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Introduction to Security
Introduction to Security
Tenth Edition

Robert J. Fischer
Edward P. Halibozek
David C. Walters
Butterworth-Heinemann is an imprint of Elsevier
The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom
50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
Copyright © 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or
mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission
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permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the
Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: http://www.elsevier.com/permissions.
This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher
(other than as may be noted herein).

Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our
understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any
information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they
should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional
responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability
for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or
from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
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A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress
ISBN: 978-0-12-805310-2

For Information on all Butterworth-Heinemann publications

visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals

Publisher: Katey Birtcher

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Production Project Manager: Sujatha Thirugnana Sambandam
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Typeset by MPS Limited, Chennai, India
About the Authors

Robert James Fischer, PhD, is President of Assets Protection Associates, Inc., a security con-
sulting firm established in 1986. He has over 40 years of experience in the security/loss pre-
vention field. He is a member of ASIS International, and the Academy of Criminal Justice
Sciences. He has also served as the Director of the Illinois Law Enforcement Executive
Institute, retiring in 2001. He is also Professor Emeritus of Law Enforcement and Justice
Administration at Western Illinois University. He has published numerous articles, several
books, and served as the editor of two journals. He has also provided extensive consulting
services to major corporations, police departments, and schools.

Edward P. Halibozek, MBA, has over 38 years of security experience. This includes experi-
ence in assets protection, government security, contingency planning, executive protection,
and security management. He retired from Northrop Grumman Corporation where he was
the Vice President of Security. He is the former Chairperson for the Aerospace Industries
Association, Industrial Security Committee, and also served as a member of the National
Industrial Security Program Policy Advisory Committee (NISPPAC). He is a lecturer on secu-
rity and management issues and has written and published numerous assets protection
plans, policies and procedures, and position papers related to corporate and government
security. He also provides security consulting services in the health care industry and the
communications industry. He holds a Master of Science degree in Criminal Justice from
California State University and an MBA from Pepperdine University.

David C. Walters, MPA, is the Corporate Senior Director of Global Safety, Security &
Business Resiliency for a fortune 20 Internet technology company headquartered in San Jose,
California. He has 30 years of experience in industry-leading security, environmental
health/safety, risk management, executive protection, investigation, and brand protection.
He is a member of the Conference Board’s Global Executive Security Council. His experience
is complemented by extensive international business travel that focuses on situational aware-
ness training in a turbulent world.

xv
Preface
Only 5 years ago, we were writing the preface for the 9th edition. At that time we mentioned
how fast the profession was changing. That statement was prophetic, as changes in technol-
ogy are coming at such a rapid pace that it is impossible to keep up with all developments in
a written text. Most of what we said in the 9th edition preface is still relevant as we bring this
10th edition to conclusion. World events during the past 5 years such as growing use of ter-
rorist attacks throughout the world, as well as ever-increasing cyber-attacks, keep security
professionals on their toes, ready to mitigate the next threat. The Parkland, Florida high
school, the Boston Marathon, the Pulse nightclub and the Paris nightclub mass casualty
events, sometime prompted by individual agendas and other times terrorist inspired, make
many of us nervous.
The computer, which is a part of our everyday life, has made information available to
anyone with a simple Google inquiry. We can now monitor our homes in real time using our
cellular phones. Unfortunately, this same technology has been exploited by the criminal ele-
ment in society. Internet purchases, credit card scanners, and use of our cellular phones are
all vulnerable to hacking. Companies which maintain information, like EQUIFAX, as well as
most large firms, are even more at risk of thefts of information. The 2016 elections were tarn-
ished by claims of hacking (allegedly by Russians) of election databases and party emails.
The 10th edition, while maintaining its presentation of basic concepts of security as ini-
tially presented in the 1st edition, spends more time focusing on the changes that must be
recognized in the security field. Our newest coauthor, Dave Walters, deals with “brand pro-
tection,” which he first brought forth in the 9th edition. This concept brings together the
need for understanding the integration of all components of security within a firm along with
other divisions of operation.
In the last edition’s preface, we noted the growing tension created by world terrorism.
That tension has seen a twist with the birth of the Islamic State (ISIS). This group has been
successful in its terrorist approaches, claiming responsibility for all type of attacks on citi-
zens, business, and governments. This threat to companies continues to evolve. As this book
goes to press, the efforts, lead by the United States, to defeat ISIS have achieved success on
several fronts.
This new edition has refocused the chapter on Homeland Security. The new focus is the
impact of terrorism on the business world. We have also added one new chapter. This new
chapter comes from creating a separate chapter for Fire Prevention and Protection. The
chapter on computer security has been thoroughly revised, becoming Holistic Security
through the Application of Integrated Technology. This chapter covers the ever changing
technology field and the importance of understanding and integrating changes in security
operations. In Chapter 20, Security: Today and Tomorrow, we have added material on the

xvii
xviii Preface

need to understand the leadership skill set. This material presents the argument that today’s
security manager must be more than a manager, but must also be a leader if security is to be
integrated and marketed throughout the company operation.
As we finished this 10th edition, the reality of our times makes it impossible to assure
readers that we have presented all the latest in technology. However, we firmly believe that
within the pages of this edition, the reader will find the tools necessary to understand the
basics of security operations and how to apply changing technology to a loss prevention
program.
Acknowledgments

Ed and I would like to give special recognition to our co-author Dave and dedicate this book
to him. During the past year, Dave has faced a major health challenge. Although he was
often times quite sick, he continued to carry his share of this project without complaint. We
couldn’t have asked for a better writing partner. We are proud to know Dave as a fellow
security professional, writer, and friend.
In addition, we wish to acknowledge those individuals who took time to complete surveys
distributed by the publisher, providing us with suggestions for updating the book for this
10th edition. These individuals include:
• Daniel Barry, Campus College Chair, College of Security and Criminal Justice, University
of Phoenix, Las Vegas Campus.
• Ryan Baggett, Associate Professor of Homeland Security, Eastern Kentucky University.
• Thomas Foley, Assistant, College of Security and Intelligence, Embry-Riddle Aeronautical
University.
• Simon King, Senior Lecturer and Course Leader, Department of Security and Resilience,
Bucks New University.
• Phillip Wood, Security and Resilience Advisory to the Vice Chancellor and Council,
Buckinghamshire New University.
We also wish to thank Bob’s longtime professional associate, Richard Janoski, John Deere
Corporate Security, ret., and Instructor of security at Western Illinois University, for his
insightful and thorough review of the 9th edition.
In particular, special thanks to the content experts who reviewed and at times made sub-
stantial updates to materials contained in various chapters. These include: James Falk,
Security Director, Ace Hardware, and Alan Saquella, Director Safety and Investigations, Cox
Communications, both of whom updated substantial portions of Chapter 15, Retail Security;
Steven C. Babb, retired Deputy General Counsel for Northrop Grumman Corporation, who
reviewed and updated our chapter on security and the law; Dr. Deborah Pavelka, CPA,
retired Professor Roosevelt University, for revising our chapter on cyber security; Steve
Martino, VP Information/Cyber Security, Cisco Systems, who provided an informative inter-
view for the update to Chapter 17, Holistic Security Through the Application of Integrated
Technology Objectives.
We also thank Tom Stover, Elsevier Publishing for initiating the project. Nate McFadden,
Sr. Content Development Specialist, Butterworth-Heinemann, Elsevier, gets special thanks
for his constant and consistent support while we worked on this 10th edition. Without his
support we would have had a much harder time updating our materials.

xix
xx Acknowledgments

Bob, once again, thanks those at Assets Protection Associates, Incorporated, who pro-
vided support services during his work on this revision, as well as comments and edits of
various drafts. Special thanks go to Dr. Kathy Fischer, who reviewed each chapter prior to
submission. As a retired Professor of Health Sciences, Western Illinois University, who taught
“Drug Use and Abuse” for over three decades, Dr. Fischer also finished revising the drug
section in Chapter 14, Violence and Drug Use in the Workplace. Finally, we give special
thanks to our partners in life, Kathy, Phillis, and Lola, who have supported us in our outside
interests.
 PART

I
Introduction
The chapters in Part I provide an overview of the security and loss prevention industry.
Chapter 1, Origins and Development of 21st Century Security, is a brief history of the devel-
opment of the field in Europe and America, ending with a quick, crisp summary of the status
of security in the 21st century. Chapter 2, Defining Security’s Role, identifies the roles of
security, whether contract, proprietary, or hybrid. Chapter 3, Career Opportunities in Loss
Prevention, covers career options. Chapter 4, Security Education, Training, Certification, and
Regulation, discusses the development of security as a profession. Issues discussed include
training, certification, and regulation. Chapter 5, Terrorism as a Threat to Business defines
how current terrorist activities impact business in the 21st Century.
As noted in the preface, the events of September 11, 2001 and subsequent terrorist attacks
throughout the world changed the face of security operations. Security is a common theme
considered by almost every person in the developed and developing world. Yet, as security
professionals know, the basic concepts and theories of security and loss prevention are not
changed by a single event. The most significant changes are in the innovative tools that pro-
fessionals use to achieve their goals. What is important in looking at the past is that we learn
the lessons that are presented in the development of past security operations. We can then
apply those lessons to the present situation, modify those that have potential to assist us in
our efforts, and discard outdated and outmoded ideas and technology.
The information presented in Part I, along with recommendations just presented,
will serve as a basis for understanding and applying the specific materials presented in
Parts II and III.
 1
Origins and Development of
21st Century Security
OBJECTIVES

The study of this chapter will enable you to:

1. Outline the historical development of security in America.
2. Discuss changing crime trends over the past decades.
3. Understand the role of professional associations/organizations in the development of a professional
security industry.
4. Consider the changing role of security in our 21st century world.

Introduction
Security implies a stable, relatively predictable environment in which an individual or group
may pursue its ends without disruption or harm and without fear of disturbance or injury.
The concept of security in an organizational sense has evolved gradually throughout the his-
tory of Western civilization, shaped by a wide variety of institutional and cultural patterns.
In examining the origins and development of security, it should be noted that security
holds a mirror up, not to nature, but to society and its institutions. Thus, in medieval
England, there were programs to clear brush and other concealment on either side of the
king’s roads as a precaution against robbers, and to protect citizens from night thieves, there
were night watchmen. In the United States in modern times, these rudimentary security
measures find their counterparts in the cleared areas adjoining perimeter fences and build-
ings, in security patrols, and in intrusion alarms. Throughout history, it is possible to trace
the emerging concept of security as a response to, and a reflection of, a changing society,
mirroring its social structure and its economic conditions, its perception of law and crime,
and its morality. Thus, security remains a field of both tradition and dramatic change. The
introduction of high-tech systems and computers has changed the nature of the job of the
21st century security professional. Security today must be directed toward modern problems
including computer crime and world terrorism, yet we cannot forget the basic foundations
on which the field has developed. While there are many large companies that have invested
in modern security systems, there are also homes and small businesses that rely on the stan-
dard lock and key or guard dog for their basic protection. But, even the home security indus-
try is seeing significant changes with the introduction of new technology allowing home
owners to monitor their property in real time.

