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Geology and Landscape Evolution
This page intentionally left blank
Geology and Landscape
Evolution
General Principles Applied to the United States

Second Edition

Joseph A. DiPietro
University of Southern Indiana, Evansville, IN, United States
Elsevier
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The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford OX5 1GB, United Kingdom
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may be noted herein).
Notices
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Contents

Preface xi Crystalline Rock 26

Volcanic Rock 27
Unconsolidated Sediment 28
The Rock Cycle 29
Part I Rock Hardness and Differential Erosion 29
Keys to Understanding Landscape Influence of Bedrock on Landscape 30
Evolution Landscape in Sedimentary Rocks 30
Landscape in Crystalline Rocks 31
1. The Tortoise and the Hare Landscape in Volcanic Rocks 31
Landscape in Unconsolidated Sediment 32
How Slow Is Slow? 3
Karst Landscape 34
Maps, Cross-Sections, and Scale 4
Distribution of Rock/Sediment Type Among
Physiographic Regions and Provinces 4
the 26 Physiographic Provinces 34
Interior Plains and Plateaus 7
Questions 39
Appalachian Mountain System 8
Coastal Plain 8
Cordilleran Mountain System 10 4. Component: The Structural Form
Components, Forcing Agents, Mechanisms,
Structural Form: The Style of Rock
and Landscape Response 10
Deformation 41
Geology, Landscape, and Tectonics 11
Folds 41
Geologic Time Scale 13
Vertical Joint Sets 44
Questions 13
Faults 44
Fault Reactivation 46
2. River Systems Brittle and Ductile Faults 47
Divides 15 Influence of Dipping Layers on Landscape 48
Mississippi River System 16 Vertical to Steep-Dipping Rock Layers 48
Atlantic Seaboard
Gulf Coast River System 17 Horizontal to Gently Dipping Rock Layers 49
St. Lawrence River System 18 Response of Dipping Layers to
Rio Grande
West Texas River System 18 Erosional Lowering 49
Cuestas and Hogbacks 49
Colorado River System 19
Topographic Form and Structural Form 49
Columbia River System 19
Recognition of Active Faults 50
California River System 19
Structure-Controlled and Erosion-Controlled
Great Basin River System 20
Landscape 52
Hudson Bay River System 20
Comparison of River Systems With Questions 57
Physiographic Provinces 20
Questions 22 5. Forcing Agent: The Tectonic System
The Four Forcing Agents 59
3. Component: The Rock/Sediment Tekton, the Carpenter, the Builder 59
Type Climate, the Sculptor 60
Isostasy, the Equalizer 61
Weathering, Erosion, and Deposition 23
Sea Level, the Baseline 61
The Four Rock/Sediment Types 24
The Tectonic Plate 62
Sedimentary Rock 25
Plate Boundaries 62

v
vi Contents

Movement of Tectonic Plates 63 9. Mechanisms That Impart Change

Rifting and Passive Continental Margins 64 to Landscape
Active Continental Margins 65
Tectonic Accretion 67 Uplift and Subsidence 107
Orogeny 69 Surface Uplift/Subsidence and
Unconformities 69 Bedrock Uplift/Subsidence 107
The Atlantic Passive Continental Margin 69 How Does Uplift/Subsidence Occur? 108
The Pacific Active Continental Margin 71 Present-Day Uplift/Subsidence Rates 109
Thermal Plumes and Hot Spots 74 Measuring Ancient Uplift Rates and
Thermal Plumes in the United States 74 Elevation 110
Questions 76 Erosion, Deposition, and Rivers 110
Graded Rivers and Base Level 111
6. Forcing Agent: The Climate System Base Level Changes 111
Knickpoint Migration 112
Present-Day Climate Zones 79 Changes in Discharge and Sediment Supply 113
Controls on Climate 81 The Lower Mississippi River Valley
Latitude 81 During the Most Recent Glacial Advance 113
Proximity to Large Water Bodies 81 Present-Day Erosion Rates 115
Global Wind Patterns 81 Controls on Rates of Erosion 117
The Tilt of the Earth’s Axis of Rotation 82 Rates of Deposition 118
Mountains 84 Exhumation 119
Questions 86 Erosional Exhumation 119
Calculating Rates of Erosional Exhumation 120
7. Forcing Agent: Isostasy 87 Tectonic Exhumation 122
Volcanism 122
Tectonic versus Isostatic Uplift 87 Questions 122
Elevation of Continents and Ocean Basins 89
Mountain Building and Preservation 89
Tectonic Loads 91 10. Evolution of Landscape
Thermal Isostasy 91 Landscape Grows Old 125
Glaciers 92 Landscape at Topographic Steady-State 126
Deposition 92 Steady-State as the End-Product of
Erosion 92 Growing Old 127
Questions 93 Rejuvenation 127
Reincarnation 129
8. Forcing Agent: Sea Level Change Reincarnation While Growing Old 129
Reincarnation due to Volcanism and
Cause of Sea Level Change 95 Tectonic Stress 131
Measuring Sea Level and Sea Level Reincarnation due to Glaciation 131
Changes 95 Reincarnation due to Burial Beneath
Sea Level Changes over the Past Unconsolidated Sediment 132
100 Million Years 98 Summary 132
Oxygen Isotope Record over the Past Questions 133
67 Million Years 99
Influence of Earth’s Orbital
Parameters on Glaciation 100
Oxygen Isotope Record over the Part II
Past 1.8 Million Years 101 Structural Provinces
Sea Level over the Past 150,000 Years 101
Recent Temperature History 102 11. Structural Provinces, Rock
Sea Level Response to Recent Successions, and Tectonic Provinces
Temperature History 103
The History of Co2 in the Atmosphere 103 Structural Provinces 137
Questions 105 Rock Successions 141
 Contents vii

