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PDF Introducing ReScript: Functional Programming for Web Applications 1st Edition Danny Yang download

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Introducing
ReScript
Functional Programming for
Web Applications

Danny Yang
Introducing ReScript
Functional Programming
for Web Applications

Danny Yang
Introducing ReScript: Functional Programming for Web Applications
Danny Yang
Mountain View, CA, USA

ISBN-13 (pbk): 978-1-4842-8887-0 ISBN-13 (electronic): 978-1-4842-8888-7


https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-8888-7

Copyright © 2023 by Danny Yang


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The use in this publication of trade names, trademarks, service marks, and similar terms, even if
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Printed on acid-free paper
Table of Contents
About the Author���������������������������������������������������������������������������������ix

About the Technical Reviewer�������������������������������������������������������������xi

Introduction���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������xiii

Chapter 1: ReScript Basics�������������������������������������������������������������������1


Expressions, Values, and Side Effects�������������������������������������������������������������������1
Compile Time and Runtime�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������2
Types, Typechecking, and Type Inference�������������������������������������������������������������2
Primitive Types and Operators������������������������������������������������������������������������������3
Integer and Float���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������3
Boolean������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������5
String���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������6
Unit������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������7
Printing and Debugging����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������8
Bindings����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������9
Mutation and Refs�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������10
Blocks�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������12
Block Scoping�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������14
Conditionals��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������14
Switches�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������16
Loops������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������21
Putting It All Together������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������24
Final Thoughts�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������27

iii
Table of Contents

Chapter 2: Functions��������������������������������������������������������������������������29
Defining and Using Functions�����������������������������������������������������������������������������29
Type Annotations�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������31
Using Standard Library Functions and Opening Modules������������������������������32
Higher-Order Functions���������������������������������������������������������������������������������34
Piping������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������35
Labeled and Optional Parameters�����������������������������������������������������������������38
Currying and Partial Application��������������������������������������������������������������������40
Polymorphic Functions����������������������������������������������������������������������������������42
Pure Functions����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������43
Ignoring Return Values����������������������������������������������������������������������������������44
Recursion������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������46
Syntax������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������46
How to Use Recursion�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������48
Final Thoughts�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������52

Chapter 3: Composite Data Types�������������������������������������������������������53


Tuples������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������53
Creating Tuples����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������54
Accessing Tuples�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������55
Pattern Matching with Tuples������������������������������������������������������������������������57
Variants���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������61
Declaring and Constructing Variants�������������������������������������������������������������61
Pattern Matching with Variants���������������������������������������������������������������������62
Exhaustiveness����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������62
Complex Patterns������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������63
Variants with Data�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������64
Recursive Data Types������������������������������������������������������������������������������������69
Options����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������72

iv
Table of Contents

Pattern Matching Options�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������73


Exceptions and Error Handling����������������������������������������������������������������������������76
Raising Exceptions����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������77
Catching Exceptions��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������77
Custom Exceptions���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������78
Another Way to Handle Errors: Result������������������������������������������������������������79
Result in Action����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������81
Defining Errors for Results����������������������������������������������������������������������������82
Composing Results����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������84
Final Thoughts�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������86

Chapter 4: Records and Objects���������������������������������������������������������87


Records���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������87
Declaring and Creating Records��������������������������������������������������������������������88
Nominal Typing����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������88
Accessing Record Fields�������������������������������������������������������������������������������89
Updating Records������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������90
Mutable Fields�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������91
Optional Fields�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������91
Destructuring Records�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������92
Pattern Matching with Records���������������������������������������������������������������������95
Records and Variants�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������97
Printing Records��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������99
Records and JSON���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������100
Objects��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������101
Declaring and Creating Objects�������������������������������������������������������������������102
Accessing Object Fields������������������������������������������������������������������������������103
Structural Typing�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������103
Mutating Objects�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������104

v
Table of Contents

Printing Objects�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������105
Objects and JSON����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������106
Objects vs. Records������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������108

Chapter 5: Lists and Arrays��������������������������������������������������������������109


Arrays����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������109
Array Standard Library��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������110
Note on Accessing Arrays����������������������������������������������������������������������������111
Higher-Order Functions for Arrays��������������������������������������������������������������������113
Map�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������113
Filter������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������116
Reduce��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������118
Composing Higher-Order Functions������������������������������������������������������������122
Higher-Order Functions in Action����������������������������������������������������������������122
Generalizing Higher-Order Functions����������������������������������������������������������126
Lists������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������128
Building a List����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������128
Immutability and Lists���������������������������������������������������������������������������������129
Pattern Matching with List��������������������������������������������������������������������������130
Higher-Order Functions with Lists��������������������������������������������������������������������133
Drawbacks of Lists��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������136
Use Cases for Immutable Collections����������������������������������������������������������137
Lists vs. Arrays��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������139
Final Thoughts���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������139

Chapter 6: Collections����������������������������������������������������������������������141
Immutable Collections��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������142
Immutable Sets�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������143
Immutable Maps������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������146

vi
Table of Contents

Using Collections: Luggage Example Revisited�������������������������������������������149


Advanced Topic: Generic Collections�����������������������������������������������������������151
Mutable Collections������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������156
Mutable Stack���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������157
Mutable Queue��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������159
Mutable Set and Mutable Map��������������������������������������������������������������������161
Hash Set and Hash Map������������������������������������������������������������������������������162
Advanced Topic: Generic Hash Set/Hash Map Keys������������������������������������164
Dict��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������167
Which Collection Should I Use?������������������������������������������������������������������������171