Introduction to Security. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-805310-2.00001-9

© 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
3
4 INTRODUCTION TO SECURITY

Security in England
The development of systems of protection (security) and law enforcement in England began
to come with greater rapidity and sophistication beginning in the 14th through the 18th cen-
turies. Seeds for this development were planted during the social revolution that heralded
the end of the remaining elements of the feudal structure in the latter half of the 13th
century.
Security was one thing in a largely rural society controlled by kings and feudal barons; it
was another thing entirely in a world swept by enormous changes. The voyages of explora-
tion, which opened new markets and trade routes, created a new and increasingly important
merchant class whose activities came to dominate the port cities and trading centers.
Concurrently, acts of enclosure and consolidation drove displaced small tenants off the land,
and they migrated to the cities in great numbers.
By 1700, the social patterns of the Middle Ages were breaking down. Increased urbaniza-
tion of the population had created conditions of considerable hardship. Poverty and crime
increased rapidly. No public law enforcement agencies existed that could restrain the mount-
ing wave of crime and violence, and no agencies existed that could alleviate the causes of
the problem.
Different kinds of police agencies were privately formed. Individual merchants hired men
to guard their property. Merchant associations also created the merchant police to guard
shops and warehouses. Night watchmen were employed to make their rounds. Agents were
engaged to recover stolen property, and the people of various parishes into which the major
cities were divided hired parochial police.
Attention then turned to the reaffirmation of laws to protect the common good. Although
the Court of Star Chamber, which gave the English monarchy all control over decisions of
law, had been abolished in 1641, its practices were not officially proscribed until 1689 when
Parliament agreed to crown William and Mary if they would reaffirm the ancient rights and
privileges of the people. They agreed, and Parliament ratified the Bill of Rights, which for all
time limited the power of the king, as well as affirming and protecting the inalienable rights
of the individual.

The 18th Century

By the 18th century, it is possible to discern both the shape of efforts toward communal
security and the kinds of problems that would continue to plague an increasingly urban soci-
ety into modern times.
In 1737, for instance, a new aspect of individual rights came to be acknowledged: for the
first time, tax revenues were used for the payment of a night watch. This was a significant
development in security practice, because it was a precedent-setting step that established for
the first time the use of tax revenues for common security purposes.
After 8 years, Parliament authorized a special committee to study security problems. The
study resulted in a program employing various existing private security forces to extend the
 Chapter 1 • Origins and Development of 21st Century Security 5

scope of their protection. The resulting heterogeneous group, however, was too much at
odds. It proved ineffective in providing any satisfactory level of protection.
In 1748 Henry Fielding, magistrate and author (most notably of the
unforgettable Tom Jones), proposed a permanent, professional, and adequately paid security
force. His invaluable contributions included a foot patrol to make the streets safe, a mounted
patrol for the highways, the famous “Bow Street Amateur Volunteer Force” of special investi-
gators, and police courts. Fielding is credited with conceiving the idea of preventing crime
instead of seeking to control it.

The Impact of Industrial Expansion

The Industrial Revolution began to gather momentum in the latter half of the 18th century.
Like the migrations off the land 200 years earlier, people again flocked to the cities—not
pushed this time, by enclosure and dispossession as they had been earlier, but rather lured
by promises of work and wages.
The already crowded cities were choked with this new influx of wealth seekers. What they
found were long hours, crippling work, and miserly wages. Family life, heretofore the root of
all stability, was virtually destroyed in this environment. Thievery, crimes of violence, and
juvenile delinquency were the order of the day. All the ills of such a structure, as we see in
analogous situations today, overtook the emerging industrial centers.
Little was done to alleviate the growing problems. Indeed the prevailing philosophy of
the time argued against doing anything. In this new age in which statements of laissez-faire
were generally accepted, industrial centers became the spawning grounds for crimes of all
kinds. At one time, counterfeiting was so common that it was estimated that more counter-
feit than government-issue money was in circulation. More than 50 false mints were found
in London alone.
The backlash to such a high crime rate was inevitable and predictable. Penalties were
increased to deter potential criminals. At one time, more than 150 capital offenses existed,
ranging from picking pockets to serious crimes of violence. Yet no visible decline in crime
resulted. It was a “society that lacked any effective means of enforcing the criminal laws in
general. A Draconian code of penalties that proscribed the death penalty for a host of crimes
failed to balance the absence of efficient enforcement machinery.”
Private citizens resorted to carrying arms for protection, and they continued to band
together to hire special police to protect their homes and businesses.
For a more detailed consideration of the development of security and policing in
England, see an introductory text on law enforcement.

Security in the United States

Security practices in the early days of colonial America followed the patterns that colonists
had been familiar with in England. The need for mutual protection in a new and alien land
drew them together in groups much like those of earlier centuries.
6 INTRODUCTION TO SECURITY

As the settlers moved west in Massachusetts, along the Mohawk Valley in New York, and
into central Pennsylvania and Virginia, the need for protection against hostile Indians and
other colonists—French and Spanish—was their principal security interest. Settlements gen-
erally consisted of a central fort or stockade surrounded by the farms of the inhabitants. If
hostilities threatened, an alarm was sounded and the members of the community left their
homes for the protection of the fort, where all able-bodied persons were involved in its
defense. In such circumstances, a semimilitary flavor often characterized security measures,
which included guard posts and occasional patrols.
Protection of people and property in established towns again followed English traditions.
Sheriffs were elected as chief security officers (CSOs) in colonial Virginia and Georgia;
constables were appointed in New England. Watchmen were hired to patrol the streets at
night. As Private Security: Report of the Task Force on Private Security notes, “These watch-
men remained familiar figures and constituted the primary security measures until the estab-
lishment of full-time police forces in the mid-1800’s.” [1]
Such watchmen, it should be pointed out, were without training, had no legal authority,
were either volunteer or else paid a pittance, and were generally held in low regard—
circumstances that bear a remarkable similarity to observations in the RAND report on
private security in 1971 [2].

Development of Private Security

The development of police and security forces seemed to follow no predictable pattern other
than that such development was traditionally in response to public pressure for action.
Outside of the establishment of night watch patrols in the 17th century, little effort to
establish formal security agencies was made until the beginnings of a police department
were established in New York City in 1783. Detroit followed in 1801, and Cincinnati in 1803.
Chicago established a police department in 1837; San Francisco in 1846; Los Angeles in
1850; Philadelphia in 1855; and Dallas in 1856.
New York, influenced by the recent success of the police reforms of Sir Robert Peel,
adopted his general principles in 1833. By and large, however, police methods in depart-
ments across the country were rudimentary. Most American police departments of the early
19th century, as a whole, were inefficient, ill trained, and corrupt.
In addition, the slow development of public law enforcement agencies (both state and
federal) combined with the steady escalation of crime in an increasingly urban and industri-
alized society, created security needs that were met by what might be called the first profes-
sional private security responses in the second half of the 19th century.
In the 1850s, Allan Pinkerton (see Fig. 1.1), a “copper” (police officers who were identified
by the copper badges they wore) from Scotland, and the Chicago Police Department’s first
detective, established what was to become one of the oldest and largest private security
operations in the United States, Pinkerton. Pinkerton’s North West Police Agency, formed in
1855, provided security and conducted investigations of crimes for various railroads. After 2
years, the Pinkerton Protection Patrol began to offer a private watchman service for railroad
 Chapter 1 • Origins and Development of 21st Century Security 7

FIGURE 1.1 Allan Pinkerton, President Lincoln, and Major General John McClellan. Photographed October 1862,
Antietam, Md. Courtesy of National Archives.

yards and industrial concerns. President Lincoln recognized Pinkerton’s organizational skills
and hired the agency to perform intelligence duties during the Civil War. Pinkerton is also
credited with hiring the first woman to become a detective in this country, well before the
women’s suffrage movement had realized its aims [3].
In 1850, Henry Wells and William Fargo were partners in the American Express
Company, chartered to operate a freight service east of the Mississippi River; by 1852 they
had expanded their operating charter westward as Wells Fargo and Company. Freight trans-
portation was a dangerous business, and these early companies usually had their own detec-
tives and security personnel, known as “shotgun riders.”
Washington Perry Brink founded Brinks, Inc., in 1859 as a freight and package delivery
service in Chicago. More than 30 years later, he transported his first payroll—the beginning
of armored car and courier service. By 1900, Brinks had a fleet of 85 wagons in the field [4].
Brinks, Wells Fargo, and Adams Express were the first major firms to offer security for the
transportation of valuables and money.
William J. Burns, a former Secret Service investigator and head of the Bureau of
Investigation [forerunner of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI)], started the William J.
Burns Detective Agency in 1909. It became the sole investigating agency for the American
Bankers’ Association and grew to become the second largest (after Pinkerton) contract guard
and investigative service in the United States. For all intents and purposes, Pinkerton and
8 INTRODUCTION TO SECURITY

Burns were the only national investigative bodies concerned with nonspecialized crimes in
the country until the advent of the FBI.
Another 19th century pioneer in this field was Edwin Holmes, who offered the first bur-
glar alarm service in the country in 1858. Holmes purchased an alarm system designed by
Augustus Pope. Following Holmes, American District Telegraph (ADT) was founded in 1874.
Both companies installed alarms and provided response to alarm situations as well as main-
taining their own equipment. Baker Industries initiated a fire control and detection equip-
ment business in 1909.
From the 1870s, only private agencies had provided contract security services to indus-
trial facilities across the country. In many cases, particularly around the end of the 19th cen-
tury and during the Great Depression of the 1930s, the services were, to say the least,
controversial. Both the Battle of Homestead in 1892, during which workers striking that
plant were shot and beaten by security forces, and the strikes in the automobile industry in
the middle 1930s, are examples of excesses from overzealous security operatives in relatively
recent history [5].
With few exceptions, proprietary, or in-house, security forces hardly existed before the
defense-related “plant protection” boom of the early 1940s. The impetus for modern private
security effectively began in that decade with the creation of the federal Industrial Security
Program [today named the National Industrial Security Program (NISP)], a subordinate com-
mand within the Department of Defense. The NISP is the nominal authority in the United
States for managing the needs of private industry to access classified information. The NISPs’
Operating Manual (NISPOM/DoD 5220.22-M) today consists of 11 chapters and 3 appendi-
ces totaling 141 pages. The 2006 manual included The Intelligence Reform and Terrorism
Prevention Act of 2004 and other changes taking effect since September 11, 2001 [6]. The
manual was updated in March 2013 and most recently in May 2016. The changes reflect the
continuing changes in federal agencies involved in national security as well as relationships
with our international partners.

