve students at the
MS- or PhD-level and their instructors as comprehensive sources of principles,
definitions, derivations, experiments and applications (as relevant) for their mastery
and teaching, respectively. International in scope and relevance, the textbooks
correspond to course syllabi sufficiently to serve as required reading. Their didactic
style, comprehensiveness and coverage of fundamental material also make them
suitable as introductions or references for scientists entering, or requiring timely
knowledge of, a research field.

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/8431

Walter Dittrich • Martin Reuter

Classical and Quantum

Dynamics
From Classical Paths to Path Integrals

Fourth Edition

123
Walter Dittrich Martin Reuter
Institute of Theoretical Physics Institute of Physics
University of Tübingen University of Mainz
TRubingen, Germany Mainz, Germany

ISSN 1868-4513 ISSN 1868-4521 (electronic)

Graduate Texts in Physics
ISBN 978-3-319-21676-8 ISBN 978-3-319-21677-5 (eBook)
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-21677-5

Library of Congress Control Number: 2015950649

Springer Cham Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 1992, 1994, 2001, 2016
This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of
the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation,
broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information
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The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication
does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant
protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book
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Printed on acid-free paper

Springer International Publishing AG Switzerland is part of Springer Science+Business Media

(www.springer.com)
Preface to the Fourth Edition

During the past two decades, our monograph has served as an invaluable peda-
gogical source for students and teachers alike, who have used it to become more
familiar with classical and quantum dynamics using path integrals, Schwinger’s
quantum action principle, functional methods, Berry’s phase and Chern–Simons
mechanics, to mention just a few topics. In addition to correcting some minor
typos in the previous edition, we have added two more topics, namely a detailed
study of quantum electrodynamics using path integrals and an introduction to the
Schwinger–Fock proper time method to work out in all details the effective action
of an electron in a harmonic classical electric field.

Tübingen, Germany Walter Dittrich

Mainz, Germany Martin Reuter
February 2015

v
Preface to the Third Edition

In this third edition, the major purposes and emphasis are still the same, but there are
extensive additions. These consist mainly in the chapter on the action principle in
classical electrodynamics and the functional derivative approach, which is set side
by side to the path integral formulation. A further major augmentation is a chapter on
computing traces in the context of the WKB-propagator. Finally, we have corrected
some (not only typographical) errors of the previous editions.

Tübingen, Germany Walter Dittrich

Mainz, Germany Martin Reuter
February 2001

vii
Preface to the First Edition

This volume is the result of the authors’ lectures and seminars given at Tübin-
gen University and elsewhere. It represents a summary of our learning process
in nonlinear Hamiltonian dynamics and path integral methods in nonrelativistic
quantum mechanics. While large parts of the book are based on standard material,
readers will find numerous worked examples which can rarely be found in the
published literature. In fact, toward the end they will find themselves in the midst of
modern topological methods which so far have not made their way into the textbook
literature.
One of the authors’ (W.D.) interest in the subject was inspired by Prof. D. Judd
(UC Berkeley), whose lectures on nonlinear dynamics familiarized him with
Lichtenberg and Lieberman’s monograph, Regular and Stochastic Motion (Springer,
1983). For people working in plasma or accelerator physics, the chapter on nonlinear
physics should contain some familiar material. Another influential author has been
Prof. J. Schwinger (UCLA); the knowledgeable reader will not be surprised to
discover our appreciation of Schwinger’s Action Principle in the introductory
chapters. However, the major portion of the book is based on Feynman’s path
integral approach, which seems to be the proper language for handling topological
aspects in quantum physics.
Our thanks go to Ginny Dittrich for masterly transforming a long and complex
manuscript into a readable monograph.

Tübingen, Germany Walter Dittrich

Hannover, Germany Martin Reuter
January 1992

ix
Contents

1 Introduction .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2 The Action Principles in Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
3 The Action Principle in Classical Electrodynamics .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
4 Application of the Action Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
5 Jacobi Fields, Conjugate Points . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
6 Canonical Transformations.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
7 The Hamilton–Jacobi Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
8 Action-Angle Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
9 The Adiabatic Invariance of the Action Variables . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
10 Time-Independent Canonical Perturbation Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
11 Canonical Perturbation Theory with Several Degrees of Freedom . . . 141
12 Canonical Adiabatic Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
13 Removal of Resonances . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
14 Superconvergent Perturbation Theory, KAM Theorem
(Introduction) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
15 Poincaré Surface of Sections, Mappings . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
16 The KAM Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
17 Fundamental Principles of Quantum Mechanics . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
18 Functional Derivative Approach .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
19 Examples for Calculating Path Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
20 Direct Evaluation of Path Integrals.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247

xi
xii Contents

21 Linear Oscillator with Time-Dependent Frequency .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259

22 Propagators for Particles in an External Magnetic Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
23 Simple Applications of Propagator Functions . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
24 The WKB Approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
25 Computing the Trace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
26 Partition Function for the Harmonic Oscillator . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
27 Introduction to Homotopy Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
28 Classical Chern–Simons Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
29 Semiclassical Quantization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
30 The “Maslov Anomaly” for the Harmonic Oscillator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
31 Maslov Anomaly and the Morse Index Theorem . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
32 Berry’s Phase.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
33 Classical Analogues to Berry’s Phase . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
34 Berry Phase and Parametric Harmonic Oscillator .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
35 Topological Phases in Planar Electrodynamics . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
36 Path Integral Formulation of Quantum Electrodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . 433
37 Particle in Harmonic E-Field E.t/ D E sin !0 t;
Schwinger–Fock Proper-Time Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443

Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457

Index . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
Chapter 1
Introduction

The subject of this monograph is classical and quantum dynamics. We are fully
aware that this combination is somewhat unusual, for history has taught us convinc-
ingly that these two subjects are founded on totally different concepts; a smooth
transition between them has so far never been made and probably never will.
An approach to quantum mechanics in purely classical terms is doomed to
failure; this fact was well known to the founders of quantum mechanics. Never-
theless, to this very day people are still trying to rescue as much as possible of
the description of classical systems when depicting the atomic world. However,
the currently accepted viewpoint is that in describing fundamental properties in
quantum mechanics, we are merely borrowing names from classical physics. In
writing this book we have made no attempt to contradict this point of view. But
in the light of modern topological methods we have tried to bring a little twist to the
standard approach that treats classical and quantum physics as disjoint subjects.
The formulation of both classical and quantum mechanics can be based on the
principle of stationary action. Schwinger has advanced this principle into a powerful
working scheme which encompasses almost every situation in the classical and
quantum worlds. Our treatment will give a modest impression of the wide range
of applicability of Schwinger’s action principle.
We then proceed to rediscover the importance of such familiar subjects as Jacobi
fields, action angle variables, adiabatic invariants, etc. in the light of current research
on classical Hamiltonian dynamics. It is here that we recognize the important role
that canonical perturbation theory played before the advent of modern quantum
mechanics.
Meanwhile, classical mechanics has been given fresh impetus through new
developments in perturbation theory, offering a new look at old problems in
nonlinear mechanics like, e.g., the stability of the solar system. Here the KAM
theorem proved that weakly disturbed integrable systems will remain on invariant
surfaces (tori) for most initial conditions and do not leave the tori to end up in chaotic
motion.

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 1

W. Dittrich, M. Reuter, Classical and Quantum Dynamics, Graduate Texts
in Physics, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-21677-5_1
2 1 Introduction

At this stage we point to the fundamental role that adiabatic invariants played
prior to canonical quantization of complementary dynamical variables. We are
reminded of torus quantization, which assigns each adiabatic invariant an integer
multiple of Planck’s constant. All these semiclassical quantization procedures have
much in common with Feynman’s path integral or, rather, approximations thereof.
Indeed, Feynman’s path integral methods are ideally suited to follow a quantum
mechanical system—if certain restrictions are enforced—into its classical realm.
Consequently it is one of our main goals to apply Feynman’s path integral and
other geometrical methods to uncover the mystery of the zero point energy (Maslov
anomaly) of the quantum harmonic oscillator.
That quantum and classical mechanics are, in fact, disjoint physical worlds was
clear from the very beginning. Present-day experience is no exception; it is rather
embarrassing to find out that an important geometric phase in a cyclic adiabatic
quantal process has been overlooked since the dawn of quantum mechanics. This
so-called Berry phase signals that in nonrelativistic as well as relativistic quantum
theory, geometrical methods play an eminent role.
The appearance of topology in quantum mechanics is probably the most impor-
tant new development to occur in recent years. A large portion of this text is
therefore devoted to the geometric structure of topologically nontrivial physical
systems. Berry phases, Maslov indices, Chern–Simons terms and various other
topological quantities have clearly demonstrated that quantum mechanics is not,
as of yet, a closed book.
Chapter 2
The Action Principles in Mechanics

We begin this chapter with the definition of the action functional as time integral
over the Lagrangian L.qi .t/; qP i .t/I t/ of a dynamical system:
Z t2
S fŒqi .t/I t1 ; t2 g D dt L.qi .t/; qP i .t/I t/ : (2.1)
t1

Here, qi , i D 1; 2; : : : ; N, are points in N-dimensional configuration space. Thus

qi .t/ describes the motion of the system, and qP i .t/ D dqi =dt determines its velocity
along the path in configuration space. The endpoints of the trajectory are given by
qi .t1 / D qi1 , and qi .t2 / D qi2 .
Next we want to find out what the actual dynamical path of the system is. The
answer is contained in the principle of stationary action: in response to infinitesimal
variation of the integration path, the action S is stationary, ıS D 0, for variations
about the correct path, provided the initial and final configurations are held fixed.
On the other hand, if we permit infinitesimal changes of qi .t/ at the initial and final
times, including alterations of those times, the only contribution to ıS comes from
the endpoint variations, or

ıS D G.t2 /  G.t1 / : (2.2)

Equation (2.2) is the most general formulation of the action principle in mechanics.
The fixed values G1 and G2 depend only on the endpoint path variables at the
respective terminal times.
Again, given a system with the action functional S, the actual time evolution
in configuration space follows that path about which general variations produce
only endpoint contributions. The explicit form of G is dependent upon the special