Chapter 7: Modules��������������������������������������������������������������������������173
Files as Modules�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������174
Defining Modules����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������174
Using Modules��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������175
Opening Modules�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������177
Destructuring a Module�������������������������������������������������������������������������������181
Module Examples����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������182
Module Signatures��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������188
Interface Files����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������189
Defining Module Signatures������������������������������������������������������������������������189
Functors������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������194
Defining and Using Functors�����������������������������������������������������������������������195
Extending Modules��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������197
Functors in the Standard Library�����������������������������������������������������������������199
Final Thoughts���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������200

vii
Table of Contents

Chapter 8: JavaScript Interoperability���������������������������������������������203


Calling JavaScript from ReScript����������������������������������������������������������������������203
Embedding Raw JavaScript in ReScript Files����������������������������������������������206
Calling ReScript from JavaScript����������������������������������������������������������������������208
Exporting Values from ReScript�������������������������������������������������������������������208
Using ReScript Modules from JavaScript����������������������������������������������������209
Shared Data Types��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������211
Integers�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������213
Functions�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������214
Options��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������215
Other Data Types�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������216
Immutable Data Structures�������������������������������������������������������������������������216
Variants�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������216
Polymorphic Variants�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������219
Working with Null����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������220
Working with Exceptions����������������������������������������������������������������������������������223
Catching ReScript Exceptions in JavaScript������������������������������������������������223
Catching JavaScript Exceptions in ReScript������������������������������������������������225
Working with JSON�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������225
Option 1: Binding Without Types������������������������������������������������������������������225
Option 2: Binding With Types�����������������������������������������������������������������������227
Option 3: With Validation������������������������������������������������������������������������������228
Putting It All Together: Simple ReScript Web App����������������������������������������������232
Version 1: Handwritten Bindings�����������������������������������������������������������������233
Version 2: Using Imported Bindings�������������������������������������������������������������247
Final Thoughts���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������253

Index�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������255

viii
About the Author
Danny Yang is a professional software engineer at Meta working on
infrastructure for WhatsApp. He has previously worked on Facebook
Messenger, including the web interface which was written in ReScript.
His technical interests include functional programming, compilers, and
data visualization, which he writes about on his blog at www.yangdanny97
.github.io.

ix
About the Technical Reviewer
German Gonzalez-Morris is a software architect/engineer working
with C/C++, Java, and different application containers, in particular
with WebLogic Server. He has developed various applications using JEE,
Spring, and Python. His areas of expertise also include OOP, Java/JEE,
Python, design patterns, algorithms, Spring Core/MVC/security, and
microservices. German has worked with performance messaging, RESTful
API, and transactional systems. For more information about him, visit
­www.linkedin.com/in/german-gonzalez-morris.

xi
Introduction
Why Learn ReScript?
JavaScript is vital to the modern web ecosystem. It’s used in the front end
to implement websites and other user interfaces, and used in the back end
to implement servers for websites and APIs.
Part of JavaScript’s ubiquity is due to its ease of use. JavaScript is
dynamic and flexible, making it easy for people to pick up. However, this
strength becomes a weakness when working on large web applications
with multiple developers – the only way to know that JavaScript code works
correctly is to actually run it, and it’s relatively easy to make mistakes when
programming in JavaScript.
What if there was a way to detect bugs in JavaScript before running
the code, or prevent many classes of bugs altogether? What if there was a
language that was concise and elegant that made it easy for programmers
to write complex web applications and hard for programmers to make
mistakes?
Enter ReScript.
ReScript is a language designed for writing web applications. It brings
a lot to the table: static typechecking, a strong type system, and powerful
language features that will change the way you program.
Here’s a glimpse of some of the features that make ReScript a great
language:

Static typechecking – Catch bugs in your code


without having to run it: undefined values, missing
cases, incorrect types, and more.

xiii
Introduction

Sound type system – ReScript programs that pass


typechecking cannot have runtime type errors.

Type inference – ReScript automatically infers types


based on how variables are used, allowing you to
enjoy the benefits of type safety without having to
annotate every variable and function.

Immutability – Peace of mind while you program


with variables and data structures that cannot be
unexpectedly modified under your nose.

Algebraic data types and pattern matching – Cleanly


define and elegantly manipulate complex data.

First-class bindings for React – Write React


elements and JSX directly inside ReScript files.

There are a number of other languages and tools that offer static
typechecking for web applications, but ReScript has several key advantages
over its competitors. As an example, let’s look at the benefits ReScript has
compared with another popular JavaScript alternative, TypeScript:

ReScript is safer – Unlike ReScript’s battle-tested


and sound type system, TypeScript’s type system is
unsound, so it is still possible to have runtime type
errors in a valid TypeScript program.

ReScript is faster – ReScript’s compiler is much


faster than TypeScript’s compiler, allowing for a
smoother development experience when working in
large code bases.

ReScript is more concise – ReScript’s excellent


type inference means that programmers do not
have to write as many type annotations in ReScript
programs compared to TypeScript programs.

xiv
Introduction

Although ReScript is a relative newcomer to the web ecosystem, it’s


actually based on technology that has been battle-tested for years before
ReScript even existed. ReScript itself has proven successful as well. Most
notably, Facebook used it to build the web interface for Messenger – a
product used by hundreds of millions of people – with a code base
containing thousands of files.

