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SPRINGER BRIEFS IN APPLIED SCIENCES AND
TECHNOLOGY  POLIMI SPRINGER BRIEFS

Laura Cattaneo · Sergio Terzi Editors

Models, Methods
and Tools for
Product Service
Design
The Manutelligence
Project
SpringerBriefs in Applied Sciences
and Technology

PoliMI SpringerBriefs

Editorial Board
Barbara Pernici, Politecnico di Milano, Milano, Italy
Stefano Della Torre, Politecnico di Milano, Milano, Italy
Bianca M. Colosimo, Politecnico di Milano, Milano, Italy
Tiziano Faravelli, Politecnico di Milano, Milano, Italy
Roberto Paolucci, Politecnico di Milano, Milano, Italy
Silvia Piardi, Politecnico di Milano, Milano, Italy
More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/11159
http://www.polimi.it
Laura Cattaneo Sergio Terzi
•

Editors

Models, Methods and Tools

for Product Service Design
The Manutelligence Project
Editors
Laura Cattaneo Sergio Terzi
Department of Management, Economics Department of Management, Economics
and Industrial Engineering and Industrial Engineering
Politecnico di Milano Politecnico di Milano
Milan, Italy Milan, Italy

ISSN 2191-530X ISSN 2191-5318 (electronic)

SpringerBriefs in Applied Sciences and Technology
ISSN 2282-2577 ISSN 2282-2585 (electronic)
PoliMI SpringerBriefs
ISBN 978-3-319-95848-4 ISBN 978-3-319-95849-1 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-95849-1
Chapter 4 is licensed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-
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© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s) 2019. This book is an open access publication.
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Preface

This book summarizes work being undertaken within the Manutelligence European
Research Project (Grant agreement N°: 636951, H2020-FoF-2014, FoF-05—
Innovative product–service design using manufacturing intelligence). The project
aims at supporting enterprises to develop smart, social, and flexible products with
high value-added services. Manutelligence has improved product and service
design by developing suitable models and methods, and connecting them through a
modular collaborative secure ICT Platform. The use of real data collected in real
time through the Internet of Things (IoT) technologies underpin the design of
product–service system (PSS) and allows to follow the PSS along its life cycle.
Available data allows a better measure and simulation of costs and sustainability
issues, through life-cycle cost (LCC) and life-cycle assessment (LCA). Analyzing
data coming from IoT systems and sharing LCC and LCA information thanks to the
ICT Platform allows speeding up the design of product–service (P-S), decreasing
costs and better understanding customer needs. Industrial partners involved in the
project provided a clear overview of the Manutelligence results and proved how its
technological solutions improve the design of a product–service system and the
management of the product–service life cycle.
The book covers a large number of topics, since Manutelligence really involved
several issues coming from the product and service life cycle. It was designed to
offer readers the possibility to have a complete view of all the results we have
achieved during the project. Furthermore, it contains a clear explanation of the IT
modular architecture we have developed in order to collect within a unique and
complete framework different tools and software.
Chapter 1 introduces the main research contents and provides an overview on
Manutelligence objectives. Furthermore, it introduces the description of the IT
modular platform.
Chapter 2 deals with engineering and business requirements definition, analysis,
and validation. It describes the four-phase methodology implemented to define the
common aggregated requirements for the platform development. The phases
include requirement elicitation, structuration and organization, analysis and
refinement and validation. It also shows the main results of each phase.

v
vi Preface

Chapter 3 describes an approach to manage PSS along its life cycle. It includes a
design methodology for PSS and a systems modeling method. It also highlights
challenges related to PSS lifecycle management observed during the
Manutelligence project.
Chapter 4 shows how the platform developed during the project enable designers
and engineers to access through natural 3DEXPERIENCE to data from both the
traditional enterprise IT systems (CAD, CAX, PLM, MES, etc.) and IoT-enabled
systems. Furthermore, it describes how it is possible to retrieve physical products
information and knowledge management during the PSS lifecycle phases.
Chapter 5 presents tools and procedures to embed and retrieve the knowledge
related to the P-S and its life cycle in manufacturing. Taking into account the
information coming from different sources (PLCs, sensorial IoT nodes, etc.) in the
context of production system, a methodology to present coherently field data is
proposed, with the idea to offer interoperability and integration also from the point
of view of the different devices used to collect these data.
Chapter 6 describes a tool aimed at carrying out the life cycle assessment (called
MaGA) and another one for the life cycle costing (called BAL.LCPA). In order to
seamlessly include environmental and economic considerations into the design
process, the two stand-alone tools have been integrated with the Manutelligence
design platform. Their application in a Fablab-like environment is described to
show how they interact with design tools and to provide examples of the results
they get.
Chapter 7 describes all the different use cases involved in the project. It is
focused on how each of them has applied Manutelligence methods and tools in
order to improve PSS design and management. A particular focus is dedicated to
the usage of the Manutelligence platform.
Chapter 8 illustrates the business potential of product and service lifecycle
engineering tools within the manufacturing sector, with particular attention to the
use cases of the Manutelligence project. The whole process (the aggregation and the
value creation) is investigated. From the scenario, analysis of the global PLM sector
emerged that the aggregation of product and service lifecycle engineering tools is
able to generate significant added value, highlighting in this way the relevant
commercial perspectives of the Manutelligence platform.

Milan, Italy Laura Cattaneo

Sergio Terzi
Acknowledgements

We are grateful to our project officer Erastos Filos and to our reviewer
Mrs. Anastasia Garbi for their constructive and useful suggestions; they greatly
helped us shape our project results. Also, we own gratitude to our project coordi-
nator Maurizio Petrucciani for his invaluable support through all phases of the
project and to all the consortium partners, that have made this work and this project
outstanding. At last, as authors from Politecnico di Milano we would like to thank
the members of our team who were involved in the project, namely Francesca
Amato, Daniele Cerri, Matteo Cocco, Elisabetta De Berti, Silvia Marchetto, Manuel
Oliveira, Monica Rossi, Emanuela Vinci. All of them provided their best effort in
achieving the results of the project, contributing to the research development and to
the scientific improvement of our group, led by Prof. Marco Taisch, and to the
progress of the entire Politecnico and to the whole society.
The work reported in this book is funded by the European Commission, through
European Union’s Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme, under grant
agreement no. 636951.

vii
Contents

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Laura Cattaneo, Jacopo Cassina, Maurizio Petrucciani, Sergio Terzi
and Stefan Wellsandt
2 Engineering and Business Requirements Definition, Analysis
and Validation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
Iris Karvonen, Tapani Ryynänen, Heidi Korhonen, Matteo Cocco
and Donatella Corti
3 Life Cycle Management for Product-Service Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Stefan Wellsandt, Laura Cattaneo, Daniele Cerri, Sergio Terzi,
Donatella Corti, Christian Norden and Reinhard Ahlers
4 A Platform for Product-Service Design and Manufacturing
Intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Maurizio Petrucciani, Lorenzo Marangi, Massimiliano Agosta
and Marco Stevanella
5 Tools and Procedures to Embed and Retrieve Product-Service
Lifecycle Knowledge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
Jacopo Cassina, Ida Critelli, Lara Binotti, Eva Coscia
and Stefano Borgia
6 Life Cycle Assessment and Life Cycle Costing for PSS . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Donatella Corti, Alessandro Fontana, Michele De Santis,
Christian Norden and Reinhard Ahlers
7 Use Cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Claudio Violi, Laura Calvo Duarte, Catalina Amengual Garí,
Pekka Puranen, Christian Norden and Lars Oscarsson
8 Business Exploitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Manuela Zacchei, Silvia Capato and Gianicola Loriga

ix
Chapter 1
Introduction

Laura Cattaneo, Jacopo Cassina, Maurizio Petrucciani, Sergio Terzi

and Stefan Wellsandt

Abstract This introductive chapter aims to clarify some of the main research con-
tents that are involved in Manutelligence project and wants to present the objectives
of the project and the structure of the Manutelligence IT platform. We briefly describe
some fundamental concepts, such as the Product Lifecycle Management (PLM), the
Product Service System (PSS), the Internet of Things (IoT) for the smart manufac-
turing, the Life Cycle Cost and the Life Cycle Assessment (LCC and LCA). All
these topics are strictly connected, since Manutelligence project aims at supporting
enterprises to design and to develop suitable Product-Service Systems, addressing
customers’ needs and stakeholders’ requirements, collected also through IoT tech-
nologies. Furthermore it aims to integrate best in class methodology and tools from
research and industry, resulting in a secure, collaborative Product/Service Design and
Manufacturing Engineering Platform, able to manage the Product-Service lifecycle
and to collect information in order to implement LCC and LCA.

L. Cattaneo (B) · S. Terzi

Department of Economics, Management and Industrial Engineering, Politecnico di Milano,
20156 Milan, Italy
e-mail: laura1.cattaneo@polimi.it
S. Terzi
e-mail: sergio.terzi@polimi.it
S. Wellsandt
BIBA—Bremer Institut für Produktion und Logistik GmbH, University of Bremen,
Hochschulring 20, 28359 Bremen, Germany
e-mail: wel@biba.uni-bremen.de
M. Petrucciani
Dassault Systemes Italia Srl, Viale dell’Innovazione 3, 20126 Milano, Italy
e-mail: maurizio.petrucciani@3ds.com
J. Cassina
Holonix s.r.l, Corso Italia, 8, 20821 Meda, MB, Italy
e-mail: Jacopo.cassina@holonix.it

© The Author(s) 2019 1

L. Cattaneo and S. Terzi (eds.), Models, Methods and Tools for Product Service
Design, PoliMI SpringerBriefs, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-95849-1_1
2 L. Cattaneo et al.

