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CodeIgniter for Rapid PHP
Application Development

Improve your PHP coding productivity with the

free compact open-source MVC CodeIgniter
framework!

David Upton

BIRMINGHAM - MUMBAI
CodeIgniter for Rapid PHP Application Development
Improve your PHP coding productivity with the free compact
open-source MVC CodeIgniter framework!

Copyright © 2007 Packt Publishing

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, without the prior written
permission of the publisher, except in the case of brief quotations embedded in
critical articles or reviews.

Every effort has been made in the preparation of this book to ensure the accuracy of
the information presented. However, the information contained in this book is sold
without warranty, either express or implied. Neither the author, Packt Publishing,
nor its dealers or distributors will be held liable for any damages caused or alleged to
be caused directly or indirectly by this book.

Packt Publishing has endeavored to provide trademark information about all the
companies and products mentioned in this book by the appropriate use of capitals.
However, Packt Publishing cannot guarantee the accuracy of this information.

First published: July 2007

Production Reference: 1160707

Published by Packt Publishing Ltd.

32 Lincoln Road
Olton
Birmingham, B27 6PA, UK.

ISBN 978-1-847191-74-8

www.packtpub.com

Cover Image by Vinayak Chittar (vinayak.chittar@gmail.com)

 Credits

Author Project Manager

David Upton Abhijeet Deobhakta

Reviewers Indexer
Rick Ellis Bhushan Pangoankar
Derek Allard
Proofreader
Development Editor Chris Smith
Douglas Peterson
Production Coordinator
Assistant Development Editor Shantanu Zagade
Nikhil Bangera
Cover Designer
Technical Editor Shantanu Zagade
Ajay S

Editorial Manager
Dipali Chittar
 About the Author

David Upton is a director of a specialized management consultancy company,

based in London but working around the world. His clients include some of the
world's largest companies. He is increasingly interested in web-enabling his work,
and seeking to turn ideas into robust professional applications by the simplest and
easiest route. He has so far written applications for two major companies in the UK.
His other interests include simulation, on which he writes a weblog that takes up far
too much of his time, and thinking.

I’d like to thank Rick Ellis for writing CI and for making it available,
free. This spirit of generosity with such valuable intellectual
property is what makes the Open Source movement a success, and
an example to the rest of us.

I’d also like to thank Rick, and Derek Allard, for undertaking a
technical review of the book and making many helpful suggestions.

Mark Barker inspired and helped me to understand Object

Orientation, during many Saturday evening ‘geek-outs’.

Lastly, but not least, my thanks to Julia, John, and James for their
love, support, and patience.
 About the Reviewers

Rick Ellis is the founder and CEO of EllisLab.com, the company that develops
CodeIgniter and several other widely used web applications. Rick Ellis has a diverse
background in media technology, having worked in creative and technical capacities
on interactive projects for Disney, to feature films for Oliver Stone, and almost every
kind of web-based project in-between.

Derek Allard is a programmer, author, and award-winning instructor based

in Toronto, Canada. He builds web applications, is a standards and accessibility
supporter, a scripting and database guy, and a PHP junkie. A sought-after educator
and freelancer, Derek spends most of his time working with XHTML, PHP, XML
and JavaScript.

As a highly visible CodeIgniter community member, Derek was hired by EllisLab as

the Senior Technical Support Specialist. He devotes time to ensuring CodeIgniter
and their flagship content management system, ExpressionEngine, remain
market leaders.

He blogs about all things web at www.derekallard.com.

 Table of Contents
Preface 1
Chapter 1: Introduction to CodeIgniter 7
What can CodeIgniter Do for You? 7
Save Time 8
Make Your Site More Robust 9
Keep Your Links Up-To-Date Automatically 9
Save Database Crashes: 'prep' Your Data Entry Forms 10
Make Your Code Bolder 11
Send Email Attachments without Hassles 11
Save Bandwidth by Zipping Files That Users Need to Download 12
Yes, But…What is CodeIgniter? What are Frameworks? 12
And Who is That Man? 14
The 'Open Source' Business Model 15
What CI Doesn't Do 16
License 18
Summary 19
Chapter 2: Two Minutes' Work: Setting up a CodeIgniter Site 21
Prerequisites 21
Installing CodeIgniter 22
Exploring the File Structure 23
The Configuration File 24
Does it Work? 25
Summary 25
Chapter 3: Navigating Your Site 27
MVC—Just Another Acronym? 28
The Structure of a CI Site: Controllers and Views 29
The Welcome Controller 31
Working with Views 32
Table of Contents