History of ReScript
The lineage of ReScript can ultimately be traced back to the ML family of
languages originating from the 1960s. In particular, ReScript is directly
based on OCaml, a general-purpose programming language that was
developed in the 1980s and used today for systems programming in
academia and industry.
In 2015, Jordan Walke, the creator of the React web framework,
developed a toolchain and alternative syntax for OCaml called Reason.
Reason was designed to bridge the gap between the web and OCaml
ecosystems – it could be compiled into both native machine code and
JavaScript, allowing web developers to take advantage of OCaml’s
features. Static typechecking and OCaml’s sound type system eliminated
many common bugs in JavaScript code, and OCaml’s immutability and
functional style was a great fit for React.
Reason was compiled to JavaScript using a compiler called
BuckleScript, which was developed at Bloomberg around the same time
Reason was being created at Facebook.
Around 2020, the BuckleScript project created a new language
based on Reason that could only be compiled to JavaScript using the
BuckleScript compiler, and so ReScript was born.

xv
Introduction

ReScript has the following key differences from its predecessors:

ReScript has different syntax and features. While


it looks and feels more like JavaScript, ReScript is
still based on the battle-tested compiler and type
system as Reason and OCaml, so it has the same
type safety benefits as its predecessors.

ReScript can only be compiled to JavaScript. By


dropping support for native compilation, ReScript
has a simpler toolchain and standard library, along
with a feature set better suited for web development.
This makes ReScript easier for newcomers to learn
and allows for smoother integration with other web
technologies.

ReScript and the Web Ecosystem


Like some other statically typed languages in the web ecosystem, ReScript
code is transpiled to JavaScript. This means that ReScript code doesn’t
directly run in the browser or on the server. Instead, the ReScript compiler
checks that the code is valid and generates JavaScript files, which can then
be imported and used like any handwritten JavaScript file.
Being able to run in any environment that supports JavaScript allows
ReScript to be used for full-stack web development, from client-side code
that runs in the browser to server-side code that runs in Node.js.
Since ReScript code is exactly the same as JavaScript code when it runs,
ReScript programs can easily import and use JavaScript libraries, while
JavaScript programs can call ReScript functions as easily as they can call
other JavaScript functions.

xvi
Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents
The Project Gutenberg eBook of The works of
the Rev. John Wesley, Vol. 09 (of 32)
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United
States and most other parts of the world at no cost and with
almost no restrictions whatsoever. You may copy it, give it away
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are not located in the United States, you will have to check the
laws of the country where you are located before using this
eBook.

Title: The works of the Rev. John Wesley, Vol. 09 (of 32)

Author: John Wesley

Release date: April 18, 2024 [eBook #73419]

Language: English

Original publication: Bristol: William Pine, 1771

Credits: Richard Hulse and the Online Distributed Proofreading


Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced
from images generously made available by The
Internet Archive)

*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE WORKS OF


THE REV. JOHN WESLEY, VOL. 09 (OF 32) ***
The Works of the
Rev. John Wesley,
M.A.

Transcriber’s Notes
The cover image was provided by the transcriber and is placed
in the public domain.

Punctuation has been standardized.

Most of the non-common abbreviations used to save space in


printing have been expanded to the non-abbreviated form
for easier reading.

The author has used an asterisk (*) to indicate passages he


considers most worthy of attention.

The text may show quotations within quotations, all set off by
similar quote marks. The inner quotations have been
changed to alternate quote marks for improved readability.
This book was written in a period when many words had not
become standardized in their spelling. Words may have
multiple spelling variations or inconsistent hyphenation in
the text. These have been left unchanged unless indicated
with a Transcriber’s Note.

The symbol ‘‡’ indicates the description in parenthesis has been


added to an illustration. This may be needed if there is no
caption or if the caption does not describe the image
adequately.

Footnotes are identified in the text with a superscript number


and are shown immediately below the paragraph in which
they appear.

Transcriber’s Notes are used when making corrections to the


text or to provide additional information for the modern
reader. These notes are identified by ♦♠♥♣ symbols in the
text and are shown immediately below the paragraph in
which they appear.
THE

WORKS
OF THE

Rev. JOHN WESLEY, M.A.


Late Fellow of Lincoln-College, Oxford.

Volume IX.

B R I S T O L:
Printed by WILLIAM PINE, in Wine-Street.

MDCCLXXII.
THE

CONTENTS
Of the Ninth Volume.

The manners of the ancient Christians.

Chapter I. Of the life of Christ.

Chapter II. Of the church at Jerusalem.

Chapter III. The state of the Heathens before their conversion.

Chapter IV. Of their prayer and study of the scripture.

Chapter V. Of their fasts, meals, modesty, and seriousness.

Chapter VI. Of their marriages, their union, and public assemblies.

Chapter VII. Of their persecutions.

Chapter VIII. Of their care of the poor sick, their hospitality, and
patience.

The doctrine of Salvation, Faith, and Good Works; extracted from the
homilies of the church of England.

An Abridgment of the Pilgrim’s Progress.

A Word of Advice to Saints and Sinners.

Christian Letters by Joseph Alleine.


A Word to a Sabbath-Breaker.

A Word to a Swearer.

A Word to a Drunkard.

A Word to an unhappy Woman.

A Word to a Smuggler.

A Word to a condemn’d Malefactor.

A Word in Season: Or Advice to an Englishman.

A Word to a Protestant.

A Word to a Freeholder.

Advice to a Soldier.
The Manners of the

ANCIENT
C H R I S T I A N S.
Extracted from a French Author.

C H A P T E R I.
Of the life of Christ.