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 3

W. Dittrich, M. Reuter, Classical and Quantum Dynamics, Graduate Texts
in Physics, DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-21677-5_2
4 2 The Action Principles in Mechanics

representation of the action principle. In the following we begin with the one that is
best known, i.e.,
1. Lagrange: The Lagrangian for a point particle with mass m, moving in
a potential V.xi ; t/, is
m 2
L.xi ; xP i I t/ D xP  V.xi ; t/ : (2.3)
2 i
Here and in the following we restrict ourselves to the case N D 3; i.e., we
describe the motion of a single mass point by xi .t/ in real space. The dynamical
variable xi .t/ denotes the actual classical trajectory of the particle which is
parametrized by t with t1  t  t2 .
Now we consider the response of the action functional (2.1) with respect to
changes in the coordinates and in the time, ıxi .t/ and ıt.t/, respectively. It is
important to recognize that, while the original trajectory is being shifted in real
space according to

xi .t/ ! x0i .t0 / D xi .t/ C ıxi .t/ (2.4)

the time-readings along the path become altered locally, i.e., different at each
individual point on the varied curve—including the endpoints. This means that
our time change is not a global .ıt.t/ D const:/ rigid time displacement, equally
valid for all points on the trajectory, but that the time becomes changed locally,
or, shall we say, gauged, for the transported trajectory. All this indicates that we
have to supplement (2.4) by

t ! t0 .t/ D t C ıt.t/ ; (2.5)

where the terminal time changes are given by ıt.t2 / D ıt2 , and ıt.t1 / D ıt1 .
To the time change (2.5) is associated the change in the integration measure
in (2.1) given by the Jacobi formula
 
d.t C ıt/ d
d.t C ıt/ D dt D 1 C ıt.t/ dt (2.6)
dt dt
or
d
ı.dt/ WD d.t C ıt/  dt D dt ıt.t/ : (2.7)
dt

If the time is not varied, we write ı0 instead of ı; i.e., ı0 t D 0 or Œı0 ; d=dt D 0.

The variation of xi .t/ is then given by

d
ıxi .t/ D ı0 xi .t/ C ıt .xi .t// (2.8)
dt
2 The Action Principles in Mechanics 5

since up to higher order terms we have

dx0i .t/
ıxi .t/ D x0i .t0 /  xi .t/ D x0i .t C ıt/  xi .t/ D x0i .t/ C ıt  xi .t/
dt
dxi dxi
D .x0i .t/  xi .t// C ıt DW ı0 xi .t/ C ıt :
dt dt
Similarly,

d
ıPxi .t/ D ı0 xP i .t/ C ıt xP i (2.9)
dt
d d
D ı0 xP i C .ıtPxi /  xP i .ıt/
dt dt
 
d d d d d
D ı0 C ıt xi  xP i ıt D .ıxi /  xP i ıt : (2.10)
dt dt dt dt dt

The difference between ı and ı0 acting on t, xi .t/ and xP i .t/ is expressed by the
identity

d
ı D ı0 C ıt : (2.11)
dt
So far we have obtained
2d 3
dt .Lıt/ıt dt
dL

Z Z 6 ‚ …„ ƒ 7
t2 t2 6 d 7
ıS D Œı.dt/L C dtıL D dt 6 L .ıt/ CıL7
6
7
t1 t1 4 dt 5

Z t2    Z t2  
d dL d
D dt .Lıt/ C ıL  ıt D dt .Lıt/ C ı0 L ;
t1 dt dt t1 dt
(2.12)

since, according to (2.11) we have

d
ıL D ı0 L C ıt L: (2.13)
dt
The total variation of the Lagrangian is then given by

d @L @L dL
ıL D ı0 L C ıt LD ı 0 xi C ı0 xP i C ıt
dt @xi @Pxi dt
 
@L @L @L @L @L
D ı 0 xi C ı0 xP i C ıt xP i C xR i C
@xi @Pxi @xi @Pxi @t
6 2 The Action Principles in Mechanics

   
@L d @L d @L
D ı0 C ıt xi C ı0 C ıt xP i C ıt
@xi dt @Pxi dt @t
@L @L @L
D ıxi C ıPxi C ıt :
@xi @Pxi @t

Now we go back to (2.3) and substitute

@L @V.xi ; t/ @L @L @V
D ; D mPxi ; D ; (2.14)
@xi @xi @Pxi @t @t

so that we obtain, with the aid of (2.10):

@V @V d d
ıL D  ıt  ıxi C mPxi ıxi  mPx2i ıt : (2.15)
@t @xi dt dt

Our expression for ıS then becomes

Z  
t2
d @V @V 2 d
ıS D dt mPxi ıxi  ıt  ıxi C .L.t/  mPxi / ıt : (2.16)
t1 dt @t @xi dt

We can also write the last expression for ıS a bit differently, thereby presenting
explicitly the coefficients of ıxi and ıt:
Z ( "  2 ! #
t2
d dxi m dxi
ıS D dt m ıxi  C V ıt
t1 dt dt 2 dt
"  2 #)
d 2 xi @V @V d m dxi
m 2 ıxi  ıxi  ıt C ıt CV ; (2.17)
dt @xi @t dt 2 dt

or with the definition

 2
@L m dxi
ED xP i  L D C V.xi ; t/ ; (2.18)
@Pxi 2 dt
Z t2  
d dxi
ıS D dt m ıxi  Eıt
t1 dt dt
Z t2   2   
d xi @V dE @V
C dt ıxi m 2 C C ıt  : (2.19)
t1 dt @xi dt @t

Since ıxi and ıt are independent variations, the action principle ıS D G2  G1

implies the following laws:

d 2 xi @V.xi ; t/
ıxi W m 2
D ; .Newton/ ; (2.20)
dt @xi
2 The Action Principles in Mechanics 7

i.e., one second-order differential equation.