1.1 Product Lifecycle Management

PLM (Product Lifecycle Management) is an acronym widely used in the current

industrial practice. Coined more than 15 years ago, PLM is often seen as an exten-
sive and comprehensive concept, which defines the integration of different kinds
of activities performed by engineering staff along the entire lifecycle of industrial
products, “from cradle to grave” [1].
In its practical essence, PLM defines the adoption of several software tools and
platforms for supporting innovation and engineering processes. According to the
main business analysts (e.g. Gartner, CIMdata, Tech Clarity), PLM is a leading
global market of IT solutions, mainly segmented in two branches: (i) Authoring and
Simulation tools and (ii) Collaborative Product Development platforms and environ-
ments. In the first segment, dozens of vendors are globally proposing their solutions
for enabling virtual prototyping solutions (from CAD 3D, to Computational Flow
Dynamic, from Finite Element Analysis, to Discrete Event Simulation, etc.). The
second branch is populated by a plethora of collaborative functionalities supporting,
for instance, effective file sharing, document vaulting, work flow automation, team
management and on distance working. Most of them are provided in one single,
secured environment.
PLM is still a matter of design and engineering tools, and their integration. The
industrial practice shows how PLM’s real implementation is quite far from its com-
prehensive “lifecycle” meaning [2].
One product lifecycle framework in production engineering differentiates three
main phases, describing the product from the “cradle to grave” [3]:
• Beginning of Life (BOL): processes related to development, production and dis-
tribution;
• Middle of Life (MOL): processes related to a product’s use, service and repair;
• End of Life (EOL): processes related to reverse logistics like reuse, recycle and
disposal.
Approaches, such as closed-loop PLM [4], take a view upon the entire product
lifecycle, from product ideation to end-of-life processes. Ideally, the view extends into
the beginning of the next lifecycle. This puts forward a paradigm shift from “cradle
to grave” to “cradle to cradle” [5]. An example is the refurbishment of components
from decommissioned products for use in new ones. The aim of closed-loop PLM is
to close information gaps between the phases and processes of the product lifecycle.
This can be backwards, for example providing usage data to design processes, or
forwards, for example providing production and assembly information to recycling
processes. It deals with products as classes or variants, as well as individual product
items (“item level”).
1 Introduction 3

1.2 Product Service System

The adoption of the service business by manufacturing companies is a common

trend in many industrial sectors, especially those offering durable goods. This shift,
referred to in literature as servitization process, is defined as “[…] the increased
offering of fuller market packages or ‘bundles’ of customer focused combinations
of goods, services, support, self-service and knowledge in order to add value to
core product offerings” [6]. Servitization supports companies to strengthen their
competitive position thanks to the financial, marketing and strategic benefits led by
the integration of services in the companies’ offer [6–9].
Differentiation against competitors, hindering competitors to offer similar
product-service bundles and the increasing of customer loyalty are the main ben-
efits of servitization. Today, more than ever, servitization is customer driven [10]. A
research field that is often associated to the servitization process is the one related
to the Product Service-Systems (PSS) [11]. The first definition of a PSS was given
in 1999: “A product service-system is a system of products, services, networks of
players and supporting infrastructure that continuously strives to be competitive, sat-
isfy customer needs and have a lower environmental impact than traditional business
models” [12].
Manzini points out that PSS is an innovation strategy that allows fulfilling specific
customer needs [13]. Tukker observes that PSS is capable to enhance customer loyalty
and build unique relationships since it follows customer needs better [14]. Another
important contribution comes from Sakao and Shimomura that see PSS as a social
system that enhances social and economic values for stakeholders [15].
The move towards the PSS entails an organizational change that makes a company
shift from a product-oriented culture to a service-oriented one. The transition is quite a
complex process that requires several changes and that usually happens in subsequent
steps.
Martinez et al. identify the five categories of challenges a company has to deal
with when moving along the servitization process, namely embedded product-service
culture, delivery of integrated offering, internal processes and capabilities, strategic
alignment and supplier relationships [16].
PSS often include value adding services based on ICT contributions, both in
terms of enhanced information and knowledge generation/sharing, as well as of
additional functionalities [17, 18]. PSS providers need to establish collaboration
among specialized companies. In particular, Fisher et al. discussed approaches for
service business development on a global scale. They take into account organizational
elements, such as customer proximity or behavioral orientation [19].
The closer affiliation of customers and manufacturers/service providers offer
potential to generate revenue throughout the entire lifecycle [18, 20]. Moreover,
as stated by Baines et al., “… integrated product-service offerings are distinctive,
long-lived, and easier to defend from competition based in lower cost economies
…” [18]. The potential extension of the lifetime of tangible components of PSS, due
4 L. Cattaneo et al.

to their integration with adding value services, opens interesting perspectives also
about environmental sustainability improvements.
The advantages coming from PSS have been demonstrated in literature, yet for
many companies efficiently managing the service operations is still a challenge.
Best practices and empirical analysis are mainly carried out with a focus on larger
companies. Nonetheless, the PSS topic is more and more recognized by SMEs that are
looking for innovative business solutions to improve their competitive advantages.

1.3 Internet of Things for Smart Manufacturing

The term “Internet of Things” (IoT) was first used by the Massachusetts Institute
of Technology in the year 1999. It was used in the sense of a networked system
of autonomously interacting and self-organizing objects and processes, which was
expected to lead to a convergence of physical things with the digital world of the
Internet [21]. This extrapolates the idea of the Internet—a global, interconnected net-
work of computers—to describe a network of interconnected things, such as everyday
objects, products, and environments. At the heart of the concept lies the idea that
objects—things—are capable of information processing, communication with each
other and with their environment, and autonomous decision making. For instance,
Intelligent Products are physical items, which may be transported, processed or used
and comprise the ability to act in an intelligent manner. McFarlane et al. [22] define
the Intelligent Product as:
[…] a physical and information based representation of an item […] which possesses a unique
identification, is capable of communicating effectively with its environment, can retain or
store data about itself, deploys a language to display its features, production requirements,
etc., and is capable of participating in or making decisions relevant to its own destiny.

The degree of intelligence of a product may exhibit variations from simple data pro-
cessing to complex pro-active behavior. Three dimensions of characterization of an
Intelligent Product are suggested by Meyer et al. [23]: Level of Intelligence, Location
of Intelligence and Aggregation Level of Intelligence. The first dimension describes
whether the Intelligent Product exhibits information handling, problem notification
or decisions making capabilities. The second shows whether the intelligence is built
into the object, or whether it is located in the network. Finally, the aggregation level
describes whether the item itself is intelligent or whether intelligence is aggregated
at container level.
More recently Porter states that intelligence and connectivity enable an entirely
new set of product functions and capabilities, which can be grouped into four areas:
monitoring, control, optimization, and autonomy [24]. A product can potentially
incorporate all four. Each capability is valuable in its own right and also sets the
stage for the next level. For example, monitoring capabilities are the foundation for
product control, optimization, and autonomy. A company must choose the set of
capabilities that deliver its customer value and define its competitive positioning.
1 Introduction 5

Smart, connected products have three core elements:

• Physical components comprise the product’s mechanical and electrical parts. In a
car, for example, these include the engine block, tires, and batteries.
• Smart components comprise the sensors, microprocessors, data storage, controls,
software, and, typically, an embedded operating system and enhanced user inter-
face. In a car, for example, smart components include the engine control unit,
antilock braking system, rain-sensing windshields with automated wipers, and
touch screen displays.
• Connectivity components comprise the ports, antennae, and protocols enabling
wired or wireless connections with the product. Connectivity takes three forms,
which can be present together:
– One-to-one: an individual product connects to the user, the manufacturer, or
another product through a port or other interface—for example, when a car is
hooked up to a diagnostic machine.
– One-to-many: a central system is continuously or intermittently connected to
many products simultaneously. For example, many Tesla automobiles are con-
nected to a single manufacturer system that monitors performance and accom-
plishes remote service and upgrades.
– Many-to-many: multiple products connect to many other types of products and
often also to external data sources. An array of types of farm equipment is
connected to one another, and to geo-location data, to coordinate and optimize
the farm system.
Connectivity serves a dual purpose. First, it allows information to be exchanged
between the product and its operating environment, its maker, its users, and other
products and systems. Second, connectivity enables some functions of the product
to exist outside the physical device, in what is known as the product cloud.
Smart, connected products offer exponentially expanding opportunities for new
functionality, far greater reliability, much higher product utilization, and capabilities.
These new types of products alter industry structure and the nature of competition,
exposing companies to new competitive opportunities and threats. They are reshaping
industry boundaries and creating entirely new industries. Smart, connected products
have been shown to be applicable to various scenarios and business models. For
instance, Kärkkäinen et al. describe the application of the concept to supply network
information management problems [25]. Other examples are the application of the
Smart Products to supply chain [26], manufacturing control [22, 27], and production,
distribution, and warehouse management logistics [28].
Smart connected products are increasingly the focus of research into the collection
of item-level product usage data for closed-loop PLM applications, servitization and
product avatars [29, 30].
6 L. Cattaneo et al.