The North American Crystalline Shield 142 South Carolina to Florida 200
Precambrian Sedimentary/Volcanic Rocks 143 The Mississippi Embayment 203
The Interior Platform 143 Texas 207
The Miogeocline 143 Ancient Shorelines of the Coastal Plain 207
Accreted Terranes 144 The Western Margin of Nearly
The Atlantic Miogeocline 144 Flat-Lying Sedimentary Layers 209
Tectonic Provinces 144 The Great Plains 211
Hinterland Tectonic Provinces 146 The Missouri Plateau 211
Foreland Tectonic Provinces 147 The High Plains 215
The Reactivated Western Craton and The Colorado Piedmont, Pecos Valley,
the Atlantic Marginal Basin 147 Plains Border, and Edwards Plateau 218
Distribution of Rock Successions and The Wyoming Basin 219
Tectonic Provinces 148 Uplift of the Wyoming Basin and
The Great Unconformity 150 Northern Great Plains 221
Questions 154 The Colorado Plateau 222
Incised Meanders 224
12. Glacial Landscape Bench-and-Slope Landscape 224
Mogollon Rim 227
Effect Of Glaciation On Landscape 157 Uplifts and Monoclines 227
Landscape Development in Areas of Fractures and Impact Features 231
Continental Glaciation 157 Sedimentary-Cored Anticlinal and
Landscape Development in Areas of Domal Mountains 235
Alpine Glaciation 159 Central Lowlands 237
A Daughter Of The Snows: Glacial Ozark Plateau 241
Landscape In The United States 162 Salem and Springfield Plateaus 241
The Glacial Erosion Boundary In The Boston Mountains 243
United States 164 Uplift History 243
The Glacial Erosion Boundary The Interior Low Plateaus 244
Across North America 165 Bench-and-Slope Landscape 247
Moraines 171 Deformed Rocks of the Shawnee Hills 248
Proglacial Lakes 174 Mammoth Cave 249
Lake Agassiz 175 The Appalachian Plateau 251
Marine Incursions 175 Allegheny Plateau 253
Drumlin Fields 175 Cumberland Plateau 254
Kame
Kettle Fields 175 Comparison of the Pottsville and
Eskers 176 Cumberland Escarpments 257
Sand Dune Fields 177 Questions 258
Loess Deposition 177
Area South Of The Glacial Limit 178 14. Crystalline-Cored Mid-Continent
The Teays River 179
The Missouri River 181 Anticlines and Domes
Pluvial Lakes Of The Cordillera 183 Adirondack Mountains 261
Questions 183 St. Francois Mountains 263
Wichita, Arbuckle, and Llano Structural
13. Sediment and Nearly Flat-Lying Domes 266
Sedimentary Layers Wichita Mountains 266
Arbuckle Mountains 267
Landscape in Nearly Flat-Lying Layers 185 Llano Uplift 268
Bench-and-Slope Landscape 185 Landscape Development 268
Erosional Mountains 187 Western Margin of Crystalline-Cored
Monoclinal Slopes and Hogback Ridges 188 Anticlines and Domes 269
The Coastal Plain 189 Intrusive Domal Mountains 271
Barrier Islands 190 The Southern Rocky Mountains 274
New England 191 The Front Range 276
New Jersey to North Carolina 198 Sawatch Mountains 279
viii Contents