1. S the Christian religion is not an invention of men, but the work


A of God, it received its full perfection at the beginning of it. For
who can imagine, the apostles were ignorant of any truth necessary
or useful to salvation? Or that any thing has been since found out
touching the conduct of life, more wise and excellent than what
Jesus Christ taught them? It is among the first Christians therefore,
that we must look for a pattern of the most perfect life, and by
consequence of the most happy, which can be upon earth.
2. Let us begin with the life of Christ himself, the model and
source of all perfection. In his very childhood he sets us an example,
by his teachableness and obedience to his parents. Of the rest of his
youth we only know, that he lived in the little town of Nazareth,
passing for the son of a carpenter and working as one himself. In
such obscurity he, who came to be the light of the world, chose to
pass the greatest part of his life. Thirty years he lived a private life,
and only three or four in public, to shew us, that a private life is best
for the generality of men: and that there is only a small number who
ought to act in public, so far as the order of God, and the love of
their neighbour require it.

3. Before he began his great work, he prepared himself for it, by


fasting and prayer. And having afterwards been tempted of the devil,
to shew, he is able to succour when we are tempted, he went forth
to seek and to save that which was lost. He shewed that he came
from God by his miracles. And even these gave him matter of many
virtues; of simplicity, humility, patience. He wrought them without
any pride or ostentation; he seldom stayed till he was asked to do
them; and then, only to exercise, or to make known the faith of
those that asked him. He gives the glory of all to his Father. “I can of
myself, says he, (that is, as man) do nothing. My Father who abideth
in me, he it is that doth the works.”

4. What patience was it, to bear that incredible multitude, which


continually followed him, who prest to touch him, who threw
themselves upon him, and were often ready to overwhelm him? If
he went into a house, all the city gathered together at the door, and
gave him no time, so much as to eat. So that he could no longer
come into the towns, unless in secret; but was forced to stay abroad
in the deserts: and even thither the people followed him in great
multitudes, as appears by the five thousand, whom he fed there.
Hence it was, that he retired to the mountains to pray, that he
employed the nights therein, and that he slept when he could, and
as he could; as in the ship, during the storm.
5. His life was now more laborious, than when he worked with
his hands. Indeed he had not time to work in; insomuch that he
suffered women to minister unto him of their goods, and even kept
some money by him. Of this he made Judas the keeper. So much did
Jesus esteem money! He gave alms of the little he had, and
sometimes he had none at all. Indeed he lived all along in great
poverty. He had not where to lay his head. At his death, he had no
goods, but his cloaths. He came, not to be ministered unto, but to
minister. He made his journeys on foot, and continued walking even
till the heat of the day. For it was at noon that he sat down, weary
as he was, on the well, where he met the woman of Samaria. And
tho’ he was the Lord of nature, we find not that he wrought any
miracle for his own convenience, or to spare his own pains. The
angels ministered unto him only once, to shew what was his due,
had he pleased to use it.

6. All his carriage was simple, easy, natural, lively. He looked


them in the face, with whom he spake: as the rich young man. It is
often said, “He stretched forth his hand unto them;” often, that he
made use of such other particular gestures, as were suitable to the
occasion. Sometimes his very looks exprest pity, or grief, or
indignation: at other times, tenderness; as when he took up the
children in his arms, and laid his hands upon them.

7. With all this plainness and simplicity of behaviour, he preserved


a wonderful dignity. He was always serious. We find him twice in
tears: but it is not said, that he ever laughed. He asked nothing of
any man, following his own maxim, “It is more blessed to give than
to receive.” All men sought him out and ran unto him. He conversed
with all, without any meanness of behaviour, and yet with the
utmost condescension; being easy of access to all; yea to Publicans
and Sinners. He condescended to eat, and to lodge with them, yea
to let a woman that was a sinner touch him, and perfume his feet; a
delicacy that seemed quite opposite to his poor and mortified life.
8. As he came into the world to instruct mankind, he taught
continually both in public and private: insomuch that men admired
the power by which he spoke, and the gracious words that came out
of his mouth. His discourse was simple and clear, without any
ornament, but lively and natural figures. Sometimes, he speaks by
actions, as when he bids John’s disciples, “Go tell unto John what ye
have seen and heard.” And generally, his words are few. He lays
down great principles without troubling himself to draw
consequences, or to prove them. Indeed they carry in themselves
the light of truth, which only wilful blindness can resist. When he
does use proofs, they are those of sensible reasonings and familiar
comparisons. His miracles were the strongest proofs, and best suited
to all understandings. These were equally apprehended by the
learned, as Nicodemus, and the unlearned, as the man born blind.
He often joins thereto the authorities of the law and the prophets,
shewing that his doctrine came from the same wisdom, and that the
Old Testament and the New were built on the same divine
foundation.

9. That his disciples might have the full benefit of his example,
he lived with them in common, as one family. They followed him
wherever he went; they eat and lodged with him; they had
opportunity of studying him continually. He spared no pains to
instruct them. What they understood not in his public discourses, he
explained to them in private; treating them as his friends, and telling
them all things, as they were able to bear them. He bore with the
utmost patience, their dulness, their ignorance, their vanity, and all
their faults, and laboured without ceasing to correct them.
*10. But he had other disciples beside the twelve: for all who
believed and were baptized were called his disciples. St. Paul
mentions above 500 of them, who together saw him after his
resurrection. So that the church even then consisted of two parts:
the people, simply called The disciples or The brethren, and those
whom Christ had set apart for ministring in public: such were first,
The apostles, and then the seventy, whom he chose, and sent two
and two before his face.