1.4 Life Cycle Cost (LCC) and Life Cycle Assessment

(LCA)

Life Cycle Cost (LCC) analysis provides a framework for specifying the estimated
total incremental cost of developing, producing, using and retiring a particular item.
This methodology is useful to directly provide cost information to designers, in order
to reduce the life cycle cost of the products they design [31].
There exist some difficulties in the application of LCC techniques to PSS, which
usually includes the necessity of analyze various scenarios for effectively evaluating
the impact of risks and uncertainties. These difficulties arise from some specificities
of PSS, such as the modification of the role and responsibilities of customers and
suppliers in the various PSS life cycle phases, the difficulty to foreseen the timing
and overall frequency of use of some services, the lack of availability of life cycle
data. The gap about LCC information among the various stakeholders during the
PSS design phase can lead to unsatisfactory choices and prevent the full exploitation
of PSS benefits [32, 33].
Life Cycle Assessment is “a process to evaluate the environmental burdens asso-
ciated with a product system, or activity (process) by identifying and quantitatively
describing the energy and materials used, and wastes released to the environment,
and to assess the impacts of those energy and material uses and releases to the envi-
ronment” (www.setac.org). To calculate impact ratios, LCA defines four phases that
takes place iteratively: the goal/scope definition, the inventory definition and analy-
sis, the impact assessment and the interpretation. Fundamental for the reliability and
repeatability of calculating impact ratios is the completeness and quality of data and
the transparency of processes and methodology applied.
Although LCA is a well-documented methodology (e.g., LCA handbook, 2010),
repeatability is weakened because of the large freedom offered in choosing system
boarders, parameter selection, data quantity and calculation methodology, which
introduce uncertainties on estimated impact ratios and make difficult their compar-
isons. Moreover, due to the complexity and the diverse types of uncertainties inherent
to LCA, simplifications and by analogy approaches are often required in order to use
it [34]. This hinders the comparison of studies even when they address similar situ-
ations. The role of LCA in influencing design and more generally decision making
towards a sustainability strategy is hindered by its current use, which often takes
place as a posteriori side activity after product design fulfillment, as well as by the
lack data models and tools able to capture and make transparent the choices and deci-
sion process during all the step of product lifecycle. These problems are exacerbated
while considering PSS due to some specific challenges, such as:
• Wide difference of PSS typologies implying modifications to the required activities
and the involved actors [35];
• Strong influence of the context of application of PSS for determining the encounters
and the methodologies to be followed [36],
• Unsatisfactory integration of sustainability issues in current PSS design method-
ologies.
1 Introduction 7

1.5 The Manutelligence Project

The Manutelligence Project aims at supporting enterprises to design and to develop

suitable Product-Service Systems, addressing customers’ needs and stakeholders’
requirements. Manutelligence aims to integrate best in class methodologies and
tools from research and industry, resulting in a secure, collaborative Product/Service
Design and Manufacturing Engineering Platform.
The Manutelligence consortium consists of a group of highly qualified industrial
and academic research organizations that has been specifically affiliated to meet the
challenges of the project.
All the involved RTD partners have a strong experience in publicly funded
projects, both at a European and a national level, with high innovative and application
capabilities. The RTD partners have the core competences and expertises required to
cover the knowledge domains of this project (information and communication tech-
nologies, product lifecycle management, product & service innovation management,
data and knowledge management, etc.). The application partners are concentrated on
the industry-driven implementation and evaluation, to prove the resulting research
concepts.
The partners are divided as follow:
• 4 Research partners broken down as follows:
– 2 Universities: Politecnico di Milano and Supsi.
– 2 Research Institutes: VTT and BIBA.
• 3 ICT Industrial partners: Dassault Systèmes, Holonix and Balance.
• 5 Industrial Companies: Ferrari, Mayer Turku, Lindbäcks Bygg, Fundacio Privada
Centre CIM, Rina Consulting.
Concerning the geographical distribution of the consortium partners, Manutel-
ligence gathers partners form seven different countries: Finland, France, Germany,
Italy, Spain, Sweden, and Switzerland.

1.5.1 Manutelligence Research Objectives

The main research topics addressed during the projects have been:

• Improve efficiency and develop new methodology for the PSS design process, with
a specific focus on the integration of IoT technologies (Chap. 2).
• Achieve a complete integration of Product Lifecycle Management and Service
Lifecycle Management, developing concepts, methodologies and tools to support
PSS development (Chap. 2).
• Adapt and integrate existing design, data analysis and life cycle assessment tools
to realize closed-loop PLM for PSS (Chap. 2).
• Enable designers and engineers access data from the traditional enterprise IT sys-
tems, but also from the IoT enabled systems. The objective is to manage all data,
8 L. Cattaneo et al.

information and knowledge related to the P-S and its lifecycle in manufacturing.
(Chap. 3).
• Extract feedback from P-S customers, analyzing data coming from IoT systems,
in order to speed up the design of P-S, and to decrease the costs and to better
understand customer needs (Chap. 3).
• Extend and improve the use of Manufacturing and Service Execution Simulation
and optimize it through comparisons with test bench and real usage data (Chaps.
3 and 4).
• Measure and simulate costs and sustainability issues, through Life Cycle Cost
(LCC) and Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), collecting data from both traditional
sources and smart connected products. The combined use of various tools allows
effectively sharing LCC and LCA information to all the stakeholders in a simple
way, supporting their decision making processes (Chap. 5).

1.5.2 The Manutelligence IT Platform

To achieve the described objectives, Manutelligence aims to integrate best-in-class

methodology and tools from research and industry, resulting in a secure, collaborative
Manufacturing Engineering Platform. This platform enables designers and engineers
to access data from both the traditional enterprise IT systems (CAD, CAX, PLM,
MES, etc.) and from smart, connected products. In Table 1.1, the architecture of the
Manutelligence platform is presented.
The platform consists of the integration of different tools components, which will
be exhaustively described in Chap. 4.
The core technical achievements of Manutelligence are:
• Inclusion of tools for the process design and manufacturing execution. These tools
are intrinsically integrated with the PSS design phase and can leverage on the IoT
information coming from the operations.
• Access information through a 3D interface representing the digital representation
of the product, containing both information from the digital product model stored
in the PLM and those coming from Intelligent Products (IoT technologies).

Table 1.1 Manutelligence’s tools integration

Partner tool name Brief description of component Provided by partner
3DEXPERIENCE Managing the Product Service Design and Dassault Systemes
Manufacturing processes
I-Like Managing the Internet Of Things (IoT) data Holonix
gathering and elaboration
MaGA Managing the environmental impact analysis SUPSI
LCPA Managing the Product Service life cycle cost BALANCE
analysis
1 Introduction 9

• Support the interaction between the engineering and the environmental (LCA) or
business (LCC) analysts, as well as to provide tools and methods to enable iterative
calculation and optimization of these aspects. The platform results a suitable tool
to collect, share data and information helping analysts to retrieve data and to define
boundaries of the analysis.
• Features of the platform can be applied in many different industrial cases, improv-
ing the manufacturing efficiency and quality, addressing the needs captured from
the products usage by the end users.

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1 Introduction 11

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Chapter 2
Engineering and Business Requirements
Definition, Analysis and Validation

Iris Karvonen, Tapani Ryynänen, Heidi Korhonen, Matteo Cocco

and Donatella Corti

Abstract The objective of Manutelligence platform is to manage manufacturing

intelligence; all data, information and knowledge related to the Product Service (PS)
and its lifecycle. The platform is based on two existing platforms and some analysis
tools (for example LCA and LCC). It was developed according to the needs of four
use cases in different industrial fields (automotive, ship, smart house, 3D-printing).
The chapter describes the four-phase methodology to define the common aggregated
requirements for the platform. The phases include requirement elicitation, struc-
turation and organization, analysis and refinement and validation. In the elicitation
phase the requirements were identified from the use cases, in the structuration and
refinement phases they were further consolidated, categorized and processed towards
aggregated requirements and in the validation phase the resulting aggregated require-
ments were compared to the original use case requirements. The chapter also shows
the main results of each phase.

I. Karvonen (B) · T. Ryynänen · H. Korhonen

VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland Ltd., P.O. Box 1000, 02044 Espoo, Finland
e-mail: Iris.Karvonen@vtt.fi
T. Ryynänen
e-mail: Tapani.Ryynanen@vtt.fi
H. Korhonen
e-mail: Heidi.Korhonen@vtt.fi
M. Cocco
Dassault Systèmes, Milano, Italy
e-mail: Matteo.Cocco@3ds.com
D. Corti
SUPSI—University of Applied Sciences and Arts of Southern Switzerland, Via Cantonale,
2C, 6928 Manno, Switzerland
e-mail: Donatella.Corti@supsi.ch

© The Author(s) 2019 13

L. Cattaneo and S. Terzi (eds.), Models, Methods and Tools for Product Service
Design, PoliMI SpringerBriefs, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-95849-1_2
14 I. Karvonen et al.

2.1 Introduction

This chapter describes the methodology and main results of the definition and pro-
cessing of engineering and business requirements for Manutelligence platform. The
chapter is focused on the phase before platform implementation; thus also the vali-
dation here is about validation of final requirements against the use case scenarios
and requirements. The platform validation against the requirements is not discussed
here.
As a starting point for development, Manutelligence had two existing platforms
and some existing analysis tools. These have been consolidated, complemented and
adapted to become the Manutelligence platform. Thus the Manutelligence approach
was different from the basic software requirements definition, which often starts
from the scratch (new application or module) or has the description or original user
requirements of the existing platform available.
The development has been guided by the needs of participating industrial pilots.
The Manutelligence project included four industrial pilots from different industrial
fields (automotive, ship, smart house, 3D-printing). These cases were the sources for
industrial requirements in the project. All the pilots already use various engineering
tools in the product design. The idea was not to collect all the potential functions that
an engineering platform could cover, but to identify new needs with relation to their
current tools and practices. Thus the collected requirements from the use cases do
not compose a complete set of requirements for a generic PS engineering platform.
The requirement engineering process was carried out using a common methodol-
ogy through the following phases: requirement elicitation, structuring and orga-
nization, refinement and validation. The intermediate requirement processing and
consolidation phases were needed because the different pilot scenarios were focused
on different processes and industries, with various stakeholders and user needs, which
resulted in a heterogeneous set of elicited requirements, difficult to use as such for
the platform development. In the process attention was given to keep the traceability.
In the requirement elicitation phase, the idea was to identify requirements with a
wide scope, not restricting in what could be implemented in the current project. On
one hand the wider scope gave more input for the platform development, on the other
hand the pilots were in the elicitation phase not yet able to make the decision about
what will be implemented in Manutelligence. Thus it was clear from the beginning
that not all wishes in original requirements are implemented in this project with the
restricted project resources. Thus the requirements should not be considered as static
and final but more as an iterative and evolutionary set of needs.