The Beginning of Modern Security

In 1955, security took a major leap forward with the formation of the American Society for
Industrial Security (ASIS). Today, the organization is the ASIS International, reflecting the
global emphasis on security operations. For most practitioners, 1955 signifies the beginning
of the modern age of security. Before 1955 there were no professional organizations of note,
no certifications, no college programs, and no cohesive body to advance the interests of
the field.
Today’s changed climate for increased security services came as businesses undertook
expanded operations that in turn needed more protection. Retail establishments, hotels, res-
taurants, theaters, warehouses, trucking companies, industrial companies, hospitals, and
other institutional and service functions were all growing and facing a serious need to protect
 Chapter 1 • Origins and Development of 21st Century Security 9

their property and personnel. Security officers were the first line of defense, but it was not
long before that

Through out this book the authors will use the term “security officer”. We chose to use
this term in lieu of other terms such as “guard” or plant protection officer since “security
officer” is a more common title for security personnel performing traditional guard or
plant protection duties.

important function was being overchallenged by the increasing complexity of fraud, arson,
burglary, and other areas in which more sophisticated criminal practices began to prevail.
Security consulting agencies and private investigation firms were founded in increasing
numbers to handle these special types of cases. From among these, another large contractor
was to emerge and join the field alongside Pinkerton, Burns, Globe, and Brinks. In 1954,
George R. Wackenhut formed the Wackenhut Corporation in company with three other for-
mer FBI agents. In July 2015 Guardsmark, a giant in the US security business, merged with
competitor Universal Protection Service, now jointly employing over 60,000, making the firm
the largest American owned security firm. In 2002, Wackenhut was purchased by the British
firm G4S Secure Solutions. At the time, Wackenhut was the second largest security firm oper-
ating in the United States.
In 2015, G4S rebranded as G4S Security Integration. Pinkerton became part of Securitas,
the largest security firm operating globally. Securitas acquired Diebold, known for their safes,
in February 2016. In 2000, Burns became a subsidiary of Borg Warner Protective Services. As
security becomes more reliant on technology, firms such as CISCO become more important
in designing systems that utilize and protect digital security operations. In addition, many
regional firms such as Per Mar Security, located in Davenport, Iowa, continue to develop
and provide quality security services.

Early Security Information Sharing

The private sector entered security in another form during the 1960s and 1970s. Common
businesses and industries created central repositories of security information deemed impor-
tant to all of their common interests nationwide, and made it available in various ways to
their separate groups. Their purpose was to decrease loss by networking information that
would prevent criminals from victimizing members of the group once anything was known
that could be used to alert them.
Variously called “alliances,” “bureaus,” or possibly security or loss-prevention “institutes,”
these groups became deeply entrenched as providers of valuable information and services.
Their methods of dissemination vary with what is appropriate to the business for which they
were founded but include circulating “hot” lists, newsletters with “wanted” pictures and
descriptions of characteristic modes of operation, telephone chain calling to alert merchants
within an area, and so on. Nationally available repositories of other types of industry-specific
10 INTRODUCTION TO SECURITY

data are usually maintained also, and can be accessed by members. These groups serve the
private sector in its effort to survive against crime, and make their collected intelligence
available to law enforcement.
Some presently existing groups are the National Insurance Crime Bureau (NICB) (www.
nicb.org), founded in 1992; the International Association of Arson Investigators (IAAI)
(http://firearson.com), founded in 1951; the Property and Liability Research Bureau (PLRB)
(www.plrd.org); and the Jewelers Security Alliance (JSA) (www.jewelerssecurity.org), founded
in 1883—to name a few. Still other groups serve similar functions by collecting records of
insurance claims and spotting fraud, issuing periodic records of defaulted or dubious credit
cards, and so on. The measures taken by these and other business associations to limit their
losses and protect their members have spread to other areas in which there is today an
increasing concern about excessive risk. Some of these areas include computer and other
high-tech industries, and antiterrorism and executive protection alliances. The need for
information for employment background checks has also led to the creation of information
bureaus. The Internet has added its own twist in providing fast service for those looking for
information ranging from criminal histories to credit checks. A number of websites sell infor-
mation for fees ranging from a low of US$35 to more than US$100 for each search request.

The Costs
Just as the anti-Vietnam War protest created a demand for additional security services during
the 1960s and 1970s, the threat of terrorism against US business throughout the world, the
kidnaping of executives assigned outside the United States by various extremist groups, and
drugs and violence in the workplace create a demand for the 21st century. With this dynamic
growth have come profits, problems, and a need for increasing professionalism. Each is a sig-
nificant part of the picture of security today.
The attack on the World Trade Center in 2001 has continued to fuel expenditures and
growth in the private security sector. The Freedonia Group projected that the demand for
contracted security services would continue to increase at an annual rate of 5.4% from 2012
through 2016. The annual expenditure in 2016 would be approximately US$64.5 billion [7].
Conflicting data were presented by ASIS International and the Institute of Finance and
Management, which found that the US security market exceeds US$350 billion annually with
a projected annual growth in 2013 of 6.59% [8]. The disparity in data is common in most
studies of the security field due to differences in definition of what is being studied and the
lack of required reporting for the security industry.

Crime Trends and Security

During the 25 years roughly spanning the mid-1950s to the late 1970s, the United States
became the victim of what the Task Force on Private Security of the National Advisory
Committee on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals has called “a crime epidemic.” The
FBI’s annual Uniform Crime Report Program (UCRP) documented the continuing steady
 Chapter 1 • Origins and Development of 21st Century Security 11

increase in crimes of all types until 1981. Then, for the first time, the UCRP reflected a mod-
est overall decrease that has continued through the beginning of the 21st century [9].
However, in 2005, there was a slight upward trend of 0.2%. The most troubling data
showed a 7.3% increase in arrests for murder. The trend continued over the next 2 years, but
at a declining rate [9]. Why this 2 year increase occurred will be a topic of discussion for
many years. However, the downward trend resumed in 2007 and continued through 2011.
Data for 2011 showed a 6.4% decrease in violent crime during the first 6 months, while prop-
erty crimes decreased 3.7% during the same period [10].
The latest data from the FBI’s Uniform Crime Reports for 2015 reveal a 3.9% increase in
violent crimes, but a 2.6% decrease in property crimes. While the increase in violent crimes
is worth noting, the overall trend is still downward. Comparing the violent crime
figures from 2011, the rate is 7% less and in comparison to 2006, it is 16.5% lower [11].
Although the statistical crime data trend indicates less crime, the problem with crime is
the perception that the public holds. Gallup polls taken each year indicate that the fear of
crime is an even greater problem than the crime rate itself would indicate. The consistency
of survey results indicating that crime touched 25% of all American households during the
year preceding each survey led Gallup to conclude that “the actual crime situation in this
country is more serious than official governmental figures indicate.” The most recent
National Crime Victimization Survey (NCVS) data (for 2015) show no significant difference
from 2014 for violent crimes, and a decline in property crime [12]. This continuing trend
over the past 30 years is inconsistent with the general perception held by the American pub-
lic. It is likely that much of this inconsistency is fueled by regular media presentation of
news worthy events. To summarize, the data actually show that during the first decade of the
21st century, violent crime had declined 41% while property crime rates fell by 32% [13].

Crime Against Business Only an Estimate?

Although the NCVS indicates a decline in the number of offenses across all categories, the
cost of business crime continues to be a major concern. The estimated figures on the extent
of crime against business, ranging from US$67 billion to US$320 billion, have not been ade-
quately studied since the mid-1980s, dramatizing the absence of consistent hard data indi-
cating the exact size of the problem today. Variations of billions of dollars in estimates are
the result of educated guessing, interpolation, and adjustment for inflation. For example,
according to the Association of Certified Fraud Examiners (ACFE), it is estimated that there
was US$3.7 trillion lost by companies due to employee theft on a global basis in 2014 [14].

White Collar and Economic Crimes

According to a 2002 Brookings Institute report, the Enron and WorldCom scandals alone
cost the US economy approximately US$37 billion to US$42 billion off the gross domestic
product during the 1st year [15]. More recently, one individual, Bernard Madoff, was con-
victed of scamming over US$40 billion from investors [16]. A 2002 joint conference of the
National White Collar Crime Center and the Coalition for the Prevention of Economic Crime
12 INTRODUCTION TO SECURITY

concluded that the amount of “dirty money” worldwide topped US$3 trillion. They identified
the following as the most serious of economic crime problems:
• Money laundering
• Identity fraud
• E-commerce crime
• Insurance crime
• Victim services
• Terrorism [17]
More categories may be added as other types of electronic crime become more prevalent.
For example, Anne Fisher noted in a 2015 Fortune article that employees are taking advan-
tage of company-owned software and intellectual property. She believes that “borrowing”
software from work for personal use may account for US$33 billion lost to software piracy
worldwide [18]. The National White Collar Crime Center also recognized the following in
addition to the list above.
• Crypto ransomware
• Cyber intrusion
• Cyberstalking
• Health care fraud [19]
The 2002 conference of the National White Collar Crime Center and the Coalition for the
Prevention of Economic Crime figure is double the US$1.5 trillion estimate for money launder-
ing suggested by the International Monetary Fund. Sadly, the US Department of Treasury esti-
mated that 99.9% of foreign criminal and terrorist money the United States attempts to stop
gets deposited into secure accounts [20]. Obviously, figures vary, principally because satisfac-
tory measures of many crimes against business and industry have not yet been found. In addi-
tion, much internal crime in particular is never reported to the police. Often, businesses have
not reported crime because internal disciplinary action has already been taken. In other situa-
tion, management wants to avoid bad publicity and embarrassment that could result from
exposing the business’s lack of security controls. Nevertheless, such questions, as may exist,
concern only the degree, not the fact of the dramatic escalation of crimes against business in
our society. Security concerns remain constant for employee theft, property crime, and issues
related to life safety. The newest problems revolve around fraud, computer crime, workplace
violence, and terrorism. The National Computer Security Survey in 2005 found that 67% of
businesses detected at least one cybercrime. Yet, most did not report the attack to law enforce-
ment [21].