Rio Grande Rift in Central Colorado 281 16. Hinterland Deformation Belts
Landscape History of the Southern
Rocky Mountains and Colorado Plateau 283 Rocks Within Hinterland Deformation Belts 341
Cause of Accelerated Erosion Appalachian Mountains 342
in the Southern Rocky Physiographic Overview of the Blue Ridge 342
Mountains and Colorado Plateau 287 Geologic Overview of the Blue Ridge 342
First There Is a Mountain 287 The Blue Ridge at Roanoke 345
Anticlinal Mountains of the Middle Rockies 289 The Blue Ridge North of Roanoke 346
Wind River Range 290 The Blue Ridge South of Roanoke 347
Beartooth Mountains 293 Level of Exhumation Across the Great
Bighorn Mountains 295 Smoky Mountains 349
The Black Hills 296 The Great Smoky Mountains 350
Water Gaps in the Rocky Mountains 298 The Balsam Mountains 353
Superior Upland 298 Asheville Basin 354
Geologic Overview 300 The Grandfather Mountain Area 355
Superior Province 301 Piedmont Plateau 358
Penokean Province 302 The Blue Ridge Escarpment 359
Iron Formations 302 The Fall Line 360
Sudbury Meteorite Impact Event 303 New England Highlands 361
Barron and Baraboo Quartzite 303 Erosional History of the Appalachian
Keweenawan Rift System 304 Mountains 369
Questions 306 The Northern Rocky Mountains and
North Cascades 372
Southern Idaho 372
15. Foreland Fold and Thrust Belts Central Idaho, Montana, and Oregon 375
Northern Washington 376
Structural Form of Foreland Thrust Faults 309 The Grenville Front 383
Comparison With the Crystalline-Cored Van Horn Area 384
Anticlinal Structure 310 Questions 386
Cordilleran Fold and Thrust Belt 310
Northern Rocky Mountains 314 17. Young Volcanic Rocks of the Cordillera
The Rocky Mountain Trench 317 Magma Types and Common
The Idaho-Wyoming Fold and Thrust Belt 317 Volcanic Landforms 389
Overview: Appalachian-Ouachita Fold and Columbia Plateau 392
Thrust Belt 318 Columbia River Flood Basalt 393
Valley and Ridge Fold and Thrust Belt 319 Columbia Basin 394
The Great Valley 320 Blue Mountains 397
Northern Appalachian Fold and Thrust Belt 321 Olympic-Wallowa Lineament 400
Central Appalachian Fold and Thrust Belt 325 High Lava Plains 400
Southern Appalachian (Tennessee) Fold and Snake River Plain 402
Thrust Belt 327 Owyhee Upland 405
Fault Zones on the Cumberland Plateau 333 Yellowstone Plateau Volcanic Field 405
Distribution of Appalachian Origin of Volcanism on the Columbia
oreland Deformation 333 Plateau and High Lava Plains 406
Ouachita Fold and Thrust Belt 333 Cordilleran Volcanic Areas 70 to 20 Million
Arkansas River Valley
Northern Years Old 407
Mountains 334 Northern Great Plains 407
The Fourche Mountains 335 North and South Table Mountain 407
The Central Mountains 336 Ignimbrite Flare-Up 409
Athens Plateau 336 Navaho Volcanic Field and Shiprock 418
Marathon Basin Fold and Thrust Belt 337 Pinnacles, Neenach, and Nine Sisters 419
Water Gaps in the Valley and Ridge and Cordilleran Volcanic Areas Younger
Ouachita Mountains 337 Than 20 Million Years 419
Questions 340 Uinkaret and Markagunt Volcanic Fields 419
 Contents ix

San Francisco Volcanic Field 420 Geology of the Oregon Coast Range 481
Hopi Buttes Volcanic Field 420 Inland Valleys and the Forearc Basin 482
Grand Mesa 421 The Central-Southern Cascade Mountains 483
Jemez Lineament 422 Geology of the Central-Southern
Carrizozo Lava Flow 424 Cascade Mountains 487
Northern Nevada Rift Zone 425 Clockwise Block Rotation 489
The Northwest Basin and Range and Normal Faults Along the Crest of the
Northern Sierra Nevada 425 High Cascades 490
Long Valley Caldera and the The Olympic Mountains 491
Inyo-Mono Craters 426 Geology of the Olympic Mountains 492
Sutter Buttes 427 A Case for Topographic Steady-State 492
Questions 428 The Klamath Mountains 495
Uplift History of the Klamath Mountains 495
18. Normal Fault Systems Geology of the Klamath Mountains 497
Questions 498
Structural Character and Terminology of
Normal Faults 429 20. California Strike-Slip System
Horst and Graben Structure 429
Tilted Fault Blocks, Half-Grabens, and Landscape Associated With
Flexural Rebound 430 Strike-Slip Faults 503
Detachments 431 The San Andreas Fault System 505
Fault-Block Rotation and Rollover Anticlines 432 Displacement Along the San Andreas Fault 506
The Basin and Range 432 History of the San Andreas Fault 508
Physiographic Limit 432 A Relict Subduction Zone Landscape 510
Expansion into Surrounding Areas 438 The Ancient Accretionary Prism 510
Landscape Characteristics 438 The Ancient Forearc Basin 510
Vertical Displacement 440 The Ancient Volcanic Arc 512
Horizontal Extension 440 The California Coast Ranges 512
Crustal Thinning and Volcanism 440 Age of Landscape 512
Metamorphic Core Complexes 441 Mountain Alignment Relative to the
Timing of Normal Faulting 442 San Andreas Fault 514
Normal Fault Activity Verses Erosion 443 Deformation History Prior to Surface Uplift 515
The Nevadaplano 446 Mechanism and Cause of Surface Uplift 516
Cause of Basin and Range Extension 447 The Transverse Ranges and the Salton Sea 517
Basin and Range Geology 447 Rotation of the Transverse Block 518
The Sri 5 0.706 Line 451 Peninsular Ranges 520
Rio Grande Rift 452 Sierra Nevada 521
Monoclines and Normal Faults in the The Sierra Nevada Frontal Fault System 525
Big Bend Area, Texas 453 Sierra Nevada Uplift History 526
The Rio Grande Bolson Deposits 456 The Walker Lane Belt 531
White Sands National Monument 458 A Tale of Three Landscapes 533
Great Sand Dunes National Park 459 The Inyo-Mono Section 534
Rocky Mountain Basin and Range 461 White Mountains 536
The Teton Mountains 462 Inyo Mountains 540
The Wasatch Mountains 464 Death Valley-Panamint Valley Region 542
Triassic Lowlands of the Appalachian Example of Active Faulting in Death Valley 546
Mountains 466 Questions 547
Questions 470
21. The Grand Canyon
19. Cascadia Volcanic Arc System
The Physiographic Canyon 549
The Juan de Fuca Plate 473 Active Faults and Incision Rates 554
The Pacific Coastline 475 Hualapai Plateau 555
The Oregon Coast Range 477 River Morphology 556
Cause of Uplift Along the Oregon Coast 480 The Modern Colorado River 556
x Contents