2.2 Challenges

The main objective in requirement elicitation was to receive requirements that arise
from the real needs of end users and the focus was not on the formal quality. The end
2 Engineering and Business Requirements Definition … 15

users were not specialists in requirement engineering, but in PS design and engineer-
ing methods and tools. Requirement identification is often challenging, as the end
users are not able to express their needs directly. Instead they need to be dragged out
using different methods, taking into account the end-user business objectives. Thus
user friendly methods were needed. The approach generated a set of heterogeneous
requirements, which required further analysis and processing.
The sources of heterogeneity came already from different concepts and termi-
nologies used in different sectors, but also from different groups of stakeholders,
PS systems and different engineering processes and practices. Additionally, the pilot
companies represent different company sizes and have differences in their prepared-
ness for the utilization of information technology. The different groups also produced
requirements with different levels of detail.
Given the above, the four datasets received were challenging to structure and
consolidate. Therefore the structuration and analysis of the requirements required
manual and iterative processing of data. As the structuration and analysis phases were
mainly performed by researchers using different methods, the end users were again
in the main role in the validation phase to check that the consolidated requirements
were sufficient compared to the original pilot scenarios.

2.3 Methodology

2.3.1 Four Phase Approach

The Manutelligence approach was to integrate and adapt existing technologies to

fulfill the development needs of the four pilot cases in selected PS engineering pro-
cess parts. The approach affected the Manutelligence methodology for requirements
engineering.
The selected approach was to apply a four-phase methodology with the phases:
Elicitation, Structuration, Analysis and Refinement and Validation. The objectives
of the four Requirements Engineering phases were:
Elicitation. During this process heterogeneous needs and opportunities coming from
different stakeholders involved in the PS development were identified from the pilots.
Structuration. The main objective of the structuration was to unify and integrate
the information collected in the previous step from disparate sources and organize
them into a common structure that can be used for analysis.
Refinement and Analysis. The target of this activity was to refine and verify the
previously elicited requirements. The refinement consists of the assessment of the
completeness, coherence and feasibility of the stakeholders’ requirements and their
prioritization according to different criteria.
Requirements validation. The purpose of the validation was to ensure that the
structured and consolidated requirements were sufficient for the end users (pilots)
and could fulfill the defined scenarios. Thus this phase was the validation of the
16 I. Karvonen et al.

consolidated requirements against the pilot needs (scenarios and stories), not the
validation of the implementation. Later in the project a validation of the platform
against the consolidated requirements was performed. This platform validation is out
of the scope of this chapter.

2.3.2 Requirements Elicitation Techniques in Manutelligence

The task of requirements elicitation is the identification of requirements’ sources

and the elicitation of requirements according to the identified stakeholders and other
requirements sources [3]. The elicitation can be performed using different method-
ologies such as interview, questionnaire, observation, brainstorming, prototyping,
mind-map and checklist. In this phase, human activity is fundamental and it is nec-
essary to identify users involved in the process and establish a relation between them
and the developers [2].
The elicitation was started with a pre-elicitation phase to identify the context in
which the Manutelligence project will be developed. In the pre-elicitation, informa-
tion was collected using a short questionnaire about the understanding of the holistic
PS and what are the stakeholder expectations from the project. It was a kind of
“close interview” technique in which the stakeholders answered to a predefined set
of open-ended questions (3 questions).
After this preparation phase the actual elicitation was carried out. The following
elicitation techniques were used: questionnaire, process mapping, pilot stories and
pilot scenarios.
In Manutelligence a comprehensive questionnaire with about 30 questions was
used to investigate the industrial practices in product and service (PS) development
and data management in the four pilots. The questionnaire included the following
parts:
Part 1. Design process at glance.
Part 2. Managing knowledge in a design and development context.
Part 3. Managing the development of the PS.
Part 4. Evaluating the lifecycle of the PS.
In the process mapping activity, the PS lifecycle of each pilot was modeled to
understand the main life cycle phases and their interaction and the focus of process
developments needed. Because of the different levels of complexity in the pilot cases
the resulting models varied in the level of detail.
The pilot story is a customer and user centric methodology, useful to understand
the whole domain of the project. A pilot story basically is a storytelling with a
description of how the user would interact with the Manutelligence platform rather
than how it works internally or how it is designed. Telling the story, the end user is
able to present the desired future operations. Going through the story, it was possible
to identify requirements enabling the story to come true.
2 Engineering and Business Requirements Definition … 17

In parallel with the requirement identification, pilot scenarios for the Manutelli-
gence project were described. The scenarios described the candidate as-is and to-be
use cases to be implemented in the project pilots, offering information in a more struc-
tured format: purpose and objectives, actors involved, systems etc. This information
was also used in the elicitation of the requirements.

2.3.3 Structuration Methods

The objective of the structuration phase was to organize the requirements coming
from different sources into a common structure and to consolidate them to a moderate
number of requirements. Thus firstly the structure had to be defined, then all the
requirements were allocated to the structure and finally they were aggregated. In the
beginning, each requirement was given a unique identifier that also connects it to
the original pilot. This identifier followed the requirement throughout the process so
that the original requirement could always be traced back.
In the structuration two approaches were integrated: top-down and bottom-up.
In the top-down approach, the concepts and structures given by the project were
identified. These could be found for example in the interviews or questionnaires.
The structures were compared to find similarities, which did not have to be exactly
the same but on the same dimension, like for example different process phases of
product-service lifecycles.
In the bottom-up approach, the structures emerging from the data were identified.
The task utilized an adaptation of the Thematic analysis method [1]. An understand-
ing of the data (original pilot requirements) was required in the task, often leading
to necessity to familiarize oneself with the pilot stories and scenarios.
The bottom-up approach thus meant analyzing the unstructured requirements
to identify similarities, categories and structures. The goal was to form a generic
structure or hierarchy of categories that suits for all the use cases and supports the
development of the Manutelligence platform.
In the next phase the information available from both the given structures (top-
down) and from the list of unstructured requirements (bottom-up) was analyzed and
relations, similarities and differences were identified. The final structure was formed,
based on understanding the knowledge from both approaches and the complete data.
The pilot requirements were organized to the defined structure. The organization
also tested if the structure was sufficient, if it was possible to put each requirement
somewhere in the structure.
Finally the original pilot requirements belonging to the same subcategory were
aggregated. The aggregated requirements are not as detailed as the original ones
but they aim to integrate similar needs from different pilots. The links to original
requirements were maintained.
18 I. Karvonen et al.

2.3.4 Analysis and Prioritization Method

The objective of the third phase was to further refine and prioritize the structured
requirements coming from the previous phase. The aim of the prioritization was
not to remove any requirements but to create an overall view of their high level
importance. The final decision of the requirements to be implemented during the
project was taken along the pilot development.
The requirements were first reviewed in order to make the level of detail more
homogeneous and to eliminate potential duplications. Next a trade-off analysis was
performed to identify on one hand mutually supportive and on the other hand conflict-
ing requirements. In the trade-off analysis each couple of requirements was consid-
ered and the corresponding relationship was qualitatively evaluated. The correlation
was analyzed considering the mutual impact of requirements during the development
of the platform. A positive correlation means that the parallel fulfillment of the two
requirements is mutually supportive and vice-versa. Values ranging from −2 to +2
were used.
For the prioritization two types of criteria were defined: (1) Manutelligence-
related criteria and (2) Pilot-related criteria. Manutelligence-related criteria come
from understanding the general objectives of the project. Aggregated requirements
were used in this phase. Pilot-related criteria are based on the needs of the pilot cases;
thus the original unstructured requirements were used here. These requirements were
considered on how much they can positively impact on the design process of the PS
in the pilot.
Findings coming from the two prioritization analyses were finally merged to form
the final rank. A bonus system was used that favors more those requirements that
are addressed as important by both the Manutelligence-related and the pilot-related
criteria. This final rank achieved provided evidence about what are the most relevant
requirements to be fulfilled within the Manutelligence project since it summarized
all the previous analyses based on different points of view.