*11. The different degrees of love wherewith our Lord loved


different persons are worthy a serious reflection. He hath taught us,
that every man is our neighbour, whom we are to love as ourselves:
and he accordingly loved all the world: yea, he gave his life for all.
Yet he loved his disciples in a particular manner, and above the rest
of them, his apostles; above the rest of the apostles, St. Peter and
the sons of Zebedee; and above all, St. John. Thus by his own
example hath he authorized us to regard some persons with a
particular affection, and shewn, that peculiar friendship is not
inconsistent with universal charity.

12. But in his sufferings chiefly hath “He left us an example, that
we should tread in his steps.” Being like us in all things, except sin,
he felt all the inconveniences of life; hunger, thirst and weariness
and pain: and the state he was in, the night before his passion in the
garden, plainly shews, that he was sensible like us, of grief and fear
and sadness. Add to these his sense of the hardness of men’s
hearts, and the contradiction of sinners. But he suffered all, and
particularly in his passion, with an invincible constancy. He who with
a word could have confounded his accusers and judges together,
opened not his mouth. He stood unmoved as a rock in the midst of
all insults, reproaches, outrages. On the very cross he possest his
soul in patience. Even there retaining composure of mind, he prays
for his murderers; he accepts the faith of the penitent thief; he
provides for his mother’s comfort; he finishes the accomplishment of
the prophecies; he commends his spirit to God.
C H A P T E R II.
Of the church at Jerusalem.

1. FTER the apostles had received the Holy Ghost, they were living
A images of Jesus Christ. And by them all the following servants
of Christ were to form their hearts and lives. So St. Paul to the
Corinthians, Be ye followers of me, as I am of Christ: and to the
♦Philippians, Brethren, be followers together of me, and mark them
which walk so, as ye have us for an example.

♦ “Phillippians” replaced with “Philippians”


2. Thus they taught by their lives as well as their words. But they
chose out some of the believers, whom they taught in a more
particular manner, as Jesus Christ had instructed them. These were
with them continually wherever they went: these followed them in
all their journies, and were appointed by them to reside in, and to
govern the churches as they were formed. So with St. Peter was
Mark, whom he calls his son (1 Peter v. 13.) and St. Clement, well
known in all the churches. With St. Paul, were Timothy, Titus, St.
Luke, and sometimes the same St. Clement. Thus Polycarp
accompanied St. John. These holy men applied themselves with all
care to learn the doctrine, and to imitate the lives of the apostles.
And hereby they were themselves examples to other believers, both
by word and conversation, in charity, in spirit, in faith, in purity. They
likewise themselves formed disciples, capable of instructing and
forming others. And this St. Paul directs Timothy to do (2 Timothy
ii. 2.) The things which thou hast heard of me among many
witnesses, the same commit thou to faithful men, who shall be able
to teach others also. Thus was the faith once delivered to the saints:
thus was the church, the whole body of Christians from the
beginning, the ground and pillar of truth, of all the truths contained
in the oracles of God. In the writings therefore of these, not of
modern reasoners and disputers, are we to search for that sense of
scriptures hard to be understood, which they received from the
apostles, and the apostles from Christ.
3. The church at Jerusalem, the pattern and mother of all
churches, was taught and governed by the apostles themselves. And
all the members thereof continued stedfastly in the apostles doctrine
and fellowship, and in breaking of bread and in prayer. All who
believed were together and had all things common. They sold their
possessions and goods, and parted them to all, as every man had
need. They continued daily with one accord in the temple, and in
breaking bread in the house or chamber appointed for it: and eat
their meat with gladness and singleness of heart, praising God and
having favour with all the people. Again we read, The multitude of
them that believed, were of one heart, and of one soul, neither said
any, that ought of the things which he possessed was his own, but
they had all things common. And great grace was upon them all,
neither was there any among them, that wanted: for as many as
were possessors of lands or houses, sold them, and brought the
prices of the things that were sold, and laid them down at the
apostles feet. And distribution was made to every man, according as
he had need.

4. This community of goods the ancient philosophers and law-


givers often endeavoured, but could never effect: having only
punishments to constrain, or reasonings to persuade men to it. And
both these were too weak to prevail. Only the grace of Christ could
effect it. When this was shed abroad in their hearts, they all looked
on each other as brethren, all united in one family, and fed alike by
the common care of their Father. The law of love, so often repeated
by their Lord, was continually before their eyes, and by this did all
men know they were his disciples, by their love to one another.
5. It is said, that they continued stedfastly in the apostles
doctrine; and they are often called, the disciples or learners. They
diligently applied themselves to learn all the truths of God, whether
by hearing the apostles both in public and private, or by reading and
comparing together the holy scriptures, and meditating upon them.
It is likewise said, that they continued in prayer, and went daily for
that purpose to the temple: probably at the solemn hours of prayer,
the third, sixth and ninth, which the Christian church observed for
many ages.

6. The other part of their daily service mentioned here, is the


breaking of bread, or the Lord’s supper, as the phrase signifies, not
in this place alone, but in many others of the New Testament. It was
followed by a repast, the use of which continued long in the
♦church, under the name of Agapæ, or feasts of love. And these it is
said, They eat with gladness and singleness of heart. In a word, all
the Christians were as little children, in humility, disinterestedness
and purity. By renouncing worldly good and hopes, they had cut off
the occasions of passions and of the uneasinesses of life: so that
their minds were wholly taken up with heaven, and their hope full of
immortality. Thus the church of Jerusalem subsisted near forty
years, under the conduct of the apostles and St. James (the bishop
of it) in particular: till the Christians seeing the ruin of that unhappy
city to approach, according to the prediction of their Master, retired
out of it to the little town of Pella, where they continued in peace
and safety.