Society and Crime

As this brief history of security has indicated, there is always an intimate link between cul-
tural and social change and crime, just as there is between crime and the security measures
adopted to combat the threat. A bewildering variety of causes, both social and economic, are
 Chapter 1 • Origins and Development of 21st Century Security 13

cited for criminal behavior in this era. Among them are an erosion of family and religious
restraints, the trend toward permissiveness, the increasing anonymity of business at every
level of commerce, the decline in feelings of worker loyalty toward the company, and a gen-
eral decline in morality accompanied by the pervasive attitude that there is no such thing as
right and wrong, but rather only what is in the person’s best interest.
In addition, the rapidly changing technology of business and personal lives is often far
out ahead of security measures used to protect personal and business intellectual property.
The dominance of the computer and related technology in business has improved worldwide
business efficiency, but not without a price. The Internet, while providing the path for infor-
mation transfer, has also provided unheard of opportunities to steal or manipulate intellec-
tual property. Who had heard of a computer virus in the 1970s? And no one likely imagined
Facebook and Twitter would be a new means of global community in 2000.
These changes in attitudes, personal values, and technology have created a new problem
for security managers. In the wake of the Enron scandal, the government passed the
Sarbanes-Oxley Act of 2002 to combat corruption in public companies. This regulation has
aided the typical CSO by hopefully minimizing scandal and requiring greater financial disclo-
sures, better scrutiny by corporate boards and their audit committees, and tighter overall
accounting controls. Oversight by Security Exchange Commission (SEC) regulators, coupled
with stronger internal control mechanisms, clearly define white collar crimes as being preva-
lent and a security challenge that cannot be overlooked. Since the stock market crash of
2008, additional regulation of the financial sector by the federal government has been grow-
ing. New legislation, as well as major amendments to existing regulatory rules, has been
ostensibly enacted to make sure that further financial instability in the markets will not hap-
pen in the future. It is far beyond the scope of this book to attempt to analyze or even to cat-
alog all of the factors involved in the trend toward increasing crime, even if we restricted the
study to crimes against business and industry. What is important here is to make clear note
of the fact of such increases—and of their impact on society’s attempts to protect itself.
Most significant is the realization that “the sheer magnitude of crime in our society pre-
vents the criminal justice system by itself from adequately controlling or preventing crime.”
In spite of their steady growth, both in costs and in numbers of personnel, public law
enforcement agencies have increasingly been compelled to be reactive and to concentrate
more of their activities on the maintenance of public order and the apprehension of crim-
inals. Even community-oriented policing rests on the need for a cooperative approach to law
enforcement. The approximately 650,000 local law enforcement personnel in this country
cannot possibly provide protection for all those who need it [22]. Sadly, cooperation with law
enforcement has taken a setback in the last 10 years with the growing belief that at least
some law enforcement officials are biased in their enforcement of the law.
14 INTRODUCTION TO SECURITY

Growth of Private Security

Society has in the past relied almost exclusively on the police and other arms of the criminal
justice system to prevent and control crime. But today, as stated earlier, the types of crime
and its cost, along with cutbacks (and at times a lack of confidence) in the public sector have
overstrained public law enforcement agencies. Private security must play a greater role in
the prevention and control of crime than ever before. This need has been recognized in the
growth in protective services. The Bureau of Labor Statistics reported that there were 1.2 mil-
lion protective services employees in 2016, compared to public police officers who numbered
only 806,400 [23].

Growing Pains and Government Involvement

Inevitably, the explosive growth of the security industry in the second half of the 20th century
was not without its problems, leading to rising concern for the quality of selection, training,
and performance of security personnel. This situation was debated during the 1990s. The
Gore Bill, introduced in 1991 by then-Senator Al Gore (D-TN), recommended minimum
training for all security personnel without setting a minimum standard. The Sundquist Bill,
introduced in 1993 by Representative Don Sundquist (R-TN), spelled out specific training
requirements, adding to the 1991 Senate bill. The Sundquist Bill recommended 16 hours of
training for unarmed officers and 40 hours for armed personnel. Also in 1993, Representative
Matthew Martinez (D-CA) reintroduced a bill mandating 12 hours of training for unarmed
security personnel and 27 hours for armed officers. What is obvious is that the federal gov-
ernment had started to take an active interest in setting minimum standards for the security
profession [for a discussion of these bills, see “Why Is Security Officer Training Legislation
Needed?” by John Chuvala III, Certified Protection Professional (CPP), and Robert J. Fischer,
Security Management, April 1994].
The hijackings that led to the destruction of the World Trade Center in 2001 were blamed
on poorly trained contract security screeners at US airports and governmental intelligence
agencies. Whether the blame is fair may be debatable because screeners were not looking
for box cutters or other implements used by the hijackers. Within months of the hijackings,
the US government had established federal control over this segment of security. The
Transportation Security Administration (TSA) now handles all airport boarding security.
Within the industry itself, there is increasing pressure for improved standards, higher pay,
and greater professionalism. The ASIS International has developed industry standards that
are regularly being discussed by representatives in the security industry and federal
government.
It is important to note that no federal legislation regulating private security had been
passed until 2002, following the World Trade Center disaster. With the support of ASIS, the
Private Security Officer Employment Standards Act of 2002 was passed, allowing all security
employers access to federal employment background checks through National Crime
Information Center. An effort to expand the Act in 2012 failed.
 Chapter 1 • Origins and Development of 21st Century Security 15

The efforts at federalization often fail due to heavy lobbying efforts by some contract com-
panies who oppose anything that raises their costs and cuts into profits. It is sad that only
36 states regulate security officer training. Of those that do, none come close to meeting the
recommended 80 hours supported by the International Foundation of Protection Officers [24].

Professionalism
Despite the lack of federal regulation, today private security has moved toward a new profes-
sionalism. In defining the desired professionalism, most authorities often cite the need for a
code of ethics and for credentials including education and training, experience, and
membership in a professional society.

Professional Organizations
This continuing thrust toward professionalism is observable in the proliferation of active pri-
vate security professional organizations and associations. It is promoted by such organiza-
tions as ASIS International (which has a membership of more than 30,000 security
managers), the Academy of Security Educators and Trainers (ASET), the International
Association for Healthcare Security and Safety (IAHSS), the National Association of School
Security Safety and Law Enforcement Officers (NASSLEO), the International Foundation of
Protective Officers (IFPO), and the Security Industry Association (SIA). It finds its voice in
the library of professional security literature—magazines, Internet sites, and books. And it
looks to its future in the continued development of college-level courses and degree pro-
grams in security.
ASIS International has adhered to a professional code of ethics, one mark of a true profes-
sion, since its inception. The group established the CPP program, which requires security
managers desiring certification to be nominated by a CPP member and to complete a rigor-
ous test. This program and others are discussed in more detail in Chapter 4, Security
Education, Training, Certification, and Regulation.

The Problem With Training

Despite the many efforts to professionalize the field of private security, there are still many
who feel that major obstacles need to be overcome. The most persistent one has to do with
the training and education of the contract security officer. (A distinction between contract
and proprietary officers needs to be made. Proprietary officers—those hired directly by a
company—are generally better trained and better paid than are their contract counterparts.)
Many officers—no matter whether they are contract or proprietary—are underpaid, under-
trained, undersupervised, and unregulated. Minimal standards do exist in some places, but
there is still a reluctance to train, educate, and adequately compensate the security force.
Business considerations in making a product for profit can make it difficult for companies to
16 INTRODUCTION TO SECURITY

see the need for paying for costly security programs. Thus they often opt for the lowest-
priced solution whether it affords real protection or not.
Considering the importance of private security personnel in the anticrime effort and their
quasilaw enforcement functions, it is ironic that they receive so little training in comparison
to their public-sector contemporaries. According to a 2005 study by Associated Criminal
Justice and Security Consultants, the median number of hours of basic police training is
720 hours prior to licensing or certification by state police training boards. The same study
found that many security officers, on average, receive less than 8 hours of prejob training
[25]. Often this training is completed merely through an orientation video. Still, there are
contract and proprietary security operations that provide very good training programs. Some
contract security companies, such as G4S Security Integration, have established client con-
tracts that provide from 40 to 120 hours of prepost assignment training requirements, depen-
dent upon the designated officer’s position. This does not include on-the-job training(OJT).
In addition, a specified 16 hours annualized training requirement to refresh officers and
avoid complacency can be established. Security managers must not overlook the value of
maximizing training opportunities and requirements.
The traditional business emphasis on profit will always be foremost in priorities for secu-
rity contractors as well as proprietary security operations concerned with the companies
“bottom line.” Fortunately, this kind of thinking is undergoing a change as industry realizes
that the adage “you get what you pay for” very definitely applies to the quality of security.
This realization should in turn add pressure to industry to upgrade the position of the secu-
rity officer. Current standards, codes of ethics, and educational courses need to be supported
by industry participation.
One development in the evolution of training for line security staff is the Certified
Protection Officer (CPO) program, established in 1986 by the International Foundation for
Protection Officers, a nonprofit organization. The CPO program is being offered at a number
of colleges in the United States and Canada. Additional information on this program is pre-
sented in Chapter 4, Security Education, Training, Certification, and Regulation.

New Thinking
A systematic approach to security is appropriate today, as more and more businesses are giv-
ing the responsibility for protecting all aspects of company assets to the security and loss-
prevention department. Security and loss prevention has evolved well beyond the officer at
the gate. Though that post is still vital, today’s business assets comprise an almost infinite
variety of protection needs. Moreover, security increasingly includes protection against con-
tingencies that might prevent normal company operation from continuing and from making
a profit. And as the concept of risk management is further integrated into a comprehensive
loss-prevention program, the security function focuses less and less on enforcement and
more on anticipating and preventing loss through proactive programing. Security is now
more about protection, including brand or company identity protection, than about solving
 Chapter 1 • Origins and Development of 21st Century Security 17

crimes. Such challenges indisputably require high-level security management and an

increasingly well-credentialed group of security professionals.
This new approach lends itself well to the systems approach, as outlined by C. West
Churchman in 1968. This is the process of focusing on central objectives rather than on
attempting to solve individual problems within an organization. By concentrating on the cen-
tral objectives, the management team can address specific problems that will lead toward
the accomplishment of the central objective. As noted earlier, these central objectives for the
21st century include protection from terrorism, control of economic crimes, and brand pro-
tection, as well as continuing to combat traditional security problems. Today, we talk about
integrated security systems, total assets protection, and contingency plans.
These problems must be approached from a team perspective. Public law enforcement at
local, state, and federal levels, along with security interaction and operations, must work
together, sharing intelligence to control these problems and reestablish a sense of security in
the world’s citizens. Security, therefore, is the safety of reassurance.
The establishment of joint councils within ASIS and the International Association of
Chiefs of Police (IACP) has increased communication between the public and private sectors.
In addition, the National Sheriffs’ Association (NSA) has its Private Security Industry
Committee. These groups have developed numerous cooperative programs. In the aftermath
of September 11, 2001, cooperation among various law enforcement agencies—local, state,
and federal as well as private security organizations—has been enhanced. With the establish-
ment of the Department of Homeland Security, the federal government has attempted to
increase the interoperability of all areas of the criminal justice system in an effort to eradicate
terrorism in this country.

Summary
Although modern security relies heavily on technology, the basic theory of protection has
changed little over the past centuries. Only the tools to implement the theory have changed.
Where moats were once used, we have high-tech sensors and fences. Where warded locks
once protected buildings and rooms, we see state-of-the-art, computer-controlled, electronic
locking mechanisms. Where watchmen once walked the beat, we now find sophisticated
camera systems.
Still, not every security measure has kept pace with the development of technology. Old
techniques and technology are still commonplace in many operations. The one thing that
has changed in the 21st century is the need to consider terrorism as a significant threat to
our country and its businesses. Homeland Security and Terrorism are discussed in
Chapter 17. Our government and public businesses are now targets of individuals who
choose to use terrorist tools to make their positions known. The potential has always been
present, as noted by many security experts. However, the use of terrorist tools was not seen
as likely given the ability of most individuals to find other means to express their positions.
18 INTRODUCTION TO SECURITY

We have entered a new era where the security professional must give full consideration
to potential terrorist threats, just as they would to theft of intellectual property, burglary, rob-
bery, shoplifting, fire, and other loss risks commonly associated with security/loss-prevention
strategies. Add to this list, the threats against the computer, now one of business’s most
prominent tools, and the mix becomes very interesting!
In sum, the security industry of the 21st century is moving toward a model of single solu-
tion security integrating all areas and operation of the firm. Although, there are many parts
to the plan, in the final plan, there is convergence. Technology, information, human compo-
nents, design, etc. must all be considered in the final operation. The following chapters
discuss specific areas of interest, but in the end, a good security program must consider all
elements in order to succeed in today’s world.