The Default Controller 33

CodeIgniter Syntax Rules 33
Controller 34
View 34
Types of Files or Classes on a CI Site 34
What are All Those Folders For? 37
Designing a Better View 37
Designing a Better Controller 39
Getting Parameters to a Function 40
Passing Data to a View 41
How CI Classes Pass Information and Control to Each Other 43
Calling Views 43
Calling Functions Directly 43
Interacting with Controllers 44
It's Just Like an Egg-Cup 45
An Example of a CI Helper: the URL Helper 46
A Simple Library Example: Creating a Menu 48
Summary 49
Chapter 4: Using CI to Simplify Databases 51
Configuration Settings 51
Designing the Database for Our Site 52
Active Record 53
Advantages of Using the Active Record Class 54
Saving Time 54
Automatic Functionality 54
Read Queries 56
Displaying Query Results 58
Create and Update Queries 59
Delete Queries 61
Mixing Active Record and 'Classic' Styles 61
Summary 62
Chapter Appendix: MYSQL Query to Set Up 'websites' Database 63
Chapter 5: Simplifying HTML Pages and Forms 67
Writing a View 67
Long and Short PHP Syntax 69
Nesting Views 70
Practical Issues of Site Architecture 73
CI's Form Helper: Entering Data 74
Form Helper Advantage One: Clarity 74
Form Helper Advantage Two: Automation 77

[ ii ]
 Table of Contents

My 'Display' Model 78
CI's Validation Class: Checking Data Easily 79
Set Up Validation 80
Set Up the Controller 81
Set Up the Forms 81
Summary 83
Chapter 6: Simplifying Sessions and Security 85
Starting to Design a Practical Site with CI 85
Moving Around the Site 86
Security/Sessions: Using Another CI Library Class 91
Turning Sessions into Security 94
Security 96
Summary 98
Chapter 7: CodeIgniter and Objects 99
Object-Oriented Programming 99
Working of the CI 'Super-Object' 100
Copying by Reference 103
Adding Your own Code to the CI 'Super-Object' 105
Problems with the CI 'Super-Object' 106
Summary 109
Chapter 8: Using CI to Test Code 111
Why Test, and What For? 111
CI's Error Handling Class 113
CI's Unit Test Class 115
When to Use Unit Tests 117
Example of a Unit Test 118
CI's Benchmarking Class 121
CI's Profiler Class 122
Testing with Mock Databases 123
Control and Timing 124
Summary 125
Chapter 9: Using CI to Communicate 127
Using the FTP Class to Test Remote Files 127
Machines Talking to Machines Again—XML-RPC 129
Getting the XML-RPC Server and Client in Touch with Each Other 131
Formatting XML-RPC Exchanges 132
Debugging 134
Issues with XML-RPC? 135
Talking to Humans for a Change: the Email Class 136
Summary 139

[ iii ]
Table of Contents

Chapter 10: How CI Helps to Provide Dynamic Information 141

The Date Helper: Converting and Localizing Dates 142
Working with Text: the Text Helper and Inflector Helper 145
Going International: the Language Class 146
Making HTML Tables the Easy Way: the Table Class 150
Caching Pages 152
Summary 154
Chapter 11: Using CI to Handle Files and Images 155
The File Helper 156
The Download Helper 158
The File Upload Class 160
CI's Image Class 165
Easy File Compression with the CI Zip Class 169
Summary 169
Chapter 12: Production Versions, Updates, and Big Decisions 171
Connections: Check the Config Files 172
URLs 172
Databases 172
Other config Files 173
Look Out for PHP 4/5 and Operating System Differences 173
Diagnostic Tools 174
Coping with Changes in New CI Versions 177
How to Load Models, and What to Call Them 178
How to Initialize Your Own 'library' Classes 179
So Should I Update If a New CI Version Comes Out? 179
How to Add On to CI's Basic Classes 181
Summary 183
Chapter 13: Instant CRUD—or Putting it All Together 185
The CRUD Model: Design Philosophy 186
The Standard Controller Format 187
The Database Tables 189
The Heart of the Model: the Array 189
Function by Function: the CRUD Model 192
Showall 192
Reading the Data 195
Delete and Trydelete 196
Insert 201
Insert2 208
The Test Suite 209
Summary 214