♦ “chuch” replaced with “church”

C H A P T E R III.
The state of the Heathens before their conversion.

1. HEY who are unacquainted with history, suppose, that the men
T who lived seventeen hundred years ago, were more artless,
more innocent and more teachable, than those that are now alive.
But the writings of those times which still remain, clearly prove the
contrary. The crimes, whereof they give us to full accounts, were
committed in the face of the sun. No one ran into a corner to
commit them, or endeavoured afterwards to conceal them. And the
providence of God seems to have preserved these accounts, on
purpose to shew, from what an abyss of corruption (described in
short by St. Paul in the beginning of his epistle to the Romans) Jesus
Christ delivered the world.

2. The ordinary diversions of the people of Rome, were to see


men kill one another, or torn in pieces by wild beasts. And the
governors of the provinces, daily exercised the greatest cruelties
upon those who were not Romans. The emperors put to death
whom they pleased, without any process or trial; whence it was that
bad princes shed so much blood, even of the most noble Romans.
Their avarice was equal to their cruelty; so that all places were full of
frauds, of falshoods, of perjuries, of calumnies, of violences and
oppressions.

3. Yet in the midst of the Roman empire, yea, of Rome itself,


Christianity established itself: And that at a time when it was the
most enlightened that ever it was, as well as the most corrupted.
Nor could it more evidently appear, that the Gospel was the power of
God, than by its triumphing over those very dispositions, which were
of all others most opposite to it. What could be more opposite to the
humility of faith and the simplicity of the Christian doctrine, than the
haughtiness of self-conscious knowledge, and pride of
understanding? What to the inward purity it required, and the
strictness of its morality, than that entire depravity of heart, and
overflowing corruption of manners?
4. The manner of preaching the Gospel was different, according
to the dispositions of the hearers. The apostles convinced the Jews
by proofs drawn from their own prophets, and other parts of holy
writ; the Heathens, by reasonings, more simple or more subtle,
according to their capacity. But what most prevailed on the heathen
was, the miracles which were frequent, for two hundred years after
the apostles, the holy lives of the Christians, and their constancy in
sufferings and death.

5. When any one desired to be a Christian, he was brought to the


bishop, who carefully examined, what were the motives and causes
of his desiring it, and what his life past had been? For none were
received ’till they had renounced whatever was contrary to the law
of Christ: and given proof for some time, that they were determined,
to make it the rule of their future life.

6. He who was judged sincere in his desire, was received by the


bishop into the number of Catechumens. These were not only
present at the ♦ public exposition of scripture (for so might the
Infidels themselves) but had Catechists appointed for them, whose
office it was, to instruct them severally in the first principles of
Christianity, and to watch over them continually, that their practice
might be answerable thereto. The common time for being a
catechumen was two years: but it might be either longer or shorter.
It was always so long, till the person appeared to be changed in
heart and life. The names of those who were judged to be thus
changed, were given in at the beginning of Lent. And these, as well
as the faithful, spent that solemn time, in watching, fasting and
prayer. In the mean while they were instructed in the creed, and the
mysteries of the Christian faith: as to their progress wherein they
were frequently examined in the church, before the congregation.

♦ “publick” replaced with “public” for consistency


7. Toward the end of Lent they were taught the Lord’s prayer,
and instructed in the nature of the sacraments, and having been
thus prepared, they were baptized on Easter-Eve, that they might
rise again with Christ: or on the eve of Pentecost, that they might be
ready to receive the Holy Ghost. But though these were the stated
times of baptism, even till the tenth age; yet they who were in
danger of death were baptized at any time: as in case of open
persecution.

8. The day of baptism being come, the Catechumen was brought


to the baptistery. This was at first near the church, or in the church
porch: afterwards in the church itself. Here, after he had renounced
the devil and all his works, he was questioned concerning the faith,
and concerning his purpose of leading a Christian life. To which
questions he gave distinct answers. He was then immerged in the
consecrated water, three times; at the name of the Father, of the
Son, and of the Holy Ghost. At his coming out of the water, a white
garment was given him, for a token of the innocence which was now
given him, and which he was to take care to preserve without spot
unto his life’s end. When the persons baptized were infants, their
sureties or sponsors (as Tertullian calls them) answered for them.
Immediately after baptism they were presented to the bishop to be
confirmed, by prayer and imposition of hands; and for a long time
after they were instructed and assisted, as by the priest, so by those
who had witnessed for them, till they were throughly perfect in the
faith, and fully prepared for every good work.

C H A P T E R IV.
Of their prayer and study of the scriptures.
1. HOSE who were baptized began to lead a new life, wholly
T spiritual and supernatural: a life of faith and prayer:
remembring the words of their Lord, that men ought always to pray
and not to faint; they endeavoured to pray without ceasing, and
used all sorts of means, that the application of their spirit to God,
might ♦be interrupted the least that was possible. But of all prayer,
they had the greatest esteem for public; as well knowing, the more
persons joined together, to beg of God any mercy, the more force
their prayers had to obtain it. And the service ended, they saluted
each other, the men the men, and the women the women, with the
kiss of peace.

♦ omitted word “be” added as shown by the catchword on


the previous page.