Argument for a 6-Million-Year-Old Canyon 558 Finale 563

Argument for a 70-Million-Year-Old Questions 563
Canyon 558
Geologic History 559 Appendix 565
Revised Arguments 560 References 583
Interpretation 1 560 Index 605
Interpretation 2 561
Interpretation 3 562
Preface

I had a few things in mind when I began this book. The undergo change, and the mechanisms by which landscape
first was that I did not want to simply tell a story. I was undergoes change. Also discussed are the criteria used to
more interested in how the story came to be, the evidence recognize that landscape has changed from some previous
that supports the story, and how evidence is obtained. I state, and the paths along which landscape changes.
wanted to explain the geological logic that pertains to the Although the United States is used as an example, the
story and the reasoning that allows us to make certain concepts presented here can be applied to landscape any-
conclusions regarding when a mountain comes into exis- where on Earth. The goal of Part I is to allow you to read
tence and what happens to the mountain over long inter- landscape wherever your travels take you.
vals of time. Landscape evolution implies two things: (1) Part II, entitled “Structural Provinces” applies con-
that landscape undergoes change with time and (2) that cepts introduced in Part I to the landscape of the contigu-
landscape can completely change its look over time, rela- ous United States with special emphasis on the
tive to some previous state. topography, rock type, rock structure, tectonic setting, cli-
The title has changed, but this book is the Second edi- mate, and recent uplift/erosion history. It is more compre-
tion to Parts I and II of my previous book entitled hensive and with a greater detail relative to its counterpart
Landscape Evolution in the United States: An in the first edition. The content includes detailed discus-
Introduction to the Geography, Geology and Natural sion of specific landscape areas compiled primarily from
History, 2013. Both Parts I and II have been completely journal articles. The goal is to characterize the present-
rewritten and greatly expanded. Part III of the First edi- day landscape of the United States, understand its origin,
tion, on mountain building, is not included here due to how long it has been in existence, and how and why it
space constraints, but some aspects were incorporated has changed from some previous landscape. Chapter 11,
into Part II of the revised edition. This book is written at Structural Provinces, Rock Successions, and Tectonic
an introductory level appropriate for first semester fresh- Provinces, describes the basis for dividing landscape into
men or for anybody with an interest in the landscape evo- eight structural provinces comprising of four groups of
lution, geography, and geology of the United States. two closely related provinces each. The eight structural
However, at the same time, it is detailed enough to be provinces are discussed individually in Chapters 13
useful and appropriate for upper division courses in geol- through 20. Chapter 12 discusses glacial landscape, and
ogy, geography, and environmental science. It is also use- Chapter 21 is an updated look at the origin of the Grand
ful as a reference for teachers and professionals. This Canyon. These chapters can be read in any order, but it is
book is unique in that it provides an introduction to the best to read them in sequence or at least in groups of two.
general principles involved in studying landscape evolu- I use US Customary units of measurement (inch, foot,
tion, and then applies those principles to the varied land- mile) throughout the book in order cater to a primarily
scape of the United States. US audience. I do not always show metric unit equiva-
Part I, entitled “Keys to Understanding Landscape lents so that the instructor can quiz students on the con-
Evolution” examines the process of landscape evolution version. When discussing rates, I use 100 years as the
and how to recognize that landscape has changed from common denominator. I do this because 100 years is
some previous state. Each chapter is independent, but approximately equivalent with a human lifetime so the
readers will achieve greatest comprehension if they read reader can quickly grasp the amount of change that occurs
Chapters 1 through 10 in sequence. Chapter 1, The over the course of their existence.
Tortoise and the Hare, provides an overview of the book The figures include Google Earth images, annotated
and introduces terminology. Chapter 2, River Systems, landscape maps, photographs, and sketches. The
describes major river systems. The remaining chapters figures are designed to be both simple and informative.
describe landscape in terms of the components that form They are an integral part of the discussion. Please take
landscape, the forcing agents that cause landscape to the time to examine each figure carefully. The Appendix

xi
xii Preface

contains uncolored full-page versions of some of the http://peakbagger.com/help/glossary.aspx#navd88 or the