▪ ▪ Critical Thinking ▪
Why should a security professional have any interest in the historical development of
the discipline?

Review Questions
1. What events in medieval England brought about the creation and use of private night
watches and patrols?
2. How did World War II affect the growth of modern private security?
3. How do you believe the events of September 11, 2001 impacted the changes occurring in
the private security/law enforcement relationship?
4. Discuss the extent of security’s growth in this country. What are some of the reasons for
the professionalization of the field of private security?
5. What do you believe are the greatest challenges facing private security in the 21st
century?

References
[1] C. Van Meter, Private Security: Report of the Task Force on Private Security, National Advisory
Committee on Criminal Justice Standards and Goals, Washington, DC, 1976.
[2] J.S. Kakalik, S. Wildhorn, Private Police in the United States: Findings and Recommendations, The RAND
Corporation, Santa Monica, CA, 1971.
[3] S.A. Levine, Allan Pinkerton: America’s First Private Eye, Dodd, Mead, New York, 1963.
[4] J.S., Kakalik, S., Wildhorn, Private Police, pp. 94 95.
[5] W. Cunningham, J.J. Strauchs, C.W. Van Meter, The Hallcrest Report II: Private Security Trends
1970 2000, Butterworth-Heinemann, Boston, 1990.
[6] ,www.dss.mil.odda/mspm06.htlm., (downloaded 9.17.2010).
[7] Private Security Services, Industry Study 2944, October 2012.
 Chapter 1 • Origins and Development of 21st Century Security 19

[8] The United States Security Industry: Size and Scope, Insights, Trends, and Data, ASIS International and
the Institute of Finance and Management, 2012.
[9] Federal Bureau of Investigation, U.S. Department of Justice. Uniform Crime Reporting Program.
Government Printing Office, Washington, DC.
[10] ,www.fbi.gov/about-us/cjis/ucr/crime-in-the-u.s./2011/preliminary., (downloaded 3.10.2012).
[11] Latest Crime Statistics Released, September 26, 2016, ,www.fbi.gov/news/stories/latest-crime-statistics-
released..
[12] BJS’s Crime Victimization Survey Shows Rate of Overall Villent Crim Remained Flat from 2014 to 2015:
Property Crime Rate Decreased, Advance for Relaease, October 20, 2016. ,http://www.bjs.gov/..
[13] Criminal Victimization 2008, BJS Bulletin, September 2009.
[14] Report to the Nations on Occupational Fraud and Abuse, ACFE, 2014.
[15] Brookings Institute. Brookings Study Details Economic Cost of Recent Corporate Crises. ,www.brook-
ings.edu/comm/news/20020725graham.htm..
[16] Three New Federal Lawsuits Against Madoff Family Business. ,www.dailyfinance.com/story/investing/
court-appointed-trustee-madoff-family-lawsuit., (downloaded 9.4.2010).
[17] Funny Money. The Economist Global Agenda, May 3, 2002. ,www.economist.com/agenda/
displayStory.cfm?story_id 1 1116239..
[18] A. Fisher, U.S. retail workers are No. 1 . . . in employee theft, Fortune (January 26, 2015).
[19] ,www.nw3c.org/services/research/whitepapers., (accessed 11.19.16).
[20] Dealing with Dirty Money. Hellenic Communication Service. ,www.helleniccomserve.com/dirtymoney.
html., (downloaded 9.4.2010).
[21] Cybercrime Against Business, National computer crime survey, Bureau of Justice Statistics (2005).
Available from: , www.bjs.gov/index.cjf?ty 5 tp&tid 5 41 . (accessed 11.18.16).
[22] BLS Occupational Employment Statistics, 33-3051 Police and Sheriff’s Patrol Officers, May 2009.
[23] , data.bls.gov/search/query/results., (accessed 11.19.2016).
[24] S. Walter, Why legislative efforts to improve security guard training keep failing, Reveal (December 9,
2014). Available from: , www.revealnews.org/why-legislative-eforts-to-improve-security-guard-training-
keep-failing . .
[25] Associated Criminal Justice & Security Consultants, PLACE Project, Kaplan University, Evaluation of
Basic Training Programs in Law Enforcement, Security and Corrections for Academic Credit, June 2005.
 2
Defining Security’s Role
OBJECTIVES
The study of the chapter will enable you to:
1. Define the concept of private security.
2. List various services offered by private security operations.
3. Understand the differences among proprietary, contract, and hybrid security operations.
4. Discuss the issues that contribute to continued relations issues between private security operations
and public law enforcement.

Introduction
During the 19th and 20th centuries, public police operated only on a local basis. They had
neither the resources nor the authority to extend their investigations or pursuit of criminals
beyond the sharply circumscribed boundaries in which they performed their duties. When
the need arose to reach beyond these boundaries or to cut through several of these jurisdic-
tions, law enforcement was undertaken by such private security forces as the Pinkerton
Agency, railway police, or the Burns Detective Agency.
As the police sciences developed, public agencies began to assume a more significant
role in the investigation of crime and, through increased cooperation among government
agencies, the pursuit of suspected criminals. Concurrent with this evolution of public law
enforcement, private agencies shifted their emphases away from investigation and toward
crime prevention. This led to an increasing use of security services to protect property and to
maintain order. Today, in terms of numbers, surety forces are by far the predominant
element in private security.
But what other protective measures are available? Who provides them? Who is responsi-
ble for planning and executing these procedures? Where do the roles of private and public
police overlap, and where do they diverge? What are the particular hazards for which private
security is now held responsible, and how is it determined that threats are sufficient to justify
the adoption of protective procedures? To answer these questions, it is necessary to define
private security and its role more exactly.

What is Private Security?

Although the term private security has been used in previous pages without question, there
is no universal agreement on a definition or even on the suitability of the term itself. Cogent

Introduction to Security. DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-805310-2.00002-0

© 2019 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
21
22 INTRODUCTION TO SECURITY

arguments have been made, for example, for substituting the term loss prevention for
security.
The RAND report defines private security to include all protective and loss-prevention
activities not performed by law enforcement agencies. Specifically,

the terms private police and private security forces and security personnel are used gener-
ically in this report to include all types of private organizations and individuals provid-
ing all of security-related services, including investigation, staffing key posts, patrol,
executive protection, alarm monitoring and response, and armored transportation [1].

The Task Force on Private Security takes exception to this definition on several grounds.
The task force argues that “quasi-public police” should be excluded from consideration on
the grounds that they are paid out of public funds, even though they may be performing
what are essentially private security functions. The task force also makes the distinction that
private security personnel must be employees of a “for-profit” organization or firm as
opposed to a nonprofit or governmental agency. The complete task force definition states:

Private security includes those self-employed individuals and privately funded business
entities and organizations providing security-related services to specific clientele for a
fee, for the individual or entity that retains or employs them, or for themselves, in order
to protect their persons, private property, or interests from varied hazards [2].

The task force argues that the profit motive and the source of profits are basic elements
of private security. While this definition might be suitable for the specific purposes of the
report, it hardly seems acceptable as a general definition. Many hospitals and schools, to
name only two types of institutions, employ private security forces without for-profit orienta-
tion. Yet it would be difficult to contend, for example, that the members of the International
Association for Healthcare Security and Safety (IAHSS) are not private security personnel.
The Hallcrest reports never formally defined the terms security or loss prevention but
relied on the earlier definitions of these terms. These reports consider, however, the security
or loss-prevention field in its broadest application and thus avoid getting bogged down in
discussions of profit motive or specific tasks. The reports focus on the functional aspects of
security, recognizing that the functions of security and loss prevention are performed by
both the public law enforcement sector and private agencies.
Thus, neither the profit nature of the organization being protected nor even the source of
funds by which personnel are paid holds up as a useful distinction. A security officer at a
public school is engaged to protect a nonprofit institution and is paid out of public funds.
The function, however, is clearly different from that of a public law enforcement officer. The
officer is—and is universally accepted as—a private security officer. How then should private
security be defined for the purpose of this text?
The opening lines of Chapter 1, Origins and Development of 21st Century Security sug-
gest that “security implies a stable, relatively predictable environment in which an individual
or group may pursue its ends without disruption or harm and without fear of disturbance or
 Chapter 2 • Defining Security’s Role 23

injury.” Such security can be effected by military forces, by public law enforcement agencies,
by the individual or organization concerned, or by organized private enterprises. Where the
protective services are provided by personnel who are paid out of public funds and also
charged with the general responsibility for the public welfare, their function is that of public
police. Where the services are provided for the protection of specific individuals or organiza-
tions, they normally fall into the area of private security.

Protection of Life and Property

The hazards against which private security seeks to provide protection are commonly
divided into human-made and natural. Natural hazards may include fire, tornado, flood,
earthquake, hurricane, blizzards, and other acts of nature that could result in disruptions or
damage to the enterprise or organization such as to cause building collapse, equipment fail-
ure, accidents, safety hazards and other events that interrupt normal business processes
causing work delays, stoppages, and loss of revenue. It should be noted that fire is also quite
often human-made, intentionally or unintentionally.
Human-made hazards may include crimes against the person (e.g., robbery or rape) or
crimes against property (theft and pilferage, fraud and embezzlement). In addition, people
also creates problems through terrorism (domestic and international), espionage and sabotage,
civil disturbances, bomb threats, fire (as noted above), workplace violence, accidents as well as
information systems misuse, intrusions, disruptions of service, and malicious cyber-attacks.
The degree of exposure to specific hazards will vary for different facilities. The threat of
fire or explosion is greatest in a chemical plant; the potential of loss from shoplifting or inter-
nal theft is greatest in a retail store. Each organization or facility must ideally be protected
against a full range of hazards, but in practice, a particular protection system will emphasize
some hazards (those most likely to occur) more than others.
In some organizations, the area of accident prevention and safety has taken on such
importance (primarily because of state and federal occupational safety and health legisla-
tion), that this responsibility has become a full-time objective in itself, in the charge of a
director of safety. Security can then devote its energies to other areas of loss. Similarly, some
large industrial facilities have full fire brigades. In most situations, however, fire, accident
prevention and disaster preparedness and business recovery are part of the responsibility of
the security department. Disaster preparedness and business recovery are sub-processes of
the macro processes of contingency planning and business resilience. Each is discussed
further in Chapter 11, Contingency Planning Emergency Response and Safety.