2. But besides their solemn prayers both in public and private,


they used particular prayers before all they did: following therein the
direction of St. Paul, Whatsoever ye do in word or deed, do all in the
name of the Lord Jesus, giving thanks to God, even the Father by
him. Accordingly, plowing, sowing, reaping, and all their works, were
begun and ended in prayer. They prayed when they began to build a
house, or to live in it, and on all the common ♦ occurrences of life.
Their salutations when they met, and at the beginning of their
letters, were not only expressions of friendship, but prayers.

♦ “occurrrences” replaced with “occurrences”


3. The book of Psalms made a great part of their prayers; as
including the sum of all the scriptures, and shewing what sentiments
a servant of God ought to have, in all the various conditions of life.
To these they always joined the reading a part of some of the other
holy books: all which the bishops and pastors of the church,
explained with all diligence, instructing their flock both publicly and
from house to house, and suiting their instructions to their several
capacities. But they all along declared, they spake not from
themselves, they said nothing new, nothing of their own. They
declared, that they were only faithful relators of the gospel of Christ,
and of that interpretation thereof, which they had received from
their fore-fathers, and their fore-fathers from the apostles. They
imprinted in the faithful the utmost abhorrence for all novelties,
especially in doctrine. Insomuch that if private Christians heard any
discourse which was contrary to the first faith, they did not amuse
themselves with disputing, but immediately left the place.

4. What had been read to them in public, out of the holy


scriptures, the faithful read again in private. They talked of it in the
house and by the way; they meditated thereon day and night.
Indeed, particular houses, as St. Chrysostom observes, were then
churches. Every father being a pastor to his family, instructing his
wife, children, servants; exhorting them familiarly, presiding over
their joint devotion, and every way assisting to preserve them in the
unity of the church, and to build them up in faith and love.
5. In the mean while they did not neglect to work with their
hands, both, that they might avoid idleness, the root of all vices,
that they might provide for their own housholds, and that they might
have the more ability to help their brethren. But they took care to
chuse not only innocent employs, but such as best suited with
retirement and humility, and did not too much engage the mind, or
dissipate the thoughts: what time they could spare from these, they
employed in works of charity: in visiting the sick or afflicted, and
assisting whoever stood in need of their assistance. So that the life
of a Christian was a continued course of prayer, reading and labour,
succeeding each other; and as little as possible interrupted by the
necessities of life. Whatever calling they were of, they regarded it
always, as only an accessory or help to religion; which they ever
remembered was the one single business, that was to take up all
their lives. Their profession was, purely and simply to be Christians.
They assumed no other distinction: and when they were questioned
concerning their name, their country, their condition, their one
answer was, “I am a Christian.”

C H A P T E R V.
Of their fasts, meals, modesty and seriousness.
1. HE fasts of the ancients were either yearly, as that of Lent, which
T they observed daily till six in the evening; or weekly, as those
of Wednesday and Friday, which they observed till three in the
afternoon. The yearly they kept in memory of their Lord, and in
obedience to that command, When the bridegroom shall be taken
away, then shall they fast in those days. And the weekly too were
observed throughout the whole church, in remembrance of his
passion: because on Wednesday the council against him was held,
and on Friday he was put to death. During the whole Lent, many eat
only bread and water: some added thereto nuts and almonds: and
others were obliged to use different food, according to their different
infirmities. But all abstained from wine and delicate meats, during
whatever time was set apart for fasting, and spent as large a
proportion of it as they could, in retirement, reading and prayer.

2. At all times the meals of Christians were plain and frugal. They
did not live to eat, but eat to live. They used only such food and
such a measure of it, as was necessary for health and strength. As
to the kinds of food, they eat whatever was set before them, except
blood and things strangled; from which they carefully abstained,
according to the decree of the apostles speaking by the Holy Ghost.
Some indeed there were in all ages, who eat only herbs with bread
and water: not out of any abhorrence of other food; but believing
this to be best for their own weakness. No Christians eat with
♦ heretics, or persons excommunicate: but they did sometimes with
infidels, that they might not break off all society with them.

♦ “hereticks” replaced with “heretics” for consistency


3. The same air of modesty appeared in all the other parts of
their life. They valued only inward greatness; they esteemed no
nobility, but nobleness of soul. They made no account of perishable
goods, or of any riches but spiritual. They utterly despised all that
luxury had introduced; all the idle expence of magnificent buildings;
of costly apparel; of sumptuous furniture, and vessels of gold and
silver. Behold the furniture which her persecutors found in the
chamber of Domna, a rich lady of Nicomedia: the Acts of the
apostles, two matts upon the floor, a wooden box, and an earthen
censer.

4. As to their dress, they wore no glaring colours, but mostly


white, the emblem of purity. They used no costly stuffs, no rings,
jewels, perfumes; nothing fine or delicate; plainness, modesty,
gravity and a contempt of ornament, were visible in their whole
exterior. They made use of none of the public diversions, but
accounted them all abominations; not only as being idolatrous, but
as being one great source of the general corruption of manners. And
in fact the theatre was no other than a school of immodesty: the
amphitheatre where men fought with each other, or with wild
beasts, was evidently a school of cruelty. And all these diversions
fomented all sorts of passions, which it is the business of Christianity
to calm. Therefore it is, that even the races of the Circus which
appeared the most innocent, are constantly mentioned, by the
fathers, with horror and detestation: not only on account of the
idleness they promoted, and the vast expence that attended them;
but likewise of the promiscuous converse of men and women, and
the factions which reigned there, producing every day quarrels and
furious animosities, that often proceeded even to blood.
5. They likewise entirely disapproved of dice, and all other
sedentary games, the least mischief of which they judged to be, the
nourishing of sloth and idleness. They did not approve of loud
laughter, or whatever has a tendency thereto: as light discourses,
ludicrous gestures or actions, buffoonery, drollery. They thought all
these beneath the dignity of a Christian, and absolutely unworthy his
high calling: whose conversation ought to be always good, to the
use of edifying, that it may minister grace to the hearers. They
considered, that both our Lord and all his apostles, led the most
serious life possible: and that St. Paul condemns by name, that habit
of jesting, raillery or facetiousness, which the Heathens ranked
among their virtues, as not convenient for a follower of Christ.