maps with the intent that they can be photocopied and National Geodetic Survey website at https://www.ngs.
hand-colored for teaching purposes. The primary land- noaa.gov/datums/vertical/.
scape map used throughout this book is Landforms of the I thank Anton H. (Tony) Maria for commenting on
United States, 1957. This map, and a variety of other several of the chapters and Karen L. Sommer for her sup-
maps, were hand-drawn by Erwin J. Raisz from field port. I also thank Justus C. McGill and Kevin F. Howard
observations, aerial photographs, and satellite imagery. for reading and commenting on the chapters.
Raisz was a member of the Institute of Geographical Listed below are common units of measurement, con-
Exploration at Harvard University for nearly 20 years versions, and abbreviations.
beginning in 1931 and is one of the founding cartogra-
phers in the United States. The first edition of his seminal
ABBREVIATIONS
map was published in 1939. The sixth and last edition
was completed in 1957. It remains one of the finest land- millimeter (mm) year (yr)
scape maps ever produced. I augment the Raisz maps centimeter (cm) million years (My)
with boundaries that show the distribution of physio- meter (m) million years ago (Ma)
graphic provinces, rock types, structural provinces, cli-
kilometer (km) billion years ago (Ga)
mate zones, river systems, global wind patterns, glacial
zones, and tectonic features. The complete inventory of inch (in) degrees Fahrenheit ( F)
Raisz hand-drawn landform maps is available at www. feet (ft.) degrees Centigrade ( C)
raiszmaps.com. For several figures, including Figure A.1
mile (mi)
in the Appendix, I used a Photoshop enhanced 100-m res-
olution color-sliced elevation image of the United States
with relief shading added to accentuate terrain features in
an Albers Equal-Area Conic projection. The map was
downloaded from the National Atlas of the United States CONVERSIONS
of America, U.S. Geological Survey EROS Data Center, 1 km 5 1000 m 5 0.62 mi 5 3280 ft. 1 mm/yr 5 3.94 in/
at Nationalmap.gov/small_scale/atlasftp.html. 100 yr 5 1 km/My
The official vertical datum in use for the conterminous 1 mi 5 5280 ft. 5 1.61 km 5 1609.3 m 1 in/yr 5 8.33 ft./
United States, and the one used whenever possible in this 100 yr 5 15.78 mi/My
book, is the North American Vertical Datum of 1988 1 mm 5 0.1 cm 5 0.0394 in 1 in/yr 5 2.54 m/
(NAVD 88). Elevations obtained from this datum are dif- 100 yr 5 25.4 km/My
ferent from most USGS topographic maps, which show 
1 in 5 25.4 mm 5 2.54 cm C 5 ( F 2 32) 3
elevations using the National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 0.555
1929 (NGVD 29). The shift from NGVD 29 to NAVD 88 
1 m 5 1000 mm 5 3.28 ft. 5 39.36 in F 5 ( C 3 1.8) 1 32
is between 22 and 17 ft. and, in general, the higher
the peak, the greater the shift. Peaks in Colorado will gain 1 ft. 5 305 mm 5 0.305 m
4 to 7 ft., while hills in Florida will lose 1 or 2 ft.
For more information, visit the Peakbagger website at
Part I

Keys to Understanding
Landscape Evolution
This page intentionally left blank
Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents
Rain, charms for bringing, 49;
caused by Thunder, 89;
wampum string symbolizing, 141-142
Rattles, of box-tortoise shell: at Annual ceremony, 92, 94-96,
103-104, 106, 118, 120;
at Bear ceremony, 174-175;
at Feast of first fruits, 145;
at Minsi ceremony, 131, 135-136;
at Otter ceremony, 180-181;
at Planting dance, 143;
at Thanksgiving ceremony, 143;
of gourd, at Peyote rite, 188;
of Mask impersonator, 34, 38, 42, 150, 155, 159
Red, and black, faces painted with, in Big House, 83, 119;
and black, Mask painted with, 33, 41, 150, 155;
ceremonial painting with, 105-106;
feathers in Sun’s hair, 27;
symbolizing women, 140-141
Red alder, bark of, used as dye, 141
Religion, see Belief
Road-man or speaker of Peyote rite, 188
Road to heaven, in Peyote rite, 187, 189-190;
Milky Way, 58;
sweeping of, 88, 107
Rocks, home of Mask Being, 36-37, 158
River, dividing earth from Spirit country, 54;
James Wolf’s dream of, 72-73
Rivers, home of Great Horned Serpents, 49

Sacrifice, by family, 116-118;