2.3.5 Requirements Validation Method

Validation has different roles over the application development process. In Manutel-
ligence the first validation took place in the requirement definition phase and it was
about validation of requirements, not software. Thus the objective of the require-
ments validation here was not to check that the Manutelligence platform and related
tools fulfill the requirements, but that the aggregated requirements fulfill the end
user needs. Also the prioritization defined in the previous task was checked. This
was needed, as the composition, structuring, aggregation and analysis (including
prioritization) of requirements from different use cases were performed by the sup-
porting partners, not the use case owners themselves.
2 Engineering and Business Requirements Definition … 19

Different methods for the validation were applied. First an individual review
using a walk-through approach was used to check the sufficiency of aggregated
requirements (not the priorities). The review was performed by a group of researchers
representing the partners supporting the end users in Manutelligence. In the review
each of the use cases was handled separately. Two pieces of source material for each
case were used: (1) the pilot stories and (2) the end user scenario descriptions (to-be).
The approach in the review was first to walk through the pilot story step by step and
to identify the main functionality needed for each step. Thereafter the list of needed
functionalities was compared to the list of aggregated requirements to see if there
is a requirement available, which enables taking the step. After that, the same was
done for the end user scenarios (to-be). As the aggregated requirements are on a
higher level, telling more about “what” than “how”, the idea was to find a high level
requirement, which could cover the lower level functionality.
It is clear that not all aggregated requirements were needed for each use case, but
the other way around; at least one requirement was needed for each step. Otherwise
a shortage was recorded.
To include the end users (pilots) in the validation, a specific validation workshop
was organized. The workshop contained the following three main sessions:
• Presentation of the aggregated requirements,
• Industrial partners crosschecking the Use Case requirements,
• Industrial partners checking the prioritization of the requirements.
The main task was the crosschecking of the aggregated requirements by the indus-
trial partners. The participants were divided into sub-groups, one for each pilot and
one for software developers, five groups in all. The methodology used was a form of
Requirements Walk-Through and Reading Technique. The participants were asked to
review the partner specific Pilot Stories and Use Case scenario descriptions (to-be) to
check the sufficiency of the aggregated requirements. The groups were equipped with
printouts, in A3 size, of Pilot Stories, Use Case scenarios and the list of aggregated
requirements. Figure 2.1 depicts the methodology.
The participants read through their Pilot Story and Use Case scenarios, section by
section. For each encountered step or function in the text, the participant checked that
a corresponding requirement could be found in the list of aggregated requirements.
These were marked with a circled 1, 2 and 3 etc. as seen in Fig. 2.2. If an aggregated
requirement covering the issue could not be found, then a note was made. The number
of how many times an aggregated requirement was referenced to was counted for
each Industrial partner.
The third and final step in the workshop for each Industrial partner was to point
out the most important aggregated requirements. Each industrial partner was asked
to mark the five top important aggregated requirements for its specific use cases. The
given rankings were summarized into an overall ranking.
20 I. Karvonen et al.

Fig. 2.1 Reading technique used in the workshop

Fig. 2.2 Requirement categories and number of unstructured requirements in each category
2 Engineering and Business Requirements Definition … 21

2.4 Results from the Definition of Business

and Engineering Requirements

2.4.1 Results from Requirements Elicitation

The requirement elicitation generated more than 200 requirements coming from the
four industrial pilots (automotive 23, ship 129, smart house 25, 3D-printing 18) and
from LCA/LCC technical workpackages (9). The number of requirements coming
from one use case (ship) was much higher than from other use cases. This was due to
using a requirement hierarchy and more detailed low level requirements. As expected,
the requirements were quite heterogeneous and focusing on different process parts
in the PS engineering.

2.4.2 Results from Structuration and Organization

As described earlier, the structuring and categorization of requirements were per-

formed by reconciling the results of top-down and bottom-up approaches.
For the top-down approach, concepts coming from the project were studied.
Manutelligence project is focused on Product-Service design using manufacturing
intelligence and through the development of a platform to support the whole Product
Service lifecycle. Thus, from Manutelligence context the following main concepts
could be identified:
• Product service (PS) (answering to question WHAT).
• PS Lifecycle (WHEN).
• PS actors/stakeholders (BY WHOM).
• PS related knowledge/information/data.
• Platform (HOW; this is for what the requirements are).
Based on these, from top-down there were several alternatives for requirement
categorization, for example based on Product Service type, information type, stake-
holders etc. Product Service type of categorization would not support the integration
of requirements of different use cases. Classification according to the stakeholders
would be difficult as in most cases the objective is to support the information shar-
ing, communication and collaboration between different stakeholders in all tasks.
The division according to information type cannot be strict as many of the require-
ments consider different kinds of information. Especially there is a need to be able
to handle and link them together.
Thus, it seemed that the most suitable candidate for the top-down structure, which
was significant for all the use cases, is based on the lifecycle phases.
In the bottom-up approach the requirements coming from different sources were
analyzed to identify a structure, which could suit for all the use cases and assist in
the aggregation of their requirements. Additionally it should be understandable.
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north-east, drifted down to Egypt, and the storm burst upon it. The
Persian had come. And the grand old ship went to pieces. In Asia the
days of Sethos and of Rameses had never been forgotten. The
gods, that had in their arks gone up with them to battle and to victory,
were now defaced and dishonoured. The temples which had been
built by the captives, and with the spoils brought out of Asia, were
now sought for at Karnak, and dilapidated. The ruthless work the
Egyptians had done was repaid ruthlessly. It was delightful to the
soul of the Persian, now that his opportunity had come, to job the
iron into the soul of the Egyptian.
But such a civilization as that of old Egypt takes a great deal of
killing. It is the working of a thoroughly organized community in
which every man is born to his work, has natural instructors in his
parents and class, and so knows his work by a self-acting law of
Society, which possesses the regularity and precision of a law of
Nature. It survived the Persians. It Egyptianized the Greeks. It was
not stamped out by the Romans. Christianity gradually enfeebled,
absorbed, and metamorphosed it. At last came the Mahomedan
flood, and swept away whatever germs might have even then
remained of a capacity for the maintenance of a well-ordered and
fruitful commonwealth.
 CHAPTER XVII.
THEBES—THE NECROPOLIS.

Hæc omnis, quam cernis, inops inhumataque turba est.

... Hi, quos vehit unda, sepulti.
Nec ripas datur horrendas, ac rauca fluenta
Transportare prius quam sedibus ossa quierunt.—Virgil.