6. But as strict as the life of these Christians was, we must not


imagine it was melancholy. No, as they prayed without ceasing, and
in every thing gave thanks, so they rejoiced evermore. They were
not disquieted by covetousness or ambition. They were free from
pride, malice, envy, and all that train of uneasy passions, by which,
men of the world are continually tormented: not being attached to
the goods of the present life; they were little touched with the
calamities of it: having always the peace of a good conscience, the
joy of doing well, and a full assurance of the favour of God, both in
time and in eternity.

7. Nor did the care of their posterity give them any inquietude.
The happiness they wished their children was no other, than that
they desired for themselves, even to finish their course with joy. If
they left them orphans, they knew the church would be their mother,
and supply all their wants. Thus they lived without care, without
fear, without desire of any of the things of the world. But not without
pleasure. What pleasure, (says Tertullian) is greater than contempt
of the world, “contempt of death, true liberty, purity of conscience;
contentedness with all things? You tread under foot the gods of the
Heathens; you heal diseases; you cast out devils; you are led by the
Holy Ghost; you live to God. These are the pleasures; these the
diversions of Christians.”
C H A P T E R VI.
Of their marriages, their union and public assemblies.

1.
W
ITH all this disengagement from the world, the greatest part of
the first Christians were married. They were sensible indeed
of the vast advantages, which St. Paul observes belong to a single
life. And many accordingly chose it, both men and women, for the
kingdom of heaven’s sake: but they knew, all men cannot receive
this saying: and therefore never ♦ condemned those who did not
receive it. Those who bred up orphans generally married them
young, and usually to their own children. For interest had nothing to
do with their choice, nor indeed any other consideration but the
glory of God. In this, as in all important affairs, they failed not to
consult the bishop; and when all was fixed, the marriage was
publicly and solemnly celebrated in the church, where it was
consecrated by the blessing of the pastor, and confirmed by the
oblation of the holy eucharist.

♦ “cendemned” replaced with “condemned”


2. The happiness of a Christian marriage, is thus represented by
Tertullian. “Two Christians bare the same yoke together; they are
but one flesh, and one spirit. They pray together; they prostrate
themselves together; they fast together; they instruct; and they
exhort each other. They are together in the house of God and at the
table of the Lord; in times of persecutions and peaceful times. They
give one another no uneasiness: they conceal nothing from each
other: they stir up one another to praise God, to relieve the poor, to
visit the sick, and not to be weary of offering any of those sacrifices
wherewith God is well pleased.”

3. Such was then the life of particular Christians. None regarded


himself alone. But all the Christians of one place, considered
themselves as only one body. They all knew each other, not only by
their constantly meeting together in the public assemblies, but
likewise by their embracing all opportunities, of opening their hearts
to each other in private. Their joys and their griefs were common to
all. If one received a particular blessing, they all took part in it; if
one fell into sin, they all implored mercy. They lived together as
relations, indeed as allied by nearer ties than those of flesh and
blood; and called each other, fathers, children, brethren and sisters,
according to their sex and age.
4. But the strictest union of all was between the bishops of the
church. They did nothing of importance, but by common consent.
Those of the most distant provinces knew each other, by character,
at least, and held correspondence by letters. And this it was easy to
do by means of the vast extent of the Roman empire; which (as
Origen remarks) seems to have been formed on purpose, to
facilitate the preaching of the gospel. The church indeed soon
extended itself beyond the empire on every side. And the farther it
extended, the more to be admired was that uniformity of faith and
manners which was among all Christians: true religion having
corrected in this vast diversity of nations, all the barbarous and
unreasonable customs of its followers. So that the universal church
throughout the whole world, was truly one body, the members
whereof, however distant from each other, were all united in one
faith, by fervent charity.

5. The account which is given by one of the earliest writers of


their public assemblies, is as follows: “On Sunday all that live either
in the city or country, meet together at the same place, where the
writings of the prophets and apostles are read; then the bishop
instructs and exhorts the people. This ended, we all rise up together
(for on all Sundays they prayed standing, in memory of the
resurrection of our Lord) and pour out our souls in common prayers
both for ourselves, and for all others throughout the world. Prayers
being over, bread, and a cup of wine and water are brought to the
bishop, which he takes, and offers up praise and glory to the Father
of all things, through the name of his Son and holy Spirit. The
people answer with joyful acclamations, Amen! Then the
consecrated elements the eucharistical bread and wine are
distributed to, and partaken by, all that are present, and sent to the
absent by the hands of the deacons.” But the martyr adds, “Of this
food none are allowed to be partakers, but such only as are true
believers, and live according to Christ’s precepts. For we do not take
this as common bread and common wine, but as the flesh and blood
of the incarnate Jesus.”
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