cleansing by, from sin, 144-145.
 See Offering
Sand, tracks of Little People in, 49
Säʹpan or mush, repast of, at Annual ceremony, 96
Sarcoxie, John, Annual ceremony conducted by, 122-124
Seating, at Annual ceremony, 93, 117, 119;
at Doll dance, 164;
at Minsi ceremony, 131;
at Peyote rite, 188
Secondine, guardian spirits of, 71-72
Seneca, Planting dance of, 143
Serpent as guardian spirit, 78
Sexiʹkiminsi, Minsi name of soft maple, 42
Shaman, originator of Naniʹtis cult, 166-167
Shawnee, concept of Great Spirit among, 20;
Ernest Spybuck, a native, 14
Shooting by hunters, 100, 117
Shooting star, see Comet
Sickness, caused:
by ghosts, 59;
by loss of bear, 172;
by neglect of rites, 171;
by otter, 177-179;
cured:
by Mask Being, 34-35, 156-157;
by Naniʹtis, 166-167;
propitiation to prevent, 199.
See Disease
Silver brooches worn by Naniʹtis, 170
Sin, cleansing from, by sacrifice, 144-145.
 See Evil
Singers, at Annual ceremony, 85, 94-96, 100, 115, 118, 120;
at Bear cult, 175;
at Buffalo dance, 182-183;
at Doll dance, 164;
at Feast of first fruits, 144;
at Minsi ceremony, 130;
at Mĭsiʹngʷ' dance, 154-155;
at Skeleton dance, 184.
See Chant
Singing, at festival of Machtuzin, 126;
at Ghost dance, 191;
at Peyote rite, 189;
at Otter ceremony, 180-181;
in Happy Hunting Ground, 58;
of vision: at Annual ceremony, 95-96;
in Big House, 148;
in Minsi ceremony, 140.
See Chant
Sister Corn, see Mother Corn
Six months, purification at end of, 144-145
Six Nations’ reserve, Thanksgiving ceremony on, 139-143
Skeleton dance, rites of, 183-184
Skirt, primitive, 169
Sky, wampum string symbolizing, 141-142
Sluyter, Peter, and Dankers, Jaspar, on Great Spirit, 20
Smoke, purification by, 105, 133, 144-145, 197
Smoking, at Annual ceremony, 95-96
Snakes, bag full of, 35, 153
Snow Boy, attributes of, 48, 193
Society of mask owners, 37.
See Mask
Soft maple, bark of, used as dye, 141
Son of God, concept of, 57.
See Jesus Christ
Songs, see Chant, Singers, Singing
Sorrow inducing visions, 64-65
Souls, immortality of, 52-60, 195-196;
nature of, 90;
of animals, 50;
transmigration of, 59
South, ceremonial significance of, 93, 108, 119-120, 122, 147;
manĭʹtowŭk of, 25-26;
significance of, in vision, 74;
thanksgiving to, 89
Southeast, ceremonial significance of, 120
Southward, the direction of Heaven, 54, 56
Southwest, Heaven of Minsi located in, 54
Speaker, at Annual ceremony, 85, 87-92, 98, 107-108, 110,
120;
at Doll dance, 164-165;
at Minsi ceremony, 133-134;
at Mĭsiʹngʷ' dance, 153-154;
at Peyote rite, 188;
at Thanksgiving ceremony, 141-142
Speech, at Annual ceremony, 87-92, 98;
at Doll dance, 164;
at Feast of first fruits, 145;
at Minsi ceremony, 133-134
Spirit, of corn, 43;
of light, 23-24;
 of otter, 50, 176;
of peyote, 187, 189-190;
of sun as guardian, 76;
within earth, 28-29
Spirit road, see Peyote road
Spirits, animal, as guardians, 49-50;
land of, 52-54;
lesser, 194;
of animals, 118, 125;
of dead, as guardians, 71-72;
of plants, 17, 51, 118, 125;
of stones, 17, 51;
wampum string symbolizing, 141-142;
wigwams of, 54.
See Guardian spirit, Lesser manĭʹtowŭk, Souls
Spoons, of bark in Minsi ceremony, 131, 137;
musselshells as, 97
Spring, ceremony of Mask Being in, 35;
Minsi ceremony in, 128, 197;
Mĭsiʹngʷ' dance in, 152-156;
thanksgiving in, 89, 139;
thunder in, 29
Spring dance of Weopĕʹlakis, 36.
see Mĭsiʹngʷ' dance
Spring Flying Things, See Thunder Beings
Spybuck, Ernest, acknowledgment to, 14
Squashes, offering of, 144;
thanks to, 134
Staff at Peyote rite, 187, 189
Stamp or Stomp dance, 119.
See Annual ceremony
Stars, wampum string symbolizing, 141-142
Steam carrying prayers, 124
Stick, of Mask impersonator, 34, 150, 155;
sticks: as invitations to ceremony, 132;
at Peyote rite, 187;
beating by, 58;
carried by Pa'ʹtŭmawas, 127-128;
transformed into fetishes, 162;
used in Minsi ceremony, 131, 139-141
Stockbridge Mission, documents of, 170
Stockings, bearskin, of Mask impersonator, 41.
See Leggings
Stone masks found in New Jersey and vicinity, 38-41
Stones, spirits of, 17, 51
Strachey, William, on concept of Four Winds, 26-27
Strawberries, ceremonial drink of, 134;
in Happy Hunting Ground, 58;
Minsi ceremony in time of, 128
Strawberry dance of Iroquois, 128, 197
Streams and waters, wampum string symbolizing, 141-142
Strings of wampum, symbolism of, 141-142
Stripes, purification by, 58
Sumach sticks, carried by Pa'ʹtŭmawas, 127-128;
in Minsi ceremony, 131
Sun or Gĭckokwiʹta, as guardian spirit, 76, 78, 195;
Brainerd on concept of, 22;
concept of, 27-28;
duties of, 193;
Peyote road toward, 187, 190;
salutation of, 190;
 souls in, 59;
turning toward west, 132;
wampum string symbolizing, 141-142
Supernatural helpers or guardian spirits, 61-63.
See Guardian spirit
Supreme Being, see Great Spirit
Survival of the soul, see Immortality
Susquehanna river, rites of Annual ceremony on, 152;
rites of Mask Being on, 41-42
Sweathouse, described by Zeisberger, 125-126;
of Muxhatolʹzing, 123-124
Sweating-oven, see Sweathouse
Sweeping, ceremonial, of Big House, 87-88, 107, 120, 133, 197;
around fires, 121