Hitherto we have been on the eastern bank: we now pass to the

western. Here we find an historical museum, unequalled by anything
of the kind to be seen elsewhere, in variety of interest, and in
completeness. Nothing in the world, except the Pyramid region,
approaches to it. There the old primæval monarchy lies entombed;
here, in the western quarter of the capital of the younger monarchy,
and which has now appropriated to itself the name of Thebes, we
have the catacombs of the kings, the tombs of the queens, the
tombs of the priests, of the official class, and of private persons; the
wonderful temple-palace of Medinet Haboo; the Memnonium, or
rather Rameseum, again, temple and palace; the old but well-
preserved Temple-palace of Cornéh, together with the remains of
several temples; the vocal Memnon, and its twin Colossus. These
form a gallery of historical objects, and of records of the arts, of the
manners and customs, and of the daily life of one of the grandest
epochs of Egypt. How can a few indications and touches convey to
those who have not seen them, any true or useful conception of the
objects themselves, or of the thoughts they give rise to in the mind of
the traveller who stands before them, and allows them to interpret to
him the mind of those old times? They are contemporary records in
which he sees written, with accompanying illustrations, chapter after
chapter of old world history, anterior to the days of Rome, Greece,
and Israel.
The tomb of the great Sethos, Joseph’s Pharaoh, of his greater
son, Rameses II., and of Menophres, in whose reign the Exodus
took place, are all here. The tomb of Sethos reaches back 470 feet
into the limestone Mountain, with a descent of 180 feet. Coloured
sculptures cover 320 feet of the excavation. The exact point to which
the sculptures had been carried on the day of his death, is indicated
by the unfinished condition of the work in the last chamber. The walls
had been prepared for the chisel of the sculptor, but the death of the
king interrupted the work. The draughtsman had sketched upon
them, in red colour, the designs that were to be executed. His sketch
had been revised by a superintendent of such works, who had
corrected the red outlines with black ink, wherever they appeared to
him out of proportion, or in any way defective. The freedom and
decision with which the outlines were drawn exceed probably the
power of any modern artist’s or designer’s hand. These sketches are
quite as fresh as they were the day they were made. You see them
just as they were outlined, and corrected for the sculptor, more than
3,000 years ago. It would be worth while going to Egypt to see them,
if they were the only sight in Egypt.
In this, and several others among the royal tombs, we find
symbolical representations of the human race. The Egyptians, the
people of the North, of the East, and of the South, are indicated by
typical figures. This is meant to convey the idea that Pharaoh was
virtually the universal monarch. If he had not felt this, Karnak would
never have been built, nor, I will add, for the sake of the contrast, as
well as the concatenation, would a humble East Anglian Vicar have
spent last winter on the Nile.
The sculptures in these tombs may be divided under three heads.
First, there are those which describe events in the life of the
occupant of the tomb. Then there are scenes from common daily
Egyptian life, in which he took such interest as to desire to have
representations of them in his tomb. Lastly, there are scenes which
illustrate what was supposed would occur in the future life of the
deceased.
In the tomb which bears the name of Rameses III., there are
several chambers right and left of the main gallery, in each of which
is represented, on the walls, some department of the royal
establishment. The king’s kitchen, the king’s boats, his armoury, his
musical instruments, the operations carried on upon his farms, the
birds, and the fruits of Egypt, and the sacred emblems; the three last
symbolizing fowling, gardening, and religion. It is possible that the
king may have buried here those of his household who presided over
these departments; each in the chamber designated for him by the
representations, on the walls, of what belonged to his office. If it
were not so, of what use were the chambers? they could hardly have
been excavated merely to place such pictures upon them.
As this Rameses III. was one of the warlike Pharaohs, and had,
like his great namesake, led successfully large armies into Asia, we
cannot suppose that he had these scenes of home-life sculptured
and painted in his tomb, either because he had nothing else to put
there, or because the subjects they referred to were more congenial
to his tastes than the pomp and circumstance of glorious war. He
must, therefore, as far as we can see, either have been acting under
the motive just mentioned, which, however, I cannot regard as a
perfectly satisfactory suggestion; or he must have been influenced
by some thought of what he would require in the intermediate state
while lying in the tomb. Was there an idea that the mummy would, for
a time, take delight in contemplating those scenes and objects, the
fruition of which had contributed to its happiness during the earthly
life?
What we see in the tombs of the priests and officials almost leads
us to the conclusion that these representations had not, necessarily,
a direct and special reference to what had once been the
occupations of the inmates of the tomb, but were placed on the walls
merely as pictures, precisely as we hang upon the walls of our
houses such pictures as please us. There was nothing in the aspects
of the country which could have led the old Egyptians to wish to
depict scenery. There were no charming bits of Nature, no world of
changeful cloud-scapes, no suggestive winter, spring, or summer
scenes. Nor, again, was the turn of their minds dramatic, or such as
might have led them to desire to reproduce in pictures those human
scenes which would recall the workings of passion or the poetry of
life; and, indeed, their style of art would hardly have enabled them to
deal with such subjects. They thus appear to have been confined to
hard literal matter of fact representations of the arts of ordinary life,
of Egyptian objects, of funeral processions, and of what, according to
their ideas, would take place in the next world. With these they
decorated their walls. It was Hobson’s choice. They had nothing else
for the purpose. They may have had a special inducement to
represent the common arts of life, such as cabinet-making, glass-
blowing, weaving, pottery, etc., because they took a very intelligible
pride in contemplating their superiority to the rest of the world in
these matters, which, at that time, when an acquaintance with them
was regarded as a distinction, were thought much more of than was
the case afterwards, when all the world had attained to proficiency in
them.
That these kinds of representations were sometimes looked upon
merely as ornamental, or as such as any deceased Egyptian might
contemplate, while in the mummy state, with satisfaction, may be
inferred from the fact, that it eventually became a common practice
for an Egyptian to purchase, or to take possession of a tomb that
had been sculptured and painted for others, and even used by them,
with the intention of having it prepared for himself: though, probably,
this would not have been done in the early period of Egyptianism,
when it was proud and pure. He merely erased the name of the
original occupant, and substituted for it his own. He did not feel that
there was anything to render the pictures that had been designed by,
and for, another, inappropriate to himself. We know, too, that the
pictures were often those of trades it was impossible the deceased
could have practised; still they were pictures of Egyptian life it would
be pleasing to contemplate. We had rather contemplate an historical
picture, a tableau de genre, or a landscape, but as they had no idea
of such things, and as civilization was then young, and the simplest
trade was regarded with pleasure for its utility, and as a proof of what
is called progress, everybody was at that time of day pleased with its
representation. Though we have entirely lost this feeling, I believe
uneducated people would still, at the present day prefer, because it
would be more intelligible to them, a picture representing the work of
some trade to a landscape, or historical piece. Of course the delight
an Egyptian felt in such representations did not in the least arise
from his being uneducated, but from a difference in his way of
thinking and feeling; and in a difference in what art could then
achieve. In short, these representations were meant either for the
living, or for the dead. In either case, to give pleasure, either to the
beholder, or to the supposed beholder, must have been their object.
The valley, which contains the tombs of which I have been
speaking, was devoted to the sepulture of the kings of the nineteenth
and twentieth dynasties. The greater part of them were found open,
and had, in the times of the Ptolemies, been already rifled. Their
desecration, and the injuries they received, ought probably to be
attributed to the Persians. I have already said something about the
extent and the sculptures of the catacomb of Sethos. The chamber,
containing the sarcophagus of this great Pharaoh, had been so
carefully concealed, that it fortunately escaped discovery down to
our own time. Belzoni, in his investigation of this tomb, finding that a
spot which a happy inspiration led him to strike, returned a hollow
sound, had the trunk of a palm-tree brought into the gallery, and
using it as a ram, battered down the disguised wall. This, at once
revealed the chamber which, for more than four thousand years, had
escaped Persian, Greek, Roman, and Arab intrusion. In the midst of
this chamber stood the royal sarcophagus. This sarcophagus, one of
the most splendid monuments of Egypt in its best days, was of the
finest alabaster, covered with the most beautiful and instructive
sculptures. Who can adequately imagine the emotions of Belzoni at
that moment? It had been reserved for him to be the first to behold,
to be the discoverer, of what had escaped the keen search of so
many races of spoilers and destroyers, the finest monument of the
greatest period of Egyptian history. That monument is now in Sir
John Soane’s Museum, in Lincoln’s Inn Fields.
In the valley to the west of this are some of the tombs of the
preceding, the eighteenth, dynasty, that which drove the Hyksos out
of Egypt. They have, however, been so dilapidated that not much is
to be learnt from them.
Behind the great temple-palace of Medinet Haboo are the tombs
of the queens and princesses. These, too, have been much injured;
and have, at some period, subsequent to that of their original
appropriation, been used for the sepulture of private persons.
 Along the foot of the hills, from the tombs of the queens to the
entrance of the Valley of the Kings, is one vast Necropolis for the
priests, the official class, and wealthy private individuals. All these
fall within the New Empire. Among them, however, are found some
instances of royal interments, but they belong to the Old Empire.
When we talk of the New Empire we must not forget its date: its
palmiest days belong to the time of the Exodus and of Abraham’s
visit to Egypt.
As I rode through this city of the dead, visiting the tombs which
possessed the greatest interest, I endeavoured, as I had done in the
Necropolis of the Pyramids, to recall its pristine state; to see it as it
was seen by those who constructed and peopled it. The tombs were
then everywhere along the Háger, that is, on the first rise or stage of
the desert, above the cultivated land. Here, as generally throughout
Egypt, vegetable life, and the soil which supports it, do not extend
one inch beyond the height of the inundation, which brings the soil
as well as the water. The stony desert, and the plant-clothed plain
touch with sharp definition, each maintaining its own character to the
last, just as the land and sea do along the beach. From this line of
contact to the precipitous rise of the hills there is a belt of irregular
ground. In some places this belt is a rocky level or incline, in others it
is broken into rocky valleys, but always above the cultivated plain.
The whole of it is thoroughly desert, and all of it ascends towards the
contiguous range. It is everywhere limestone, and generally covered
with débris from the excavations, and from the hill-side. Such is the
site of this great Necropolis.
In the days when Thebes was the capital, the whole of this space
was covered with the entrances to the tombs. Some of these
entrances were actual temples. Some resembled the propylons of
temples. Some were gateways, less massive and lofty, but still
conspicuous objects. In every tomb were its mummied inmates.
They were surrounded by representations in stone, and colour, of the
objects and scenes they had delighted in during life. Their property,
their pursuits, what they had thought and felt, what they had taken
an interest in, and what they had believed, were all around them.
Objects of Nature, objects of art, objects of thought, had each
assumed its form in stone. Each was there for the mummy to
contemplate. These were true houses for the dead. Houses built,
decorated, and furnished for the dead. In which, however, the dead
were not dead; but were living in the mummied state. We have rock-
tombs elsewhere; but where, out of Egypt, could we find another
such city? It is a city excavated in the rocky plain, and in the
mountain valleys. It consists of thousands of apartments, spacious
halls, long galleries, steps ascending and descending, and chambers
innumerable. It is more extensive, more costly, more decorated, than
many a famous city on which the sun shines. It is peopled
everywhere with its own inhabitants; but among them is no fear, or
hope—no love or hatred—no pleasure or pain—no heart is beating—
no brain is busy.
As we wander about these mansions of the dead we feel as
Zobeide did when she found herself in the spell-bound city. The
inhabitants are present. Everything they used in life is present. Life
itself only is wanting. Everything has become stone.
The largest of the tombs now accessible is that of Petamenap, a
Royal Scribe. It is entered by a sunken court, 103 feet in length by
76. This was once surrounded by a wall, in which was a lofty
gateway, the two sides of which are still standing. This court leads to
a large hall, which is the commencement of a long series of galleries,
apartments, and side chambers—all excavated in the solid rock.
Omitting the side chambers, and measuring only the galleries and
apartments they passed through, the excavations of this single tomb
extend to a length of 862 feet. The area excavated amounts to
nearly 24,000 square feet, or an acre and a quarter. These are Sir
Gardiner Wilkinson’s measurements, which have been accepted by
Lepsius, who also himself carefully inspected the tomb. The whole of
the wall-space gained by these excavations, which are actually more
than one-third of a mile in length, is covered throughout with most
carefully-executed sculptures, in the most elaborate style of Egyptian
art. It is worth noticing that this tomb of a private individual exceeds
in dimensions, costliness, and magnificence all the royal tombs—of
course, excepting the Great Pyramids—with which we are
acquainted.
 We may infer, from the costliness of these tombs, and from the
length of time it must have taken to excavate and adorn them, that
the Egypt of the time to which they belong, was a wisely-ordered
kingdom, in which, to a very considerable extent, not the arbitrary
caprice of kings and governors, but law was supreme. At that time
the scene of such a history as that of Naboth could not have been in
Egypt. It must for long ages have been, in the very important matter
of a man’s doing what he pleased with his own, in a very unoriental
condition. This tomb of Petamenap, and thousands of others, more
or less like it, could only have been constructed where, and when,
subjects may acquire great wealth, and display it with safety.
We may also infer, from the size of the city under the new
monarchy, and the wealth of its inhabitants, from their mode of living,
their tastes and pursuits, and from the state of the arts which
ministered to the convenience and adornment of their lives—upon all
of which points this Necropolis gives inexhaustible, and absolutely
truthful evidence; that a great part of the wealth of Thebes was
drawn from precisely the same source as that of Belgravia—that is,
from the rent of the land.
An abundance of minor matters, but full of historical interest and
instruction, may be gleaned from the same source. We find, for
instance, that 3,350 years ago the principle and the use of the arch
were familiar to the Egyptians; for there are several arches of that
date in the tombs. Glass-blowing was practised. The syphon was
understood, and used. In their entertainments the presence of both
sexes was usual; and perfumes and flowers were on these
occasions regarded as indispensable. The shadoof, the simplest and
most effective application of a small amount of power to produce a
considerable result, was as universally at work on the banks of the
river, and of the canals, as at the present day; indeed, we cannot
doubt but that it was much more so. But it is unnecessary to add
here to these particulars.
 CHAPTER XVIII.
THEBES—THE TEMPLE-PALACES.