[ iv ]
 Table of Contents

Chapter 14: The Verdict on CI 215

Some Code: the 'do_test' Model 216
A Balance Sheet 225
Where CI Helped: Structure 225
Where CI Helped: Simplicity 226
Where CI Helped: Extra Functionality 226
Problems with CI 226
Completeness 227
Ease of Use 227
Summary 228
Chapter 15: Resources and Extensions 229
CI's User Forums 230
Video Tutorials 232
Available Plug-ins and Libraries 232
AJAX/Javascript 233
Authentication 233
External Sites 235
Comparisons: Which Charting Library to Use? 235
CRUD: the Final Frontier 238
Resources for Other Programmes, e.g. Xampplite, MySQL, PHP 239
Summary 240
Index 241

[]
 Preface
This book sets out to explain some of the main features of CI. It doesn't cover them
all, or cover any of them in full detail. CI comes with an excellent on-line User Guide
that explains most things. This is downloaded with the CI files.

This book doesn't try to duplicate the User Guide. Instead it tries to make it easier for
you to pick up how the CI framework works, so you can decide whether it is right
for you, and start using it quickly.

In some places, this book goes beyond the User Guide, though, when it tries to
explain how CI works. (The User Guide is more practically oriented.) This means
that there are some fairly theoretical chapters in between the "here's how" pages. I've
found that it helps to understand what CI is doing under the hood; otherwise you
sometimes get puzzling error messages that aren't easy to resolve.

I've tried to use a 'real-world' example when showing sections of CI code. I want
to show that CI can be used to develop a serious website with a serious purpose.
I'm currently running several websites for clients, and I want a program that will
monitor them, test them in ways I specify, keep a database of what it has done, and
let me have reports when I want them.

The examples in this book don't show it in full detail, of course: but they do, I hope,
demonstrate that you can use CI to make pretty well any common coding simpler,
and some uncommon stuff as well.

This book steps you through the main features of CodeIgniter in a systematic way,
explaining them clearly with illustrative code examples.
Preface

What This Book Covers

Chapter 1 explains what CodeIgniter can do, the 'framework', and how CodeIgniter
fits in. It further talks about the open-source business model and gives some
disadvantages of CodeIgniter, at the end.

Chapter 2 explains what happens when you install the site, and which files will be
created. It gives a detailed overview of the required software, and explains the basic
configuration of CodeIgniter.

Chapter 3 explains how MVC helps to organize a dynamic website. It goes further
to explain the process by which CodeIgniter analyzes an incoming Internet request
and decodes which part of your code will handle it. Then CodeIgniter syntax rules
and the different types of files or classes you can find—or write for yourself—on a
CodeIgniter site are explained. At the end of the chapter, some practical hints on site
design are given.

Chapter 4 looks at how you set up a database to work with CodeIgniter, and then
how you use the Active Record class to manipulate the database.

Chapter 5 covers various ways of building views, how to create HTML forms quickly,
and how to validate your forms using CodeIgniter's validation class.

Chapter 6 looks at one of the basic questions affecting any website i.e. session
management and security; we also explore CodeIgniter's session class.

Chapter 7 covers the way in which CodeIgniter uses objects, and the different ways in
which you can write and use your own objects.

Chapter 8 covers CodeIgniter classes to help with testing: Unit tests, Benchmarking,
the 'profiler' and ways in which CodeIgniter helps you to involve your database in
tests without scrambling live data.

Chapter 9 looks at using CodeIgniter's FTP class and email class to make
communication easier, and then we venture into Web 2.0 territory using XML-RPC.