Taboos prescribed to be piʹlsŭⁿ, 62-63

Taleʹgunŭk or singers at Annual ceremony, 85.
See Singers
Taxoʹxi cowŭniʹgŭn or tortoise-shell rattle, 94.
See Rattles
Tayenoʹxwan, native name of Chief James Wolf, 14.
See Wolf, Chief James
Tefft, E. T., ethnological collection of, 15;
Naniʹtis in, 168-169;
Minsi mask in, 38
Temple, see Big House
Thames river, Ontario, locating a body in, 55
Thanksgiving, at Minsi ceremony, 134;
carved heads symbolic of, 140;
 Minsi ceremonies of, 115, 139-145, 197;
to Great Spirit at ceremonies, 18, 120, 138, 145, 190, 196;
to manĭʹtowŭk, 89-90;
to Mĭsiʹngʷ', 152-156;
to Mother Corn, 43
Thirteen ceremonial wampum strings, 141-142
Three, bands of thunders, 30;
days, women interdicted during, 120;
phratries, rituals of, 119-120;
tribes of Lenape, 13
Thunder and rain, wampum string symbolizing, 141-142
Thunder Beings or Pethakoweʹyuk, as guardian spirits, 74-75,
195;
attributes of, 29-31, 193;
thanksgiving to, 89
Thunders-in-league-with or Pilesʹwal pewaʹlatcil, 76
Timothy, Chief Nellis F., account of Minsi Annual ceremony by,
127-138;
acknowledgment to, 14;
on Mask society, 159
Tipi, use of, in Peyote rite, 186, 188
Tobacco, ceremonial begging of, 160;
offered: on behalf of hunters, 98-99;
to bear, 172;
to fire, 126;
to Four Directions, 26;
to impersonator of Mask Being, 153, 156;
to Mask, 34, 35, 151, 157;
to otter, 177;
to Thunder Beings, 29;
to Tornado, 47;
smoked at Annual ceremony, 95-96
Tomapemihiʹlat, native name of Chief Nellis F. Timothy, 14.
See Timothy, Chief Nellis F.
Tomb of Christ at Peyote rite, 186-187
Tooth of Great Bear, medicine made from, 49
Tornado, attributes of, 47-48
Tortoise-shell rattle, at Annual ceremony, 94-96, 118, 120;
at Mĭsiʹngʷ' dance, 155;
of Mask impersonator, 42.
See Rattles
Totemic groups, see Phratries
Toys, cult of, 198.
See Doll Being, Fetishes
Transmigration of souls, 59
Trees, Mask Being akin to, 112;
gift of the Great Spirit, 18;
shattered by Thunder Beings, 29;
thanks to, 134
Tschipeghacki or Land of Spirits, 58.
See Happy Hunting Ground
Tuⁿdaʹi wäheⁿʹji manĭʹtowŭk or fire-maker of the manĭʹtos, 101
Turkey phratry at Annual ceremony, 82, 104, 119;
part of, in Bear cult, 175
Turkey-wings, Big House swept with, 87, 120, 133
Turtle phratry, leader of Annual ceremony, 82, 104, 119-120
Turtle-rattles, at Annual ceremony, 92, 94-96, 103-104, 118,
120;
at Feast of first fruits, 145;
at Mĭsiʹngʷ' dance, 155;
at Otter ceremony, 180-181;
at Thanksgiving ceremony, 143;
 in ceremonies of Mask society, 159;
in Bear cult, 174-175;
in Minsi ceremony, 131, 135-136;
of Mask impersonator, 34, 38, 150, 155, 159.
See Rattles
Twelfth, day, soul reaches heaven, 196;
heaven, home of Great Spirit, 19, 31, 52, 107, 112, 192,
196;
night in Annual ceremony, 105-106;
prayer-cry reaching Great Spirit, 136-138;
stick, dropping of, by Pa'ʹtŭmawas, 127-128
Twelve, benefactors, Corn Goddess among, 43;
carved faces, 83, 88, 106, 112;
celebrants, 125-126;
ceremonial sweepings, 107;
ceremonial use of, 197;
concluding prayers, 106-107;
days, before burial, 184;
days, duration of ceremonies, 82, 119-120, 128;
days, ghosts linger near earth, 52, 54;
days, period of boys’ fast, 64;
deer at Feast of first fruits, 144;
deer for Minsi ceremony, 132;
emetics, as purification, 57;
gods or masks, 31;
heavens, 31;
in Fire festival, 125-126;
members of Mask society, 159;
months, duration of earthquake, 149;
nights, duration of Annual ceremony, 88, 107;
offerings of tobacco, 98;
pipes, in Fire festival, 126;
prayer-cries, 97, 104, 136;
prayersticks at Annual ceremony, 103;
repetitions of dance, 154, 165;
 repetitions of prayer, 19, 108-109, 136-138;
sticks, penance of beating by, 58;
sticks used in Minsi ceremony, 131;
stones, altar laid on, 115;
stones in sweating-oven, 125;
sumach sticks of Pa'ʹtŭmawas, 127-128;
sweepings of ceremonial fire, 88;
years, age of initiation for boys, 63;
years before reaching Heaven, 88

Unalachtigo, see Unala'ʹtko

Unala'ʹtko, a Lenape tribe, now merged, 13;
proportion of, in Lenape, 124-125
Unami, a Lenape tribe now mainly resident in Oklahoma, 13;
ceremonies of, compared with Minsi, 196-200;
chants of, referring to vision, 67-72;
cult of Mask Being among, 32-43, 146-158, 198;
Doll Being of, 45-47, 162-166;
form of Annual ceremony, 81-111;
proportion of, in Lenape, 124-125
United States Census report on Indians, cited, 80

Vegetables, offering of, 144;

wampum string symbolizing, 141-142
Vegetation controlled by Corn spirit, 193
Venison, feast of, at Doll dance, 166;
feast of, at Mĭsiʹngʷ' dance, 155;
feast of, at Minsi ceremony, 137;
provision of, for Annual ceremony, 85, 121;
women’s share in, 106
Virginia, concept of Four Directions in, 26-27
Visions, Adams on, 80;
as prophecies, 121;
Brainerd on, 77;
chanting of, at Otter ceremony, 181;
communication by, with Spirit world, 59-63, 194-195;
decline of, 112-113;
fortuitous, 64-65;
Heaven visited in, 189-191;
Heckewelder on, 78-80;
induced by peyote, 186, 188-190;
initiation of boys to induce, 63-64, 92;
leaders blessed with, 132;
Loskiel on, 78;
Minsi examples of, 72-77;
of Doll Being, 162-163;
power given by, 54;
recital of: at Annual ceremony, 95-96, 118, 121, 196;
at Feast of first fruits, 145;
at Minsi ceremony, 135-136, 139-140;
at Muxhatolʹzing, 123-124;
at various rites, 148, 199;
referring to Skeleton dance, 184;
Unami examples of, 67-72;
Zeisberger on, 77-78.
See Chant, Guardian spirit
Vomiting, 176.
See Emetics