Cur invidendis postibus, et novo

Sublime ritu moliar atrium?—Horace.

We will now, having left the tombs, turn our attention to the
temples. Some we find upon the edge of the Háger, others a little
way back upon it. The greater number of those that were once here
have been completely razed to the ground, nothing now remaining of
them except fragments of statues, the foundations of walls, and the
bases of pillars; all of which are buried in rubbish heaps. There are,
however, some singularly interesting exceptions which demand
particular notice. Fortunately, though it hardly looks like chance, the
temple-palaces of Sethos, of the great Rameses, and of Rameses
III., are still standing. These were built by the two great conquerors
of the nineteenth, and the great conqueror of the twentieth dynasties.
Why did not other Pharaohs erect similar structures? The reason is
not far to seek. It is here present in the case of these three kings,
and is absent from the cases of other kings. The funds necessary for
such structures had to be procured by looting Asia, and a great part
of the work had to be done by captives taken in war. And we know
that at this time it was the custom for those kings of Egypt, who
contemplated great works, to begin their reigns with raids into Asia,
for the express purpose of collecting the gold and the slaves that
would enable them to carry out their designs. It was the good old
rule, the simple plan, that those should take who had the power.
These great and famous expeditions, in truth, were only imperial
slave hunts, and imperial brigandage, in which not petty tribes of
African negroes, but the (for those times) civilized nations of Asia,
and not a few travellers, but the inhabitants of great cities and
kingdoms, were the victims. These great builders, administrators,
and soldiers, who believed of themselves that they had already been
received into the hierarchy of heaven, could not have understood in
what sense they could have done ill in building themselves a wide
house, and large chambers, and ceiling it with cedar, and painting it
with vermilion; though they doubtless would have thought that it
would have been ill, even for an Egyptian Pharaoh, to build his
house by unrighteousness, and his chambers by wrong, to use his
neighbour’s service without wages, and to give him not for his work.
But how any question of unrighteousness and wrong could arise
between Pharaoh and strangers, people who were not Egyptians,
would have been something new and incomprehensible to Pharaoh.
I once asked a fisherman’s boy who was unconcernedly breaking up
a basketful of live crabs to bait his father’s dab-nets, if it was not
cruel work that he was about? ‘No,’ he replied, ‘because it is their
business to find us a living.’ Somewhat in the same way did Pharaoh
think of the outside world; and in much the same way, too, did he
treat it, when he wished to build himself a temple-palace. In these
temple-palaces one hears the groans, and sees the blood, of those
who were broken up alive to build them.
There are no buildings in the old world so full of actually written
and pictured history as these three temple-palaces, for each of them
contains records of the achievements and life of the builder, as they
were regarded by himself, and of his religion, as it was understood
by himself. The grandest of the three is the Memnonium, or, as it
ought to be called, the Rameseum. Here lived the great Rameses.
He designed it, built it, and made it his home. He built it after his
great Asiatic campaigns. How often here must he have fought his
battles o’er again.
The Rameseum bears the same relation to all the other buildings
of old Egypt that the Parthenon does to all the other remains of
Greek architecture. It was built at the culminating point of Egyptian
art and greatness. The conception was an inspiration of a
consciousness of excellence and power. Everything here is grand,
even for Egypt; the lofty propylons, the Osirid court, the great halls,
and, above all, the colossal statue of the king seated on his throne, a
monolith of red granite, weighing nearly 900 tons, and which is now
lying on the ground in stupendous fragments, its overthrow having
been probably the work of the vengeful Persians. Nothing can
exceed the interest of this grand structure. It included even a
spacious library, on the walls of which were sculptured figures of the
god of letters, and of the god of memory. Over the door by which it
was entered was the famous inscription, ‘The medicine of the mind.’
And this more than three thousand years ago: and yet we may be
sure that it did not contain the first collection of books that had been
made in Egypt, but only the first of which we have any record. We
know that they had been keeping a regular register of the annual
rising of the Nile then for nearly a thousand years, and that their
written law ante-dated this library by between two and three
thousand years. Both of these facts, to some degree, indicate
collections of books. By a concurrence of happy chances, which
almost make one regret that a grateful offering can no longer be
made to good fortune, papyrus-rolls have been found dated from this
library, and in the Háger behind have been discovered the tombs of
some of the Royal librarians.
The temple-palace, at Cornéh, of Sethos, the father of Rameses,
though built with all the solidity of Egyptian architecture in its best
days, is a very much smaller structure than the Rameseum. What
remains of it is in very good preservation. It stands about a mile to
the north-west of the latter building, some little way back in the
Háger, and on somewhat higher ground, near the entrance of the
Valley of the Kings. On one of the sphinxes belonging to it are
inscribed the names of all the towns in the Delta Sethos conquered.
This is an important record, as it shows either that the Semites had
been able to some extent to re-establish themselves in the Delta, or
that they had never been thoroughly subjugated, in that part of the
country, before the time of Sethos. The work, however, was now
done thoroughly, for from this time we do not hear of any troubles
that can be assigned to them. The sculptures on the walls of this
palace are in the freest and boldest style. They relate chiefly to
religious acts and ceremonies. As Sethos was the designer and
builder of the chief part of the stupendous hypostyle Hall of Karnak, it
was not because his architectural ideas were less grand than those
of his son that his palace was so much smaller. I can imagine that
the reason of this was that he was desirous that none of his attention
and resources should be diverted from his great work, which was
enough of itself to tax to their utmost all the powers both of the king
and of the kingdom. It raises him in our estimation to find that his
greatest work was not his own palace, but the hall in which the
ecclesiastical diets of Egypt (of course the members were priests)
were to be held; for though he was a Pharaoh, and a conquering
Pharaoh too, he could see that the kingdom was greater than the
king, and that to do great things well one thing must be done at a
time.
A little to the south of the Rameseum is the third of these temple-
places. It is that of the third Rameses. This, though not so grand and
pure in style as the Rameseum, has been better preserved. Upon it,
and within it, are the ruins of a Coptic town. The crude brick
tenements perched on the roof, and adhering to the walls of the
mighty structure, reminded me of the disfigurements of the obelisk of
Heliopolis, and of the propylons of Dendera, by the mud-cells which
insect architecture had plastered over them. So wags the world.
Squalid poverty had succeeded to imperial splendour. But the same
fate had waited upon both. The towers of kings, and the hovels of
the poor, are now equally desolate and untenanted. One of the
courts of the palace had been metamorphosed by the Copts of the
neighbourhood into their church. From the expense which must have
been incurred in effecting this transformation it is evident that they
once formed here a numerous body. The community, however, has
entirely disappeared from this place, and nothing—absolutely
nothing—has come in its stead. They say in the East that where the
Turk sets his foot grass will not grow; but this is true of El Islam
generally. It is great at pulling down and destroying, but not equally
great at reconstructing.
The Christian church and the Egyptian temple are alike deserted.
The old Egyptian and the Coptic Christian have both completely
vanished from this scene. It is curious as we stand here, with equal
evidence before us of the equal fate of both, to observe how little
people think about the fate of the latter in comparison with what they
think about the fate of the former; and yet there are, at all events,
some reasons to dispose us favourably, and sympathizingly, towards
our Coptic co-religionists. If the causes of the feeling could be
analyzed, would it be found to have arisen from a half-formed
thought that there was no gratitude to be felt to the poor Copt for
anything he had done, and that the world had no hope of anything
from him? Or would it be because there is really little to interest the
thought in the fortunes of a community, of which we know little more
than that, by having changed the law of liberty into a petrified
doctrine, they had gone a long way towards committing moral and
intellectual suicide?
In one of the private apartments of this temple-palace of Rameses
III. the sculptures represent the king seated on a chair, which would
not be out of place at Windsor, or Schönbrunn. His daughters are
standing around him, offering him fruit and flowers, and agitating the
air with their fans. He amuses himself with a game of drafts, and with
their conversation.
Somewhat in advance of these temple-palaces of the two
Rameses, stand on the cultivated plain the two great colossi of
Thebes. The space between them is sufficient for a road or street.
The easternmost of the pair is the celebrated vocal Memnon of
antiquity. It is covered with Roman inscriptions placed upon it by
travellers, who were desirous of leaving behind them a record of the
fact, that they had not been disappointed in hearing the sound. That
was an age when the love of the marvellous, combined with
ignorance of what nature could, and could not, do, prepared, and
predisposed men, for being deceived. There can be no doubt how
the sound was produced. There is in the lap of the seated figure an
excavation in which a priest was concealed, who, when the moment
had arrived, struck a stone in the figure, of a kind which rang like
brass. The Arabs now climb into the lap in a few seconds, and will
for a piastre produce the sound for you at any hour of the twenty-four
you please. The Emperor Hadrian heard three emissions of the
sound on the morning he went to listen. This is a compliment we are
not surprised to find the statue paid to the ruler of the world.
This colossus was erected by Amunoph III., a name which, by an
easy corruption, the Greeks transformed into Memnon, just as they
changed Chufu into Cheops, Amenemha into Mœris, and Sethos
into Sesostris.
Behind these colossi stood a temple which had been erected by
the same Amunoph. Nothing now remains of this temple but its
rubbish heap, and its foundations. It was, however, once connected,
architecturally, with the temple he had built at Luxor, on the other
side of the river. The street that connected them was called Street
Royal. This was the line Sethos, and the two Rameses, must always
have taken, in going from their palaces on the western bank to Luxor
and Karnak on the eastern side. It must have been about three miles
in length. The line of this Royal Street is marked by the two still
standing colossi. The fragments of a few others have been found.
Those that remain are sixty feet in height. This must have been a
grand street, with the two temples at its two ends, and part of it, at all
events, consisting of a dromos of such figures.
I have already mentioned that a sphinx-guarded street, about two
miles long, ran from Luxor to Karnak. I have also pointed out that the
north-west angle of the great enclosure of Karnak was connected, to
the eye, with the temples of the western Háger. The precise spot
upon the Háger where a temple had been made conspicuous to the
eye from Karnak, was what is now called Assassef. Of course from
Assassef the lofty structures of Karnak were in full view. In order to
place the temple at Assassef reciprocally in view to the spectator
standing at Karnak, it was necessary to remove a part of the natural
rock wall of the eastern side of the valley of Assassef, and this had
been done. The distance from Karnak to Assassef is somewhat over
three miles. From this point temples and temple-palaces were
continuous along the edge of the Háger, in front of the Necropolis, as
far as the western extremity of the Royal Street. Thus was
completed the grand Theban Parallelogram. The circuit of the four
sides measured, I suppose, about ten miles. It included every one of
the great structures of Luxor, Karnak, and Thebes. There can be no
doubt but that the lofty propylæa, and obelisks of Luxor and Karnak
were intended to be seen from a distance. As the site of Thebes
was, of itself, somewhat elevated above the sites of Luxor and
Karnak, there was no occasion for obelisks at Thebes; as also they
would have been backed by the mountains to one looking from the
other side of the river, they would have been inconspicuous, and
therefore this architectural form was not used at Thebes: though,
indeed, I believe no instance remains to show that it was ever used
on that side of the valley, on which the sun set.
The structural connexion of all the mighty, magnificent buildings
throughout these ten miles was the grand conception of Rameses
the Great, of which I spoke some way back. There never were, we
may be quite sure, ten such miles, elsewhere, on the surface of this
earth. It is rash to prophesy, but we may doubt whether there ever
will be ten such miles again. We may, I think, say there will not be,
unless time give birth to two conditions. The first of the two is, that
communities should become animated with the desire to do for
themselves what these mighty Pharaohs did for themselves in the
old days of their greatness; and as man is much the same now that
he was then, and as private persons are capable of entertaining the
same ideas as kings, there is no à priori reason against the
possibility of this. The second condition is, that machinery should
eventually give us the power of cutting and moving large blocks of
stone at a far cheaper rate than is possible, with that already mighty
assistant, at present. For, as the world does not go back, we may be
sure that myriads of captives, and of helpless subjects, will never
again be employed in this way. It is quite conceivable that the mass
of some community may come to feel itself great, the feeling being in
the community generally, and not only in the individual at its head;
and should they at the same time entertain the desire that the
magnificence of their architecture should be in proportion to, and
express, the greatness of their ideas and sentiments, then the world
may again see hypostyle halls as grand as that of Karnak, and
magnificence equal to that of the Osirid Court of the Rameseum:
with, however, the difference that they will be constructed by, and for,
the community. In this there would be no injury in any way to any
one, and there would be nothing to regret, for those who had raised
such structures, and were in the habit of using them, would perhaps
on that account be less likely to be mean, and little, in the ordinary
occurrences of life. At all events there would be nothing demoralizing
in making machinery the slave to do the heavy drudgery required in
their construction.