dE @V
ıt W D ; (2.21)
dt @t

so that for a static potential, @V=@t D 0, the law of the conservation of energy
follows: dE=dt D 0.

dxi
Surface term W G D m ıxi  Eıt : (2.22)
dt
2. Hamiltonian: As a function of the Hamiltonian,

p2i
H.xi ; pi I t/ D C V.xi ; t/ ; (2.23)
2m

the Lagrangian (2.3) can also be written as .pi WD @L=@Pxi ):

dxi
L D pi  H.xi ; pi I t/ : (2.24)
dt
Here, the independent dynamical variables are xi and pi ; t is the independent
time-parameter variable. Hence the change of the action is
Z t2  
dxi
ıS D ı dt pi  H.xi ; pi I t/
t1 dt
Z t2  
d dxi d
D dt pi ıxi C ıpi  ıH  H ıt : (2.25)
t1 dt dt dt

Upon using
 
@H @H @H
ıH D ıxi C ıpi C ıt ; (2.26)
@xi @pi @t

where, according to (2.23): @H=@xi D @V=@xi and @H=@pi D pi =m, we obtain

Z t2
d
ıS D Œpi ıxi  Hıt
dt
t1 dt
Z t2       
dpi @V dxi pi dH @H
C dt ıxi C C ıpi  C ıt  : (2.27)
t1 dt @xi dt m dt @t

The action principle ıS D G2  G1 then tells us here that

dxi @H pi
ıpi W D D ; (2.28)
dt @pi m
8 2 The Action Principles in Mechanics

dpi @H @V
ıxi W D D : (2.29)
dt @xi @xi

Here we recognize the two first-order Hamiltonian differential equations.

dH @H
ıt W D : (2.30)
dt @t
Surface term: G D pi ıxi  Hıt : (2.31)

Let us note for later use:

ıS D G2  G1 D Œpi ıxi  Hıtt2  Œpi ıxi  Hıtt1 : (2.32)

Compared with .x1 WD fxi .t1 /g, x2 WD fxi .t2 /gI i D 1; 2; 3/

@S @S @S @S
ıS D ıx1 C ıx2 C ıt1 C ıt2 (2.33)
@x1 @x2 @t1 @t2

(2.32) yields

@S @S
p1 D  ; H.x1 ; p1 I t1 / D (2.34)
@x1 @t1
or
 
@S @S
H x1 ;  ; t1  D0: (2.35)
@x1 @t1

In the same manner, it follows that:

 
@S @S @S
p2 D ; H x2 ; ; t2 C D0: (2.36)
@x2 @x2 @t2

Obviously, (2.35) and (2.36) are the Hamilton–Jacobi equations for finding the
action S. In this way we have demonstrated that the action (2.1) satisfies the
Hamilton–Jacobi equation. (Later on we shall encounter S again as the generating
function of a canonical transformation .qi ; pi / ! .Qi ; Pi / of the F1 .qi ; Qi ; t/-
type.
3. Euler–Maupertuis (Principle of Least Action): This principle follows from
the Lagrangian representation of the action principle:
Z t2  2
dxi
ıS D ı dt L D m ıxi  Eıt ; (2.37)
t1 dt 1
2 The Action Principles in Mechanics 9

if we introduce the following restrictions:

a) L should not be explicitly time dependent; then the energy E is a conserved
quantity both on the actual and the varied paths; b) for the varied paths, ıxi .t/
should vanish at the terminal points: ıxi .t1;2 / D 0. What remains is
Z t2
ı dt L D E.ıt2  ıt1 / : (2.38)
t1

But under the same restrictions we have, using (2.18),

Z Z
t2 t2
@L
dt L D dt xP i  E.t2  t1 / ; (2.39)
t1 t1 @Pxi

the variation of which is given by

Z Z
t2 t2
@L
ı dt L D ı dt xP i  E.ıt2  ıt1 / : (2.40)
t1 t1 @Pxi

Comparing (2.40) with (2.38), we get, taking into consideration pi WD @L=@Pxi :

Z t2
dxi
ı dt pi D0: (2.41)
t1 dt

If, in addition, we assume the potential to be independent of the velocity, i.e., that

@T
xP i D 2T ; (2.42)
@Pxi

then (2.41) takes on the form

Z t2
ı dt T D 0 ; (2.43)
t1

or
Z t2
dt T D Extremum: (2.44)
t1

Thus the Euler–Maupertuis Principle of Least Action states: The time integral
of the kinetic energy of the particle is an extreme value for the path actually
selected compared to the neighboring paths with the same total energy which the
particle will travel between the initial and final position at any time t is varied!
10 2 The Action Principles in Mechanics

This variation in time can also be expressed by writing (2.43) in the form [see
also (2.7)]:
Z t2 Z t2  
d
ı dt T D dt T ıt C ıT : (2.45)
t1 t1 dt

In N-dimensional configuration space, (2.41) is written as

Z XN
t2
@L
ı qP i dt D 0 ; (2.46)
t1 iD1
@Pqi

or
Z 2X
N
ı pi dqi D 0 : (2.47)
1 iD1

If we parametrize the path in configuration space between 1 and 2 using the

parameter #, then (2.47) is written
Z #2 X
N
dqi
ı pi d# D 0 : (2.48)
#1 iD1
d#

On the other hand, it follows from the Hamiltonian version of the action principle
in its usual form with vanishing endpoint contributions ıqi .t1;2 / D 0, ıt.t1;2 / D 0
in 2N-dimensional phase space:
Z " #
t2 X
N
dqi
ıQ dt pi H D0 (2.49)
t1 iD1
dt