Security Functions
Security practices and procedures cover a broad spectrum of activities designed to eliminate
or mitigate the full range of potential hazards (loss, damage, or injury). These protection
measures may include but are by no means limited to the following:
1. Building and perimeter protection, by means of barriers, fences, walls, and gates;
protected openings; lighting; and surveillance (security officers and video).
Other documents randomly have
different content
makes the loose part of the world generally make a jest of those that
are thus seemingly devout; not altogether it may be because they
are really devoted to God, but because they appear to have no other
devotion, but that of occasional prayers.

Julius is very fearful of missing prayers; all the parish suppose

Julius to be sick, if he is not at church. But if you ask him, why he
spends the rest of his time by humour or chance? Why he is busy at
all balls and assemblies? Why he gives himself up to an idle
gossipping conversation? If you ask him, why he never puts his
conversation, his time, and fortune, under the rules of religion? Julius
has no more to say for himself, than the most disorderly person. For
he that lives in such a course of idleness and folly, lives no more
according to the religion of Jesus Christ, than he who lives in
gluttony and intemperance.

Our blessed Saviour and his Apostles did not spend their whole
ministry in recommending the duties of public and private prayers;
though by their example and precepts they recommended and
enforced both; but it is worthy our observation, that after they had
laid down a lively faith in God’s mercy through Jesus Christ, as the
foundation, they were chiefly taken up in delivering doctrines which
relate to common life. For they call upon us “to renounce the world,
so as not to be conformed to it: To fear none of its evils, to reject its
joys, and have no value for its happiness: To be as new-born babes,
that are born into a new state of things; to live as pilgrims, in spiritual
watching, in holy fear, and heavenly aspirations after another life: To
take up our daily cross, to deny ourselves, to profess the
blessedness of holy mourning, and poverty of spirit: To reject the lust
of the flesh, the lust of the eye, and the pride of life, so as not to
follow or be led by them: To take no anxious thought for the morrow;
to live in the profoundest state of humility; to rejoice in worldly
sufferings and injuries, when it pleases God to bring them upon us;
to forgive and bless our enemies, and to love mankind in the same
manner, though not degree, as God loves them. In short, to give up
our whole hearts and affections to God, even a God in Christ, and
to strive to enter through the strait gate of a sound conversion into a
life of eternal glory.”

This is the common devotion, which our blessed Saviour and his
Apostles taught, in order to make it the common life of all christians.
But yet, though it is thus plain, that this, and this alone, is true
christianity, yet it is as plain, that there is little or nothing of this to be
found, not only among professed rakes, but even among the better
and more sober sort of people. You may see them often at public
worship, and the Lord’s table, and hear them talking of grace and
religion, and find them pleased with orthodox preachers; but look into
their lives, and you see them just the same sort of people as others
are, who make no pretences to devotion at all. So that the difference
that you find between them, seems to be only the difference of
natural tempers, or the effect of a polite and civilized education.

Leo has a great deal of good nature, has kept what they call good
company, hates every thing that is false and base, is very generous
and brave to his friends, but has concerned himself so little with
religion, that he hardly knows the difference between a Jew and a
christian.

Eusebius, on the other hand, has had early impressions of

religion, sometimes prays extempore, and buys books of devotion,
and receives the blessed sacrament once a month. He can talk of all
the doctrines of grace, is acquainted with the true state of the
controversy between the Calvinists and Arminians, knows all the
feasts and fasts of the church, and the names of most men that have
been eminent for piety. You never hear him swear, or make a loose
jest, and when he talks of religion, he talks of it, as a matter of the
last concern.

Here you see, that one person has religion enough, according to
the way of the world, to be reckoned a pious christian; and the other
is so far from all appearance of religion, that he may fairly be
reckoned an heathen; and yet if you look into their common life, you
will find Eusebius and Leo exactly alike; seeking, using, and
enjoying, all that can be gotten in this world, in the same manner,
and for the same ends, even to please themselves, without any
prevailing habitual regard to the glory of God. You will find that
riches, prosperity, pleasures, indulgences, state, equipage, and
honour, are just as much the happiness of Eusebius, as they are of
Leo.

And must not all who are capable of any reflection, readily
acknowledge, that this is generally the state even of what we
commonly term devout people, whether men or women? You may
see them different from some others, as to times and places of
worship, receiving the sacrament, and with a doctrinal knowledge of
the form of sound words; but usually like the rest of the world in all
the other parts of their lives. Is it not notorious, that christians are
now not only like other men in their frailties and infirmities, (this might
be in some degree excusable, since the scriptures inform us, that
Elijah was a man of like passions with others) but are they not like
heathens, in all the main and chief articles of their lives? Do they not
enjoy the world, and live every day with the same indulgence as they
did who knew not God, nor of any happiness in another life?

And yet, if christianity has not changed a man’s mind and temper,
with relation to these things, what can we say that it has done for
him? For if the doctrines of christianity were universally practised,
they would make a man as different from other people, as to all
worldly tempers, sensual pleasures, and the pride of life, as a wise
man is different from an ideot; and it would be almost as easy a thing
to know a true professor of christianity, by his outward course of life,
as it is now difficult to find any body that lives it.

CHAPTER II.
 Persons free from the necessities of labour and
employments, are to consider themselves as devoted to
God in a higher degree.

A S it has been proved in the foregoing chapter, that all professors

of christianity, do lie under manifold obligations to live a life
wholly devoted unto God; so those who have no particular
employment, but have their time and fortune at their own disposal,
are under still greater obligations of living wholly unto God in all their
actions.

They are those, of whom “much will be required, because much

is given unto them.”

A slave can only live unto God in one particular way; that is, by
religious patience and submission in his state of slavery; but all ways
of holy living, all instances, and all kinds of virtue lie open to those,
who are masters of themselves, of their time, and their fortune.

You are no labourer or tradesman; you are neither merchant nor

soldier; should you not therefore consider yourself, as placed in a
state, in some degree like that of good angels, who are sent into the
world as ministring spirits, for the general good of mankind, to assist,
protect, and minister for them who shall be heirs of salvation?

Had you, Serena, been obliged by the necessities of life, to wash

cloaths for your maintenance, or to wait upon some mistress, that
demanded all your labour, it would then be your duty to serve and
glorify God, by such humility, obedience, and faithfulness, as might
adorn that state, and improve that one talent to its greatest height:
but as God hath given you five talents; as he hath placed you above
the necessities of life; as he hath left you in the hands of yourself, in
the happy liberty of chusing the most exalted ways of religion; so it is
now your duty and privilege to turn your five talents into five more; to
set no bounds to your love and gratitude to the bountiful Author of so
many blessings; and to consider how your time, leisure, health, and
fortune, may be made so many happy means of improving your
fellow-creatures in the ways of God, and of advancing yourself,
through grace, at last to the greatest heights of eternal glory.

This, Serena, is indeed your profession: and the reason of this

will appear very plain, if you would only consider, that your estate is
as much the gift of God, as your eyes or hands; and is therefore no
more to be buried or thrown away at pleasure, than you are to put
out your eyes, or throw away your limbs as you please.

But besides these considerations, there are several other great

and important reasons, why all christians in general, and such as I
am now speaking of in particular, should be religiously exact in the
use of their fortunes for the glory of God.

For the manner of using our money, and spending our estate,
enters so far into the business of every day, that our common life
must necessarily be much of the same nature as our common way of
spending our estate. If we waste it, we do not waste a trifle, that
signifies little; but we waste that which might be made as eyes to the
blind, as a husband to the widow, as a father to the orphan; and
which, if given in faith, and out of love to Jesus Christ, would
greatly increase our reward in a future state. “Make to yourselves
friends (says our Saviour) of the mammon of unrighteousness, that
when you fail, they may receive you into everlasting habitations.”
What still adds weight to these arguments, is this, if we waste our
money, and do not improve our fortunes for the glory of God, and
the good of our fellow-creatures, we are not only guilty of wasting a
talent which God has given us, and making that useless which might
be so powerful a means of doing good, but we turn this useful talent
into a powerful means of corrupting ourselves. For so far as it is
spent wrong, so far it is spent in the support of some wrong temper,
in gratifying some vain and unreasonable desires, in conforming to
those fashions, and that pride of the world, which as reasonable men
and christians we are obliged to renounce. If therefore, you do not
spend your money in doing good to others, you must spend it to the
hurt of yourself. And you will act like a man that refuses to give that
as a cordial to a sick friend, though he could not drink it himself,
without not only inflaming, but corrupting his whole mass of blood.

It may be worth our while to pursue this thought a little further.

For as we are now discoursing about people in the polite world, and
of good fortunes, who we may suppose do not live in gross sins, but
only in the indiscreet and dangerous use of things innocent and
lawful in themselves, so it is more difficult to make such people at all
sensible of the danger of such a life.

A gentleman that spends great part of his estate in sports, and a

woman that lays out all her fortune upon herself, can hardly be
persuaded, that the spirit of religion cannot subsist in such a way of
life. Much less will they be easily convinced, that such a turn of mind,
however they may live free from debaucheries, and be friends of
religion, so far as to praise, speak well of, and admire it in their
imaginations, will give a bad turn to their whole way of life. But it is
certainly so.

A woman, for instance, that loves dress, who thinks no expence

too great to bestow upon the adorning of her person, cannot stop
there. For that single temper draws a thousand other follies along
with it; and will render the whole course of her life, her business, her
conversation, her hopes, her fears, her taste, her pleasures, and
diversions, all suitable to it. On the contrary, a lady who is habitually
dead to the things of the world, and has devoted her time and
fortune to God; such a one will let her whole life be a continued
series of good actions, as may benefit her own and others souls, and
consequently adorn the gospel of her Lord and Saviour Jesus
Christ.

Flavia, and Miranda, are two maiden sisters, that have each of
them two hundred pounds a year. They buried their father twenty
years ago, and have since that time spent their estate as they
pleased.

Flavia has been the wonder of all her friends, for her excellent
management, in making so surprizing a figure with so moderate a
fortune. Several ladies that have twice her fortune, are not able to be
always so genteel, and so constant at all places of what she calls
innocent pleasure and expence. She has every thing in the fashion,
and is in every place where there is any diversion. Flavia is very
orthodox; she talks warmly against heretics and schismatics, is
generally at church, and often at the sacrament. She once
commended a sermon that was against the pride and vanity of
dress, and thought it was very just against Lucinda, whom she takes
to be a great deal finer than she need to be. Should any one ask
Flavia to do something in charity; if she likes the person who makes
the proposal, or happens to be in a right temper, she will toss him
half a crown or a crown, and tell him, that if he knew what a long
millener’s bill she had just received, he would think it a great deal for
her to give. A quarter of a year after this, she hears a sermon upon
the necessity of charity; she thinks the man preaches well, that it is a
very proper subject, and that people want much to be put in mind of
it; but she applies nothing to herself, because she remembers that
she gave a crown some time ago, when she could so ill spare it.

As for poor people, she will admit of no complaints from them;

she is very positive they are all cheats and liars, and will say any
thing to get relief, and therefore it must be a sin to encourage them
in their evil ways.