Wampum, adorning leader at Otter ceremony, 174;

buried, at Feast of first fruits, 144;
given by Great Spirit, 122;
given to vision teller, 135;
giving of, at Annual ceremony, 109;
offered to deer, 123;
 owners of rattles paid in, at Annual ceremony, 104;
payment in, at Doll dance, 164;
payment of attendants in, at Annual ceremony, 106-109,
118, 121, 172-173, 179;
payment of impersonator in, 152-154;
payment of officers in, at Annual ceremony, 97, 99-100,
110-111, 121;
symbolic use of, 141-143;
valuation of, 111
Wampum, John, see Chief Waubuno
War, comet a presage of, 48-49;
success in, due to guardian spirit, 62
Washita river, Oklahoma, Caddo on, 185;
Ghost dance from region of, 190-191
W'aʹtekan or Minsi Big House, 128.
See Minsi Big House
Water-drum, at Ghost dance, 191;
at Peyote rite, 188
Water monsters, see Great Horned Serpents
Waters, gift of Great Spirit, 18
Ween-da-much-teen, see Nee-shaw-neechk-togho-quanoo-
maun
Wemĕĕleʹxkwĕ, native name of Minnie Fox, 14.
See Fox, Minnie
Weopĕʹlakis, name for mask of Unami, 35-36.
See Mask
West, ceremonial significance of, 83, 85, 93, 98, 100, 101, 121-
122, 131-132, 137, 145, 155, 182, 187;
Grandfather at, 26;
thanksgiving to, 89
Whiskey introduced by the whites, 24
White, and black duck as guardian spirit, 67, 140;
and purple beads, 141;
buckskin, skeleton wrapped in, 184
Whites, devil and whiskey introduced by, 24;
fairies and elves of, 49;
Lenape children reared like, 63, 112-113;
Lenape first encountered by, 13;
religious concepts derived from, 57;
vision or dream regarding, 121
Whoop, concluding dance, 136;
in recital of vision, 95
“Wife,” corn spoken of as, 44
Wigwams of the spirits, 54
Wild, animals: Mask Being guardian of, 33, 99, 193;
wampum string symbolizing, 141-142;
things, Powers Above guardians of, 177
Wilson, Ghost dance introduced by, 190-191
Wilson, George, see Pokiteʹhemun
Wilson, John, Peyote cult introduced by, 185
Wind, prayer-cry derived from, 112
Winds, attributes of, 193;
manĭʹtowŭk of, 25-27;
wampum string symbolizing, 141-142.
See Four Directions
Wings, of Thunder Beings, 29, 193;
of Tornado, 47;
used to sweep Big House, 87, 120, 133
Winter, Minsi Big House ceremony in, 128
Wisconsin Historical Collections, account of Naniʹtis in, 169-171
Wisconsin, Lenape now resident in, 13
Witchcraft, dreams revealing, 77-78;
of ghosts, 59
Wito'ʹpi, Minsi term for red alder, 141
Wolf as guardian spirit, 195
Wolf, Chief James, account of Minsi Annual ceremony by, 127-
138;
acknowledgment to, 14;
dream-vision of, 72-73;
mediumship of, 55;
on Evil Spirit, 24;
on Mask Being, 36;
on Naniʹtis, 166-168;
on sun, 27;
on thunder myth, 30
Wolf men, see Wolves
Wolf phratry, at Annual ceremony, 94, 104, 119;
Bear cult of, 172;
Skeleton dance of, 183-184
Wolves, Flying Wolf’s vision of, 73-75
Women, drumsticks representing, 101, 130-131;
forbidden in Bear cult, 174;
in Happy Hunting Ground, 58;
in menses, 62-63, 88, 133, 197;
intercourse with, forbidden, 120;
keepers of Naniʹtis, 46;
night of, in Annual ceremony, 105-106;
part of: in Annual ceremony, 84-85, 87-88, 96-97, 108-109,
117-118;
in ceremony of Naniʹtis, 167-168;
in Doll dance, 165;
in Feast of first fruits, 144;
in Mĭsiʹngʷ' dance, 155;
in Otter ceremony, 179;
 prayer of, at Bear ceremony, 175;
prayer of, for crops, 44;
red symbolizing, 140-141;
separate seating of, in Annual ceremony, 93;
share of, in venison, 106;
visions granted to, 65
Worship, of Corn Goddess, 43-44;
of elements, 29-31;
of Mask Being, 35;
of sun, 28.
See Annual ceremony, Offering, Prayer
Wounds, medicine for healing, 49
Wry mouth of Mask Being, 42
Wsinkhoalican, Zeisberger’s term for Mĭsinghâliʹkŭn, 42.
See Mask Being

Xiʹngwikan or Big House, 82, 148.

See Big House

Zeisberger, David, on Annual ceremony, 116-118, 130;

on Bear ceremony, 175-176;
on concept of soul, 57-59;
on Corn Goddess, 44;
on dreams or visions, 77-78;
on Evil Spirit, 25;
on Great Spirit, 21;
on Masks, 42-43;
on prayer, 109;
on Thunder Beings, 30;
on variant of Annual ceremony, 125-126
*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK RELIGION AND
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