Q
One should note the different role of ı in (2.46)—the time is also varied—and ı,
which stands for the conventional virtual (timeless) displacement.
With the parametrization # in (2.49), the expression
Z " N #
#2 X
dqi dt
ıQ d# pi H D0 (2.50)
#1 iD1
d# d#

can, by introducing conjugate quantities,

qNC1 D t ; pNC1 D H ; (2.51)

2 The Action Principles in Mechanics 11

be reduced formally to a form similar to (2.48):

Z X
#2 NC1
dqi
ıQ pi d# D 0 : (2.52)
#1 iD1
d#

Besides the fact that in (2.52) we have another pair of canonical variables, the
different roles of the two variation symbols ı and ıQ should be stressed. ı refers
to the paths with constant H D E, whereas in the ıQ variation, H can, in principle,
be any function of time. ıQ in (2.52) applies to 2N C 2-dimensional phase space,
while ı in (2.48) applies to configuration space.
If, in the case of the principle of least action, no external forces are involved,
i.e., we set without loss of generality V D 0, then E as well as T are constants.
Consequently, the Euler–Maupertuis principle takes the form
Z t2
ı dt D 0 D ıt2  ıt1 ; (2.53)
t1

i.e., the time along the actual dynamical path is an extremum.

At this point we are reminded of Fermat’s principle of geometrical optics: A light
ray selects that path between two points which takes the shortest time to travel.
Jacobi proposed another version of the principle of least action. It is always useful
when one wishes to construct path equations in which time does not appear. We
derive this principle by beginning with the expression for the kinetic energy of
a free particle in space:

3
1 X dxi dxk
TD mik ; (2.54)
2 i;kD1 dt dt

where mik are the elements of the mass tensor, e.g. mik D mıik .
In generalized coordinates in N-dimensional configuration space, we then have

1 .ds/2
TD ; (2.55)
2 .dt/2

with the line element

X
N
.ds/2 D mik .q1 ; q2 ; : : : ; qN /dqi dqk (2.56)
i;kD1

and position-dependent elements mik ; for example, from

m .dr/2 C r2 .d#/2 C .dz/2

TD (2.57)
2 .dt/2
12 2 The Action Principles in Mechanics

we can immediately see that

1 0
m 0 0
$
m D @ 0 mr2 0 A :
0 0 m

The mik take over the role of the metric tensor in configuration space. At this
point mechanics becomes geometry.p
Writing (2.55) in the form dt D ds= 2T we can restate (2.43) as
Z t2 Z 2 p
ı dt T D 0 D ı ds T : (2.58)
t1 1

Here, we substitute T D H  V.qi / to obtain Jacobi’s principle:

Z 2 p
ı H  V.qi / ds D 0 ; (2.59)
1

or, with (2.56):

v
Z u N
2 p uX
ı H  V.qi /t mik .qj /dqi dqk D 0 : (2.60)
1 i;kD1

In the integrand, only the generalized coordinates appear. If we parametrize them

with a parameter #, we get
Z r
#2 p dqi dqk
HV mik d# D Extremum : (2.61)
#1 d# d#

Since # is not constrained in any way, we can construct the Euler equations for
the integrand using the conventional variation procedure. The solutions to these
equations yield the trajectories in parameter representation.
A comparison of Fermat’s and Jacobi’s principles is appropriate here. If we
apply the principle of least time (2.53) to a light ray in a medium with index
of refraction n.xi / and, due to

v 1 n.xi /
D ; vdt D ds ; dt D ds (2.62)
c n.xi / c

get the expression

Z 2
ı ds n.xi / D 0 ; (2.63)
1
2 The Action Principles in Mechanics 13

then it ispobvious from a comparison with Jacobi’s principle (2.59) that the
quantity .E  V/ can be looked at as “index of refraction” for a massive
particle.
4. Schwinger: Here we use xi ; pi ; t and vi as the variables to be varied. We shall
immediately see, however, that vi does not satisfy an equation of motion, i.e.,
dvi =dt D : : : does not appear; therefore vi is not a dynamical variable (just like
 and B in the canonical version of electrodynamics). Schwinger writes
 
dxi 1
L D pi  vi C mvi2  V.xi ; t/ (2.64)
dt 2
dxi
D pi  H.xi ; pi ; t/ ; (2.65)
dt
with H given by

H D pi vi  12 mvi2 C V.xi ; t/ : (2.66)

The variation of the action now gives

 Z  
d t2
@H @V dxi
ıS D dt pi ıxi  ıt  ıxi C  vi ıpi
t1 dt @t @xi dt
  
1 2 d
C.pi C mvi /ıvi  pi vi  mvi C V ıt ;
2 dt
or
Z Z t2   
t2
d dpi @V
ıS D Œpi ıxi  Hıt C
dt dt ıxi C
t1 dt t1 dt @xi
   
dxi dH @H
Cıpi  vi C ıvi .pi C mvi / C ıt  : (2.67)
dt dt @t

With the definition of H in (2.66), the action principle yields

dpi @H @V
ıxi W D D ; (2.68)
dt @xi @xi

dxi @H
ıpi W D D vi : (2.69)
dt @pi

There is no equation of motion for vi : no dvi =dt.