Chapter 10 talks about CodeIgniter classes that help in overcoming problems arising
regularly when you are building a website, for example, the date helper, the text and
inflector helpers, the language class, and the table class.

Chapter 11 looks at several useful CodeIgniter functions and helpers: file helper,
download helper, file upload class, image manipulation class, and the ZIP class.

Chapter 12 covers exploring your config files, using diagnostic tools, and potential
differences between servers, along with some notes on security.

[]
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
 Holmia Walcott.
Holmia Lundgreni Moberg, Sveriges äldsta trilobiter, Tafl. 14, fig. 10,
11, 12. The maculæ are much prominent and tubercular, elongate
narrow, oblique but not mentioned in the description. Hypostoma
probably belonging to the terrace-line group. As well seen in original
specimens and in the figures in Dr. Holm's paper on Olenellus
(Holmia) Kjerulfi there are also in this species two distinct macula;
near the posterior margin of the hypostoma, above the marginal
groove.

Homalonotus König.
Maculæ have been previously observed in the following species.
Hom. delphinocephalus Green, Hall Pal. N. York vol. II pl. 68 fig. 11,
incomplete figure with two well marked tubercular maculæ. No
description.
Hom. Knighti König. Salter II, pl. 12 fig. 10. Maculæ well expressed
as oblique tubercles. On page 120 it is said »with a pair of lateral
tubercles well developed (as in Asaphus ...)».
This species is identical with Angelin's Homalon. rhinotropis, Pal. Sc.,
pl. XX fig. 1 e and his figure has two hollow maculæ seen from the
inside of the hypostoma.

Homalonotus Knighti König (= Homal. rhinotropis

Angelin).
Pl. IV figs. 20, 21.
The maculæ lie as oblong, smooth tubercles surrounded by the
irregularly grown granules of the surface, just below the central
globosity of the hypostoma. In a preparation from the interior
surface of the macula, as seen in transmitted light, fig. 21, this is
white with only a few grey spots and on the superior border black
streaks, lying obliquely. The substance of the shell around the
macula is perforated by the minutest pores amongst which a few
larger are intermingled. The granules are also perforated as those in
Calymmene and the tubes continue through the shell, visible by their
black colour.

Hysterolenus Moberg.
Hyst. Törnquisti Mbg., En trilobit från Dictyograptusskiffern p. 320. In
the descriptive letter-press, there is said, that in the exterior (lateral)
parts of the anterior groove of the hypostoma a distinct tubercle is
to be seen on each side. But none of the figures given, Pl. 17 figs. 6,
7, shows them or at least very indistinctly.

Illænus Dalman.
It is remarkable, considering the great number of species in this
almost exclusively Lower Silurian species, that there is none but a
single species in which the maculæ hitherto have been delineated.
This is Illænus angustifrons var. depresses Holm I, pl. VIII fig. 18. A
little, fragmentary hypostoma with globular maculæ.

Illænus Chiron Holm.

Pl. IV figs. 22-25.
The hypostoma has the shape characteristic of all true Illæni, viz. a
straight anterior margin with two large flat rectangular or nearly
quadratic wings, a globular or spherical median field, forming the
chief portion of the exterior surface, which is covered by some rare,
fine, terrace lines. In some other Illæni the surface is smooth. At the
posterior base of the median field the two maculæ are placed, tiny,
oblong, but lying on the same level, at right angles to the median
longitudinal axis of the hypostoma. They are covered with lenses of
irregular and indistinct shape fig. 25. I do not think that they in this
and the other species of Tiberius are lenses of the same
conformation as in Bronteus, they are rather the tops of the
subjacent lenses which are of the prismatic form. The cephalic eyes
do not show any lenses on the outside. They have a narrow, opaque
exterior integument, hiding hexaedral, thickly packed, straight
prisms, forming a stratum in thickness of 0,2 millim.
The hypostoma consists of several thin layers of superposed calcite,
which easily peal off, so that it is seldom that the true exterior
sculptured surface remains.

Illænus Esmarki Schloth.