You would think that Flavia had the tenderest conscience in the
world, if you was to see how scrupulous and apprehensive she is of
the guilt and danger of giving amiss.

She buys all books of wit and humour, and has made an
expensive collection of all our English Poets; for she says, one
cannot have a true taste of any of them, without being very
conversant with all.

She will sometimes read a book of piety, if it is a short one, and if

it is much commended for stile and language, and she can tell where
to borrow it.
 Flavia is very idle, and yet very fond of fine work: this makes her
very often sit working in bed until noon, and will be told many a long
story before she is up; so that I need not tell you, that her morning
devotions are not always rightly performed.

Flavia would be a miracle of piety, if she was but half so careful of

her soul, as she is of her body. The rising of a pimple in her face, or
the sting of a gnat, will make her keep her room two or three days;
and she thinks they are very rash people, that do not take care of
things in time. This makes her so over careful of her health, that she
never thinks she is well enough; and so over indulgent, that she
never can be really well. So that it costs her a great deal in sleeping
draughts, and waking draughts, in spirits for the head, in drops for
the nerves, in cordials for the stomach, and in saffron for her tea.

If you visit Flavia on the Lord’s day, you will always meet good
company; you will know what is doing in the world, and who is meant
by every name that is in it. You will hear what plays were acted that
week, and which is the finest song in the opera; who was intolerable
at the last assembly, and what games are most in fashion. Flavia
thinks they are Atheists who play at cards on the Sunday; but she
will tell you the nicety of all the games, what cards she held, how she
played them, and the history of all that happened at play, as soon as
she comes from church. If you would know who is rude and ill-
natured, who is vain and foppish, who lives too high, and who is in
debt; if you would know what is the quarrel at a certain house, or
who and who are in love; if you would know how late Belinda comes
home at night, what cloaths she has bought, how she loves
compliments, and what a long story she told at such a place; if you
would know how cross Lucius is to his wife, and what ill-natured
things he says to her, when no body hears him; if you would know
how they hate one another in their hearts, though they appear so
kind in public; you must visit Flavia on the Sunday. But still, she has
so great a regard for the holiness of the Sunday, that she has turned
a poor old widow out of her house, as a prophane wretch, for having
been found once mending her cloaths on the Sunday night.
 Thus lives Flavia; and if she lives ten years longer, she will have
spent about fifteen hundred and sixty Sundays after this manner;
and she will have worn about two hundred different suits of cloaths.
Out of these thirty years of her life, fifteen of them will have been
disposed of in bed; and of the remaining fifteen, about fourteen of
them will have been consumed in eating, drinking, dressing, visiting,
conversation, reading and hearing plays and romances, and
attending at operas, assemblies, balls and diversions. For you may
reckon all the time she is up, to be thus spent, except about an hour
and a half, that is disposed of at church, most Sundays in the year.
With great management, and under mighty rules of œconomy, she
will have spent six thousand pounds upon herself, except some few
shillings, crowns or half crowns, that have gone from her in
accidental charities.

I shall not take upon me to say, that it is impossible for Flavia

ever to be saved; but thus much must be said, that she has no
grounds from scripture to think she is at present in the way of
salvation. For her whole life is in direct opposition to all those
tempers and practices, which the gospel has made necessary to
salvation.

If you was to hear her say, that she had lived all her life like Anna
the prophetess, “who departed not from the temple, but served God
with fastings and prayers night and day,” you would look upon her as
very extravagant; and yet this would be no greater an extravagance,
than for her to say, that she had been “striving to enter in at the strait
gate,” or making any one doctrine or precept of the gospel, a rule of
her life.

She may as well say, that she lived with our Saviour when he
was upon earth, as that she has lived in imitation of him, or made it
any part of her care to live in such tempers, as he required of all
those that would be his disciples. She may as truly say, that she has
every day washed the Saints feet, as that she has lived in christian
humility and poverty of spirit; and as reasonably think, that she has
taught a charity school, as that she has lived in works of charity. She
hath as much reason to think, that she has been a centinel in an
army, as that she has lived in watching and self-denial. And it may as
fairly be said, that she had lived by the labour of her hands, as that
she had given all diligence to make her calling and election sure.

Now though the irregular trifling spirit of this character, belongs I

hope but to few people, yet many may here learn some instruction
from it, and perhaps see something of their own spirit in it.

But not so Miranda (the sister of Flavia); she is a sober

reasonable christian. As soon as she was mistress of her time and
fortune, it was her first thought, how she might best fulfil every thing
that God required of her in the use of them, and how she might
make the best and happiest use of this short life. She depends upon
the truth of what our blessed Lord hath said, “that there is but one
thing needful,” and therefore makes her whole life but one continual
labour after it. She has but one reason for doing or not doing, for
liking or not liking any thing, and that is the will of God. She is not so
weak, as to pretend to add, what is frequently falsely called the fine
lady, to the true christian; Miranda thinks too well, to be taken with
the sound of such silly words; she has renounced the world, to follow
Christ in the exercise of humility, charity, devotion, abstinence, and
heavenly affections; and that is Miranda’s fine breeding.

Whilst she was under her mother, she was forced to live in
ceremony, to sit up late at night, to be in the folly of every fashion,
and always visiting on Sundays; to go patched, and loaded with a
burden of finery, to the holy sacrament; to be in every polite
conversation; to hear prophaneness at the play-house, and wanton
songs and love intrigues at the opera; to dance at public places, that
fops and rakes might admire the fineness of her shape, and the
beauty of her motions. The remembrance of this way of life is very
grievous to her, and makes her exceeding careful to give evidences
of her unfeigned repentance, by a contrary behaviour.

Miranda does not divide her duty between God, her neighbour,
and herself; but she considers all as due to God, and so does every
thing in his name and for his sake. This makes her consider her
fortune as the gift of God, that is to be used as is every thing that
belongs to God, for the wise and reasonable ends of a christian and
holy life: her fortune therefore is divided between herself and the
poor, and she has only her reasonable part of relief from it. For she
thinks it the same folly to indulge herself in needless, vain expences,
as to give to other people to spend in the same way.

This is the spirit of Miranda, and thus she uses the gifts of God. If
you was to see her, you would wonder who it was that was so
surprizing and unaffectedly neat and clean; for every thing about her
resembles the purity of her soul, and she is always clean without,
because she always studies to be pure within.

Every morning sees her early at her prayers; she rejoices in the
beginning of every day, because it begins all her pious rules of holy
living, and brings the fresh pleasure of repeating them. She seems to
be as a guardian angel to those that dwell about her, with her
watchings and prayers blessing the place where she dwells, and
making intercession with God for those that are asleep.

Her devotions have had some intervals, and she has had reason
to think that God hath answered several of her private prayers,
before the light hath entered into her sister’s room. Miranda does not
know what it is to have a dull half-day; the returns of her hours of
prayer, and her religious exercises, come too often to let any
considerable part of time lie heavy upon her hands.

When you see her at work, you see the same wisdom that
governs all her other actions; she is either doing something that is
necessary for herself, or necessary for others, who want to be
assisted. Her wise and pious mind neither wants the amusement,
nor can bear with the folly of idle and impertinent work; she can
admit of no such folly as this in the day, because she is to call herself
to an account for all her actions in her secret retirement at night.

At her table she lives strictly by this rule of holy scripture,

“whether ye eat or drink, or whatsoever ye do, do all to the glory of
God.” This makes her begin and end every meal, as she begins and
ends every day, with acts of devotion: she does not indeed weigh her
meat in a pair of scales, but she weighs it in a much better balance;
so much as gives a proper strength to her body, and renders it able
and willing to obey the soul, is Miranda’s meal.

The holy scriptures, especially of the New Testament, are her

daily study. When she has this in her hand, she supposes herself at
the feet of our Saviour and his apostles, and receives their sacred
words with as much attention and reverence, as if she saw their
persons, and knew that they were just come from heaven, on
purpose to teach her the way that leads to it. Nor does she content
herself barely with reading the scriptures; but in reading, constantly
casts her eye upon herself, and tries herself by every doctrine that is
there, because she thinks this is the only possible way to be ready
for her trial at the last day.

Books also of devotion, and especially such as enter into the

heart of religion, and describe the inward holiness of the christian
life, have such a large place in her closet, that she is sometimes
afraid that she lays out too much money in them, because she
cannot forbear buying all the practical books of any note. But of all
human writings, the lives of pious persons, and eminent saints, are
her greatest delight. In these she searches as for hidden treasure,
hoping to find some secret of holy living, some uncommon degree of
piety, which she may make her own. By this means, Miranda has her
head and heart stored with all the principles of wisdom and holiness,
and if you are in her company, when she thinks proper to talk, you
must be made wiser and better, whether you will or not.

To relate her charity, would be to relate the history of every day

for twenty years past. She has set up near twenty poor tradesmen
who had failed in their business, and saved as many from failing.
She has educated several poor children, that were picked up in the
streets, and put them in a way of honest employment. As soon as
any labourer is confined at home with sickness, she sends to him, till
he recovers, twice the value of his wages, that he may have one part
to give to his family as usual, and the other to provide things
convenient for his sickness.

If a family seems too large to be supported by the labour of those

in it that can work, she pays their rent, and gives them something
yearly towards their cloathing. By this means there are many poor
families which live in a comfortable manner, and are from year to
year blessing her in their prayers.

If there is any poor man or woman, that is more than ordinarily

wicked and reprobate, Miranda has her eye upon them, and if she
can discover that they are in any great streights or affliction, she
gives them speedy relief. She has this care for this sort of people,
not only because she once saved a very profligate person from
being carried to prison, who immediately became a true penitent, but
because she believes that a tenderness of affection towards the
most abandoned sinners, is every where represented in the gospel
as the highest instance of a divine and godlike soul.

Miranda once passed by a house, where the man and his wife
were cursing and swearing at one another in a most dreadful
manner, and three children crying about them; this sight so much
affected her compassionate mind, that she went the next day, and
even bought the three children, that they might not be ruined by
living with such wicked parents. They now live with Miranda, are
blessed with her care and prayers, and all the good works that she
can do for them. They hear her talk, they see her live, and join with
her in psalms and prayers. The eldest of them has already been an
instrument of converting his parents from their wicked life, and
shews a turn of mind so remarkably pious, that Miranda intends him
for holy orders; that being thus saved himself, he may be zealous in
the salvation of souls, and do to other miserable objects, as she has
done to him.

Miranda is a constant relief to poor people in their misfortunes

and accidents; for there are sometimes little misfortunes that happen
to them, which of themselves they could never be able to overcome:
the death of a cow, or a horse, or some little robbery, would keep
them in distress all their lives. She does not suffer them to lie
grieving under such accidents as these. She immediately gives them
the full value of their loss, and makes use of it as a means of raising
their minds towards God.