@H
ıvi W pi C mvi D  D0; (2.70)
@vi
14 2 The Action Principles in Mechanics

dH @H
ıt W D : (2.71)
dt @t

Surface term: G D pi ıxi  Hıt : (2.72)

Schwinger’s action principle contains the Lagrangian and Hamiltonian versions

as special cases. So when we write
m 2
H.xi ; pi ; vi ; t/ D pi vi  v C V.xi ; t/
2 i
p2i 1
 C V.xi ; t/  .pi  mvi /2 (2.73)
2m 2m

and introduce vi D pi =m as definition of vi , we return to the Hamiltonian

description. On the other side we can also write L in (2.65) as
 
dxi m m dxi 2
L D pi  pi vi C vi2  V.xi ; t/ D
dt 2 2 dt
   2
dxi m dxi
 V.xi ; t/ C .pi  mvi /  vi   vi ; (2.74)
dt 2 dt

and if we now define: vi D dxi =dt, then the Lagrangian description follows.
Once again: Schwinger’s realization of the action principle is distinguished by
the introduction of additional variables for which no equations of motion exist.
Finally, we should like to briefly discuss the usefulness of the surface terms
G1;2 . These offer a connection between the conservation laws and the invariants
of a mechanical system (Noether).
Let us assume that our variation of the action vanishes under certain circum-
stances: ıS D 0. We then say that the action, which remains unchanged, is invariant
under that particular variation of the path. The principle of stationary action then
states:

ıS D 0 D G2  G1 ; (2.75)

i.e., G has the same value, independent of the initial and final configurations.
In particular, let us assume that the action (Hamiltonian version) is invariant for
a variation around the actual path for which it holds that

d
ıxi .t1;2 / D 0 ; .ıt/ D 0 W ıt D const: D " : (2.76)
dt
2 The Action Principles in Mechanics 15

Then it follows from the invariance of S under infinitesimal constant time transla-
tion:

ıS D 0 D G2  G1 D H.t2 /ıt2 C H.t1 /ıt1 D .H2  H1 / " ; (2.77)

the conservation of energy:

dH
H.t2 / D H.t1 / ; meaning D0: (2.78)
dt
Similarly, the conservation law for linear momentum follows if we assume that
the action of the system is invariant under constant space translation and the change
of the terminal times vanishes:

ıxi D ı"i D const: ; ıt.t1;2 / D 0 : (2.79)

ıS D 0 D G2  G1 D .pi ıxi /2  .pi ıxi /1 D .pi2  pi1 /ı"i (2.80)

or
dpi
pi .t2 / D pi .t1 / ; meaning D0: (2.81)
dt
Now let

p2i
HD C V.r/ ; (2.82)
2m
q
i.e., the potential may only depend on the distance r D x2i . Then no space direction
is distinguished, and with respect to rigid rotations ı!i D const: and

ıt.t1;2 / D 0 ; ıxi D "ijk ı!j xk ; (2.83)

we obtain
Z  q 
t2
dxi p2i
ıS D ı dt pi   V. x2i / D 0 : (2.84)
t1 dt 2m

Let us prove explicitly that ıS D 0.

   2
dxi pi dxi d pi d
ı pi ı D ıpi C pi ıxi  ıpi D pi ıxi ;
dt 2m dt dt m dt
16 2 The Action Principles in Mechanics

where we used dxi =dt D pi =m, since our particle travels on the correct classical
path; thus we are left with

d d 1
pi ıxi D pi "ijk ı!j xk D "ijk ı!j pi pk D 0 ; (2.85)
dt dt m

where again, xP k D pk =m has been applied together with the total antisymmetry
of "ijk .
The remaining variation is

@V @V xi @V
ıV D ıxi D "ijk ı!j xk D "ijk ı!j xk
@xi @xi r @r
1 @V
D "ijk ı!j xi xk D 0 : (2.86)
r @r
Because

ıS D 0 D G2  G1 D .pi ıxi /2  .pi ıxi /1 D .pi "ijk ı!j xk /2  .pi "ijk ı!j xk /1
D ı!i fŒ.r  p/i 2  Œ.r  p/i 1 g (2.87)

this implies the conservation of angular momentum:

dL
L.t2 / D L.t1 / ; meaning D0: (2.88)
dt
Conversely, the conservation of angular momentum corresponds to the invariance,
ıS D 0, under rigid rotation in space. The generalization of this statement is:
if a conservation law exists, then the action S is stationary with respect to the
infinitesimal transformation of a corresponding variable. The converse of this
statement is also true: if S is invariant with respect to an infinitesimal transformation,
ıS D 0, then a corresponding conservation law exists.
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Title: American politics (non-partisan) from the beginning to date

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Author: Thomas V. Cooper

Hector T. Fenton

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK AMERICAN

POLITICS (NON-PARTISAN) FROM THE BEGINNING TO DATE ***
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granted to the public domain.
 AMERICAN POLITICS
(NON-PARTISAN)

FROM THE BEGINNING TO DATE.

EMBODYING

A HISTORY OF ALL THE POLITICAL

PARTIES,
WITH

THEIR VIEWS AND RECORDS ON ALL

IMPORTANT QUESTIONS.
GREAT SPEECHES ON ALL GREAT ISSUES,
AND

TABULATED HISTORY AND

CHRONOLOGICAL EVENTS.