Pl. IV figs. 26-33.
This the most common of all the Illæni has in several specimens
shown the hypostoma with the maculæ in situ. The hypostoma is
smooth excepting on the marginal ridges where there are some
terrace lines. On the median axis of the central gibbosity (fig. 30)
five faintly visible transverse folds are situated, a curious feature
which we have not observed in any other trilobite. The maculæ are
exceedingly small, fig. 31, elongate, spindleshaped and acuminated
in both ends. On their surface there are accumulated several lenslike
globules. As the horizontal sections show there are, however, no
regular lenses, but a network of polygonal meshes with radii in the
hollows, fig. 32. The perfect identity of this structure with that of
certain states of the cephalic eyes will at once be perceived by
comparing this figure with figure 26 representing the same sort of
polyedric meshes, though a little more regular in the cephalic eye,
where, however, the irregularity also prevails near the periphery of
the eye. If we now compare the sections of the cephalic eye of
Illænus Chiron and the section of the regular and nearly unchanged
eyes of Ill. Esmarki with the second section of the latter, we cannot
avoid the conclusion that we in those of Ill. Chiron, figs. 22, 23, and
the first of Ill. Esmarki, fig. 27, see the primitive and intact state of
the lenses and in the last sections of Ill. Esmarki, figs. 26, 28, the
changed and deteriorated state of the same prismatic lenses.
The vertical section of the hypostomic eyes fig. 33 shows in their
present changed condition an evident longitudinal direction of the
chief elements, quite as the lenses of the eyes. But in how far there
ever has existed such prismatic lenses, now changed, we have no
evidence definitely to ascertain, but the probability seems to be
great that this was the case.

Illænus gigas Holm.

Pl. IV figs. 34-37.
The maculæ in this as well as the other Illæni are so faintly elevated
and so inconspicuous that the greatest attention is needed to find
them.
The maculæ are elongated, narrow, elliptic on the same level and
parallel with the straight anterior margin of the hypostoma. A cast of
the left macula is pitted by numerous marks of the lenticular
globules of the surface, fig. 37. In the cephalic eye the prisms are
seen translucent beneath the cornea. Near the superior border they
are larger, fig. 34, almost the double size of those near the inferior
border, fig. 35.

Illænus sphæricus Holm.

Pl. IV figs. 42, 43.
Comes near to the previous species. The globules on the surface of
the elliptic maculæ are not, however, spread over the entire macula,
leaving only a narrow border all around free.
The lenses in the cephalic eyes fig. 42 are globular as seen on the
surface, alike those of the maculæ.

Illænus Roemeri Vollborth.

Pl. IV figs. 38-41.
The maculæ lie on elevated tubercles and are of a strange shape,
being sharpely pointed outwards, rounded inwards. That in fig. 39 is
still more peculiar with a narrow stripe on the interior and upper
margin. The lenses are larger and more distinct than in any other
species of this genus.
Beside the species now mentioned we have also observed
hypostomas with maculæ in Illænus laticlavius Eichwald from
Estland, in Illænus Linnarssoni Holm, and in an unnamed species
from Dalecarlia figured without macula by Dr. Holm in his memoir on
the Illænidæ pl. III fig. 22. We have not seen any lenses on the
maculæ of these three lenses.

Lichas Dalman.
We have not been able to find any notice about the exceptional
maculæ of this genus. There is only a figure of the hypostoma of
Lichas hylæus Hall Pal. of N. York vol. VII pl. XXV fig. 5 which would
seem to show a pair of narrow, oblique maculæ, but these are quite
without resemblance with the maculæ of the true Lichas.
The hypostoma of Lichas is of a characteristic type, broad, with the
incised posterior margin and its two lappets reminding of Asaphus,
with its large rounded, faintly elevated median part near the anterior
margin reminding of Illænus, as also do the lenticles of the maculæ.
The maculæ are of a minimal size, scarcely 1 millim. in diameter and
thence easily overlooked. Pl. IV figs. 46, 48.
As the hypostomas in this genus generally are found detached it is
often difficult to decide to which species they have belonged. So it is
with that delineated in Pl. IV fig. 44 natural size. The two maculæ
are situated near the centre of the hypostoma, just below the
grooves which surround the large, globular disc. They are sunk in a
little cavity, rounded and entirely covered by globular lenses (pl. IV
fig. 46).
In another detached hypostoma of an unknown species the macula
is smaller and the few lenticular globules larger than in the other, fig.
48.