There is one source of interest which belongs to the study of the

antiquities of Egypt in a higher degree than to the study of the
antiquities of any other country. Every object on which the eye may
rest, whether great or small, from the grandest architectural
monument down to a glass bead, is thoroughly, and genuinely
Egyptian. Not a tool with which the compact limestone, or intractable
granite was cut; not a colour with which the sculptures or walls were
decorated; not a form in their architectural details; not a thought, or
practice, or scene the sculptures and paintings represent, was, as far
as we know, borrowed, or could have been borrowed, from any
neighbouring people. The grand whole, and the minutest detail,
everything seen, and everything implied, was strictly autochthonous;
as completely the product of the Egyptian mind, as Egypt itself is of
the Nile.
 CHAPTER XIX.
RAMESES THE GREAT GOES FORTH FROM
EGYPT.

Why, then the world’s mine oyster,

Which I with sword will open.—Shakspeare.

Rameses the Great was the Alexander of Egypt. His lot was cast
in the palmiest days of Egyptian history. He was the most
magnificent of the Pharaohs. None had such grand ideas, or gave
them such grand embodiment. He carried the arms of Egypt to the
utmost limits they ever reached. As one stands at Karnak, Thebes,
and Abydos, before the sculptures he set up, and reads in them the
records of his achievements, and of the thoughts that stirred within
him, the mind is transported to a very distant past—but though so
distant, we still may, by the aids we now possess, recover much of
its form and features. Let us then endeavour to construct for
ourselves some conception of his great expedition from the materials
with which the monuments and history supply us.
Egypt is very flourishing. Pharaoh has an army of 700,000 men
and great resources, and so he becomes dissatisfied at remaining
idle in his happy valley. There is a wonderful world up in the north-
east. He would like to be to that world what we might describe as an
Egyptian Columbus and Cortez in one. He wishes to signalize the
commencement of his reign with some achievement that will be for
ever famous. But these distant people have never wronged him: they
had never burnt his cities, or driven off his cattle. If they have ever
heard of the grandeur of Egypt, they can hardly tell whether it
belongs to this world of theirs, or to some other world.
Considerations, however, of this kind do not affect him.
But there are many difficulties in his way. The very first step of the
proposed expedition will carry his army into a desert of some days’
journey. How is this desert to be crossed? That is disposed of by the
answer that his father Sethos, and even some of the predecessors of
Sethos on the throne of Egypt, had crossed it.—But how is his army
to be supported in that unknown world beyond? How are provisions
to be procured, for they cannot be supplied from Egypt? The people
they will invade can support themselves; what they have must be
taken from them, and war must be made to support itself.—But
supposing all goes well as they advance, how shall they ever get
back, with their arms worn out, and their ranks thinned, and with a
vengeful foe barring their return with fortified places, and swarming
upon them from every side? They must, on their outward march,
raze all these fortified places, and make as clean a sweep as they
can of the population of the countries they pass through.—And how
shall the Egyptians live when Nature shall assail them with frost and
snow? Will their linen robes be then sufficient? They must do what
they can. They will be able to take the woollen garments of the
enemies they destroy. The difficulties, then, could not deter him. He
must see this great and wonderful world outside. He must flaunt his
greatness in its face. He must collect the treasures and the slaves
that will be required for building the mighty temples and palaces he
contemplates. These monuments he must have; and he will record
upon them that he did not, in raising them, tax and use up Egyptians.
And so it becomes a settled thing that he and his armies shall go
forth from Egypt. It would not have been the East had not the host,
with which he was to go forth, been a mighty one—as God’s army,
the locusts, for multitude. Everything must be on a grand scale; and
everything must be foreseen and provided for, as is the custom of
the wise Egyptians.
Then began a gathering of men, of horses, of chariots, of asses,
such as had never been seen on the earth before—as much greater
than other gatherings as the Pyramids were greater than other
buildings. In those mighty structures they had had an example, now
for a thousand years, of the style and fashion in which should be
carried out whatever Egypt undertook. Day and night were the
messengers going to and fro on the bank, and on the river. Many
new forges were put in blast, many new anvils set up. Never had the
sound of the hammer been so much heard before, never had been
seen before so many buyers and lookers-on in the armourers’
bazaars. There were canvas towns outside the gates of Thebes, of
This, of Memphis, and of other great cities. Never had so many
horses been seen picketed before; men wondered where they all
had come from. On the river there were boats full of men, and boats
full of grain, to people and to feed the canvas towns. Never had the
landing-places been so crowded before. Many a river trader, in those
days, had to drop away from his moorings against the bank, to make
room for the grain-boats and the troop-boats of the great king. Never
had the temples been so full before: never had there been so many
processions, and so many offerings. The gods must be propitiated
for the great expedition: it must be undertaken in their names.
Mightier temples and richer offerings must be promised for the return
of the king and of the host, when they shall bring back victory. Many
said in those days of preparation, ‘The gods be with the king and
with his armies.’ Many said in their hearts, ‘Who can tell? The gods
had made Egypt great, but would they go forth from Egypt? The king
was as a god, but could he do all things?’ This was an issue that
could not be forecast.
Such was the talk of many in the mud-built villages, as well as in
hundred-gated Thebes, in old Abydos, in discrowned Memphis, and
in all the cities of all the gods—for every god had his own city.
Nothing else had much interest, either in the mansions of the rich, or
in the hovels of the poor. The wives and daughters of the people—
while in the evening they walked down to the river-side with their
water-jars, or, when the sun was down, clustered together at the
street-corners and at the village-gate, sitting on the ground—had
never tarried before so long at those watering-places, those gates,
and those street-corners. And all the while the musterings and the
preparations went on like the work of a machine, for the king had the
whole people well in hand, and he bent all Egypt to the work as if it
had been one man.
And everything is now complete. The last processions and
offerings have been made. The aid of the gods has been promised.
The priests had thought that Egypt, at all events, would be secure,
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