By HON. THOMAS V. COOPER,

Member Pennsylvania House of Representatives, 1870–72. Senate, 1874–84.
Chairman Republican State Committee of Pennsylvania, 1881–82–83–84–85–
86–87.

AND
 HECTOR T. FENTON, Esq.,
Of the Philadelphia Bar.

FIFTEENTH AND REVISED EDITION.

PHILADELPHIA:
FIRESIDE PUBLISHING COMPANY.
1892.
 Entered according to Act of Congress in the year 1892, by the
FIRESIDE PUBLISHING COMPANY,
in the Office of the Librarian of Congress, at Washington, D. C.

ALTEMUS’ BOOK BINDERY,

PHILADELPHIA.

Respectfully Dedicated
TO THE

PROPOSITION
THAT ALL AMERICAN CITIZENS SHOULD TAKE AN INTEREST
IN PUBLIC AFFAIRS.
 PREFACE.

The writer of this volume, in the pursuit of his profession as an

editor, and throughout an active political life, has always felt the
need of a volume from which any important fact, theory or record
could be found at a moment’s glance, and without a search of many
records. He has also remarked the singular fact that no history of the
political parties of the country, as they have faced each other on all
leading issues, has ever been published. These things prompted an
undertaking of the work on his own part, and it is herewith presented
in the hope that it will meet the wants not only of those connected
with politics, but of all who take an interest in public affairs. In this
work very material aid has been rendered by the gentleman whose
name is also associated with its publication, and by many political
friends, who have freely responded during the past year to the calls
made upon them for records, which have been liberally employed in
the writing and compilation of this work.

THOS. V. COOPER.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
 BOOK I.—HISTORY OF THE POLITICAL PARTIES.
PAGE.
Colonial Parties—Whig and Tory 3
Particularists and Strong Government Whigs 5
Federals and Anti-Federals 6
Republicans and Federals 8
Downfall of the Federals 12
Democrats and Federals 17
Jefferson Democrats 19
Hartford Convention 20
Treaty of Ghent 20
Congressional Caucus 21
Protective Tariff 21
Monroe Doctrine 23
Missouri Compromise 24
Tariff—American System 25
Tenure of Office—Eligibility 27
Nullification—Democrats and Federals 29
United States Bank 31
Jackson’s Special Message on the United States Bank 33
Conception of Slavery Question 35
Democrats and Whigs 37
The Hour Rule 39
National Bank Bill—First 41
„ „ „ Second 43
Oregon Treaty of 1846 47
Treaty of Peace with Mexico 49
Clay’s Compromise Resolutions 51
Abolition Party—Rise and Progress of 53
Kansas-Nebraska Bill 55
Ritual of the American Party 57
Kansas Struggle 71
Lincoln and Douglas Debate 73
Charleston Convention—Democratic, 1860 81
Douglas Convention, 1860, Baltimore 86
Breckinridge Convention, 1860, Baltimore 86
Chicago Republican Convention, 1860 86
American Convention, 1860 87
Secession—Preparing for 87
Secession—Virginia Convention, 1861 91
„ Inter-State Commissioners 96
„ Southern Congress, Proceedings of 97
„ Confederate Constitution 97
„ Confederate States 98
Buchanan’s Views 99
Crittenden Compromise 104
Peace Convention 106
Actual Secession 109
„ „ Transferring Arms to the South 109
Fernando Wood’s Secession Message 112
Congress on the Eve of the Rebellion 113
Lincoln’s Views 115
Judge Black’s Views 115
Alexander H. Stephens’ Speech on Secession 116
Lincoln’s First Administration 120
Confederate Military Legislation 128
Guerrillas 129
Twenty-Negro Exemption Law 130
Douglas on the rebellion 130
Political Legislation Incident to the War 130
Thirty-Seventh Congress 131
Compensated Emancipation 135
Lincoln’s Appeal to the Border States 137
Reply of the Border States 138
Border State Slaves 139
Emancipation 141
„ Preliminary Proclamation of 141
„ Proclamation of 143
Loyal Governors, the Address of 144
Fugitive Slave Law, Repeal of 145
Financial Legislation 149
Seward as Secretary of State 149
Internal Taxes 151
Confederate Debt 152
Confederate Taxes 153
West Virginia—Admission of 158
Color in War Politics 159
Thirteenth Amendment—Passage of 167
Louisiana—Admission of Representatives 168
Reconstruction 169
Arkansas—Admission of 170
Reconstruction Measures—Text of 171
Fourteenth Amendment 174
McClellan’s Political Letters 175
Lincoln’s Second Administration 177
Andrew Johnson and his Policy 178
„ „ —Impeachment Trial 179
Grant 191
Enforcement Acts 193
Readmission of Rebellious States 193
Legal Tender Decision 194
Greenback Party 194
Prohibitory Party 196
San Domingo—Annexation of 196
Alabama Claims 197
Force Bill 197
Civil Service—Order of President Hayes 198
Amnesty 199
Liberal Republicans 199
Reform in the Civil Service 200
Credit Mobilier 200
Salary Grab 214
Returning Boards 217
Grangers 218
„ —Illinois Railroad Act of 1873 218
Civil Rights Bill—Supplementary 221
Morton Amendment 222
Whisky Ring 222
Belknap Impeached 223
White League 223
Wheeler Compromise—Text of 226
Election of Hayes and Wheeler 228
Electoral Count 229
Title of President Hayes 233
Cipher Despatches 234
The Hayes Administration 239
Negro Exodus 240
Campaign of 1880 242
Three Per Cent. Funding Bill 244
History of the National Loans 245
Garfield and Arthur—Inauguration of 253
Republican Factions 253
The Caucus 256
Assassination of Garfield 260
Arthur, President 261
Boss Rule 261
Readjusters 263
Mormonism—Suppression of 264
„ Text of the Bill 265
South American Question 269
Star Route Scandal 277
The Coming States 278
Chinese Question 281
„ „ —Speech of Senator Miller on 281
„ „ —Reply of Senator Hoar 285
Merchant Marine 296
Current Politics 298
Political Changes in 1882, 1883, 1884 304–
318
Cleveland’s Administration 321
Contests of 1885, 1886, 1887 321
The Campaigns of 1884, 1886, 1887, 1888 318–
335
The National Conventions of 1888 336
The Presidential Election of 1888 337
President Harrison’s Message on the Chilean Troubles 339
The National Conventions of 1892 347
 BOOK II.—POLITICAL PLATFORMS.
Virginia Resolutions, 1798 2003
Virginia Resolutions, 1798—Answers of the State Legislatures 2006
Resolutions of 1798 and 1799 2010
Washington’s Farewell Address 2014
All National Platforms from 1800 to 1892 2021–
2079
Comparison of Platform Planks on Great Questions 2079–
2104