She has a great tenderness for old people that are grown past
their labour. The parish allowance (Miranda says) to such people, is
very seldom a comfortable maintenance. For this reason, they are
the constant objects of her care; she adds so much to their
allowance, as somewhat exceeds the wages they got when they
were young. This she does to comfort them under the infirmities of
their age, that being free from trouble and distress they may serve
God in peace and tranquillity of mind. She has generally a large
number of this kind, who by her charities, and exhortations to
holiness, spend their last days in great piety and devotion.

Miranda never wants compassion even to common beggars;

especially those that are old or sick, or full of sores, and that want
eyes or limbs. Miranda considers that Lazarus was a common
beggar, that notwithstanding he was the care of angels, and carried
into Abraham’s bosom. She considers that our blessed Saviour and
his apostles, were kind to beggars; that they spoke comfortably to
them, healed their diseases, and restored eyes and limbs to the
lame and blind. She therefore hears their complaints with
tenderness, and never bids them go to the place from whence they
came, or tells them that she cannot relieve them because they may
be cheats, or that they are strangers; but she relieves them for that
very reason because they are strangers; and though she cannot, like
our Saviour and his Apostles, work miracles for their relief, yet she
remembers the words of our Lord, “I was a stranger and ye took me
in,” and can say with St. Peter, “such as I have, give I unto you, in
the name of Jesus of Nazareth.”

It may be, says Miranda, that I may sometimes give to those who
do not deserve it. But where, says she, has the scripture made merit
to be the rule or measure of my charity? On the contrary, does not
the scripture speak on this wise, “if thine enemy hunger, feed him; if
he thirst, give him drink.” And if I am to love and do good to my worst
enemies, surely I am not to deny alms to poor beggars, whom I
neither know to be bad people, nor any way my enemies? Does not
God make his sun to rise on the evil and on the good? Is not this the
very goodness that is recommended to us in scripture? that by
imitating it, “we may be children of our father who is in heaven, who
sendeth rain on the just and the unjust.”

Perhaps you will reply, “By this means I encourage people to be

beggars.” But may not the same objection be made against all kinds
of charities, for they may encourage people to depend upon them?
May not the same be said against forgiving our enemies, cloathing
the naked, or giving medicines to the sick? for in so doing we may
encourage people to do us hurt or neglect themselves, and be
careless of their health. Such thoughtless objections, says Miranda, I
once urged myself, when in a state of unregeneracy: but since the
love of God has dwelt in me, and enlarged my heart, I have been
filled with bowels of compassion; and as I daily pray for all, so far as
I can, I give to all. And I cannot refuse an alms to those, whom I pray
God to bless, and whom I wish to be partakers of eternal glory. I look
on those who come to ask my alms, as so many friends and
benefactors, that come to do me a greater good than they can
receive from me; that come to exalt my graces, and be witnesses of
my charity; to be monuments of my love, and put it in my power of
proving the truth of that glorious declaration “It is more blessed to
give than to receive.”

This is the spirit, and this is the life of the devout Miranda; and if
she lives ten years longer, she will have spent six-thousand pounds
in charity; for that which she allows herself, may fairly be reckoned
amongst her alms.

When she dies, she must shine amongst Apostles, saints and
martyrs, she must stand amongst the first servants of God, and be
glorious amongst those that have fought the good fight, and finished
their course with joy.

“He that hath ears to hear let him hear.”

 CHAPTER III.
An enquiry into the first and chief reason, why the generality
of christians fall so far short of the holiness and devotion of
christianity.

S INCE christian devotion is nothing less than a life wholly devoted

unto God, and persons who are free from the necessities of
labour and employments, are to consider themselves as devoted to
God in a higher degree; it may now reasonably be enquired, how it
comes to pass, that the lives even of the moral and better sort of
people, are in general so directly contrary to the principles of
christianity? I answer, because the generality of those that call
themselves christians, are destitute of a true living faith in Jesus
Christ; for want of which they never effectually intended to please
God in all the actions of life, as the happiest and best thing in the
world.

To be partaker of such a faith, is every where represented in

scripture, as a fundamental and necessary part of true piety. For
without a living faith in the righteousness of Jesus Christ, our
persons cannot be justified, and consequently none of our
performances acceptable in the sight of God. It is this faith that
enables us to overcome the world, and to devote ourselves without
reserve to promote the glory of Him, who has loved and given
himself for us. And therefore it is purely for want of such a faith, that
you see such a mixture of sin and folly in the lives even of the better
sort of people: It is for want of this faith, that you see clergymen
given to pride, and covetousness, and worldly enjoyments: It is for
want of such a faith that you see women who profess devotion, yet
living in all the folly and vanity of dress, wasting their time in idleness
and pleasures, and in all such instances of state and equipage as
their estate will reach. Let but a woman feel her heart full of this faith,
and she will no more desire to shine at balls and assemblies, or to
make a figure among those that are most finely dressed, than she
will desire to dance upon a rope to please spectators. For she will
then know that the one is as far from the true nature, wisdom, and
excellency of the christian spirit, as is the other.

Let a clergyman be but thus pious, and he will converse as if he

had been brought up by an Apostle; he will no more think and talk of
noble preferment, than of noble eating, or a glorious chariot. He will
no more complain of the frowns of the world, or a small cure, or the
want of a patron, than he will complain of the want of a laced coat, or
of a running horse. Let him but have such a faith in love for God, as
will constrain him to make it his business to study to please God in
all his actions, as the happiest and best thing in the world, and then
he will know, that there is nothing noble in a clergyman, but burning
zeal for the salvation of souls; nor any thing poor in his profession
but idleness and a worldly spirit.

Further, let a tradesman but have such a faith, and it will make
him a saint in his shop; his every day business will be a course of
wise and reasonable actions, made holy to God, by flowing from
faith, proceeding from love, and by being done in obedience to his
will and pleasure. He will therefore not chiefly consider, what arts or
methods or application will soonest make him greater and richer than
his brethren, that he may remove from a shop, to a life of state and
pleasure; but he will chiefly consider, what arts, what methods, and
what application can make worldly business most conducive to
God’s glory, and his neighbour’s good; and consequently make a life
of trade, to be a life of holiness, devotion, and undissembled piety.

It was this faith that made the primitive christians such eminent
instances of religion; and that made the goodly fellowship of the
saints in all ages, and all the glorious army of confessors and
martyrs. And if we will stop and ask ourselves, why we are not as
pious as the primitive christians, and saints of old were? our own
hearts must tell us, that it is because we never yet perhaps earnestly
sought after, and consequently were never really made partakers of,
that precious faith, whereby they were constrained to intend to
please God in all their actions, as the best and happiest thing in the
world.

Here then let us judge ourselves sincerely; let us not vainly

content ourselves with the common disorders of our lives, the vanity
of our expences, the folly of our diversions, the pride of our habits,
the idleness of our lives, and the wasting of our time; fancying that
these are only such imperfections as we necessarily fall into, through
the unavoidable weakness and frailty of our nature; but let us be
assured that these habitual disorders of our common life, are so
many demonstrable proofs, that we never yet truly accepted of the
Lord Jesus and his righteousness by a living faith, and never really
intended, as a proof and evidence of such a faith, to please God in
all the actions of our life, as the best thing in the world.

Though this be a matter that we can easily pass over at present,

whilst the health of our bodies, the passions of our minds, the noise,
and hurry, and pleasures, and business of the world, lead us on with
“eyes that see not, and ears that hear not:” yet at death, it will set
itself before us in a dreadful magnitude; it will haunt us like a dismal
ghost, and our consciences will never let us take our eyes from it,
unless they are seared as with a red hot iron, and God shall have
given us over to a reprobate mind.

Penitens was a busy notable tradesman, and very prosperous in

his dealings; but died in the thirty-fifth year of his age.

A little before his death, when the doctors had given him over,
some of his neighbours came one evening to see him; at which time
he spake thus to them.

I see, (says he) my friends, the tender concern you have for me,
by the grief that appears in your countenances, and I know the
thoughts that you now have of me. You think how melancholy a case
it is, to see so young a man, and in such flourishing business,
delivered up to death. And perhaps, had I visited any of you in my
condition, I should have had the same thoughts of you. But now, my
friends, my thoughts are no more like your thoughts, than my
condition is like yours. It is no trouble to me now to think that I am to
die young, or before I have raised an estate. These things are sunk
into such mere nothings, that I have no name little enough to call
them by. For if in a few days, or hours, I am to leave this carcase to
be buried in the earth, and to find myself either for ever happy in the
favour of God, or eternally separated from all light and peace; can
any words sufficiently express the littleness of every thing else?

Is there any dream, like the dream of life, which amuses us with
the neglect and disregard of these things? Is there any folly like the
folly of our manly state, which is too wise and busy to be at leisure
for these reflections?

When we consider death as a misery, we generally think of it as a

miserable separation from the enjoyments of this life. We seldom
mourn over an old man that dies rich, but we lament the young, that
are taken away in the progress of their fortunes. You yourselves look
upon me with pity, not that you think I am going unprepared to meet
the Judge of quick and dead, but that I am to leave a prosperous
trade in the flower of my life.

This is the wisdom of our manly thoughts. And yet what folly of
the silliest children, is so great as this? For what is there miserable
or dreadful in death, but the consequences of it? When a man is
dead, what does any thing signify to him, but the state he is then in?

Our poor friend Lepidus, you know died as he was dressing

himself for a feast; do you think it is now part of his trouble, that he
did not live till that entertainment was over? Feasts, and business,
and pleasures and enjoyments, seem great things to us, whilst we
think of nothing else; but as soon as we add death to them, they all
sink into littleness not to be expressed; and the soul that is
separated from the body, no more laments the loss of business, than
the losing of a feast.
 If I am now going to the joys of God, could there be any reason
to grieve, that this happened to me before I was forty years of age.
Can it be a sad thing to go to heaven, before I have made a few
more bargains, or stood a little longer behind a counter?

And if I am to go amongst lost spirits, could there be any reason

to be content, that this did not happen to me till I was old and full of
riches.

If good angels were ready to receive my soul, could it be any

grief to me that I was dying on a poor bed in a garret?

And if God has delivered me up to evil spirits, to be dragged by

them to places of torment, could it be any comfort to me, that they
found me upon a bed of state? When you are as near death as I am,
you will know, that all the different states of life, whether of youth or
age, riches or poverty, greatness or meanness, signify no more to
you, than whether you die in a poor or stately apartment.

The greatness of the things which follow death, makes all that
goes before it sink into nothing.

Now, that judgment is the next thing which I look for, and
everlasting happiness or misery is come so near to me, all the
enjoyments and prosperities of life seem as vain and insignificant,
and to have no more to do with my happiness, than the cloaths that I
wore when I was a little child.

What a strange thing! that a little health, or the poor business of a

shop, should keep us so senseless of these great things that are
coming so fast upon us!

Just as you came into my chamber, I was thinking with myself,

what numbers of souls there are in the world, in my condition at this
very time, surprized with a summons to the other world: some taken
from their shops and farms, others from their sports and pleasures;
these at suits at law, those at gaming-tables; some on the road,
others at their own fire-sides; and all seized at an hour when they
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