BOOK III.—GREAT SPEECHES ON GREAT ISSUES.

James Wilson’s Vindication of the Colonies 3003
Patrick Henry before Virginia Delegates 3007
John Adams on the Declaration 3008
Patrick Henry on the Federal Constitution 3010
John Randolph against Tariff 3013
Edward Everett on the Example of the Northern to the
Southern Republics of America 3018
Daniel Webster on the Greek Question 3019
John Randolph’s Reply to Webster 3020
Robert Y. Hayne against Tariff 3021
Henry Clay on his Land Bill 3023
John C. Calhoun’s Reply to Clay 3024
Robt. Y. Hayne on Sales of Public Land—the Foote Resolution 3025
Daniel Webster’s Great Reply to Hayne 3048
John C. Calhoun on the Rights of the States 3080
Henry Clay on the American Protective System 3086
James Buchanan on an Independent Treasury 3095
Lewis Cass on the Missouri Compromise 3096
Clement L. Vallandigham on Slavery 3097
Horace Greeley on Protection 3099
Henry A. Wise Against Know-Nothingism 3109
Kenneth Raynor on the Fusion of Fremont and Fillmore
Forces 3112
Religious Test—Debate on the Article in the Constitution in
Regard to it 3114
Henry Winter Davis on the American Party 3115
Joshua R. Giddings Against the Fugitive Slave Law 3116
Robert Toombs in Favor of Slavery 3117
Judah P. Benjamin on Slave Property 3119
William Lloyd Garrison on the Slavery Question 3120
Theodore Parker Against the Fugitive Slave Law and the
Return of Sims 3121
William H. Seward on the Higher Law 3122
Charles Sumner on the Fallibility of Judicial Tribunals 3123
Galusha A. Grow on his Homestead Bill 3123
Lincoln and Douglas Debate—
„ „ „ Douglas’s Speech 3126
„ „ „ Lincoln’s Reply 3133
„ „ „ Douglas’s Rejoinder 3143
Jefferson Davis on Retiring from the United States Senate 3147
Henry Wilson on the Greeley Canvass 3149
Oliver P. Morton on the National Idea 3151
J. Proctor Knott on “Duluth” 3154
Henry Carey on the Rates of Interest 3159
Simon Cameron on Internal Improvements 3163
John A. Logan on Self-Government 3165
James G. Blaine on the “False Issue” 3171
Roscoe Conkling on the Extra Session of 1879 3176
Lincoln’s Speech at Gettysburg 3186
John M. Broomall on Civil Rights 3186
Charles A. Eldridge against Civil Rights 3189
A. K. McClure on “What of the Republic?” 3191
Robt. G. Ingersoll Nominating Blaine 3201
Roscoe Conkling Nominating Grant 3202
James A. Garfield Nominating Sherman 3203
Daniel Dougherty Nominating Hancock 3205
George Gray Nominating Bayard 3205
William P. Frye Nominating Blaine (at Chicago) 3206
Senator Hill’s Denunciation of Mahone 3207
Senator Mahone’s Reply 3217
Justin S. Morrill on the Tariff Commission 3223
J. Don Cameron on Reduction of Revenue as Affecting the
Tariff 3233
Thomas H. Benton on the Election of Presidents 3237
James G. Blaine’s Eulogy on President Garfield 3240
G. H. Pendleton on Civil Service 3251
John J. Ingalls Against Civil Service 3262
Samuel J. Randall on the Tariff 3274
William McKinley, Jr., on the Tariff 3277
Chauncey M. Depew Nominating Harrison 3283
Leon Abbett Nominating Cleveland 3285

BOOK IV.—PARLIAMENTARY PRACTICE, Etc.

Declaration of Independence 4003
Articles of Confederation 4006
Jefferson’s Manual 4022

BOOK V.—TABULATED HISTORY AND CHRONOLOGICAL

POLITICS.
Statistics of General Information 5003–
5024
Chronological Politics 5025
AMERICAN POLITICS.
 BOOK I.
HISTORY OF THE POLITICAL PARTIES
OF THE
UNITED STATES.
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