Lichas latifrons Angelin.

Pl. IV fig. 49.
The maculæ, seen in a thin section from the inside, are reticulate,
fig. 49, or of a pattern exactly like that in the changed eyes or
maculæ of Illænus and even Asaphus, and thus indicating that it
was composed of short prismatic lenses. The vertical section of a
macula of a specimen from another locality rather suggests the
presence of large sphærical lenses than elongated prisms. The great
thinness of the macula in contrast to the excessive thickness of the
shell around the eye is seldom so evident as here.
A specimen of an unknown species, found detached, has the
macula? unlike the other species, oblique with the inferior end
directed inwards, placed on the top of a sort of a little elevation, fig.
47.

Megalaspides Brögger.
This author has a figure of M. dalecarlicus in II pl. 1 fig. 19 and also
of an unnamed species fig. 20, both showing globular maculæ. In
Holm's original description of his Megalaspis dalecarlicus (Trilobiten
des Phyllograptusschiefers Dalecarliens figs. 8, 9) the same
hypostoma is also figured. This genus seems to have a closer affinity
with Ptychopyge than with Megalaspis.

Megalaspis Ang.
The following figures of hypostomas with maculæ have been
published.
Megal. limbata by Brögger I, tab. XII, fig. 10, and in II pl. 2, fig. 22,
somewhat differing from the first figure.
Meg. planilimbata Brögger II tab. 2 figs. 21, 21 a. Both figures
incomplete and incorrect.
The hypostoma has a large central ovate gibbosity with the maculæ
near its basis, surrounded by the winglike expanded limbus.

Megal. attenuata Wahlenberg.

Pl. V figs. 1-6.
The long and narrow maculæ are crescent-shaped and project
beyond the hypostoma supported on the superior surface of a sharp
extenuated edge where they rest as on a shelf. They consist, as
seen in vertical sections, figs. 5, 6, of alternating rows of light and
black streaks, and in a horizontal section the spongious network
appears, as it is found in Asaphus and others and thus indicating the
tendency of this organ to assume a prismatic structure though
undeveloped.
The cephalic eyes in M. attenuata form the most regular hexaedral
prisms fig. 1 a, short and covered by a thin cornea. The border zone
of the eyes has a structure exactly like that of the maculæ, the same
as in the spongious zone of Asaphus.

Megal. limbata Boeck.

Pl. V fig. 7.
We give a new figure of Brögger's original specimens, as his figure
23, Tab. II is incomplete and incorrect. The maculæ are situated a
little higher up on the sides of the central gibbosity.

Megal. planilimbata Ang.

Pl. V fig. 8.
The maculæ are crescent-shaped and not so prominent as in Meg.
attenuata and the visual spot in the same position as there.
To observe is that the general structure of the hypostomic shell in
this and many other species is prismatic.

Nileus Dalman.
Hypostoma with maculæ figured in N. armadillo by Angelin pl. XVI
fig. 5 c, and Br. II pl. 3 fig. 40.
The hypostoma in this genus is transversal with large lateral
expansions, the central convexity only faintly elevated and almost
coherent with the posterior part. The maculæ lie exactly on the
horizontal median line of the hypostoma. The anterior wings are well
developed like slightly bent acuminated horns and the posterior
wings are conical points. The terrace lines are transverse and a little
wavy.

Nileus armadillo Dalm.

Pl. V figs. 10-15.
There is some variability in the hypostoma of specimens from
different localities. The most known and numerous specimens are
from the renowned localities of Östergötland. They are decidedly
transverse, the proportion of the hight to breadth is as 3 to 5 and
the narrow border runs all round. In specimens from Kongslena,
Vestergötland, the proportion is as 15 to 22, in specimens from
Sandvik, Öland, again, we have 13 to 23 or 6 to 11. The maculæ,
fig. 14, are oblong, inwardly pointed, quite smooth, with a little
concavity in their centre, and their surface is slanting obliquely
towards the surface of the hypostoma, almost as in Niobe. There is
no trace of any structure.
The cephalic eyes are covered by a comparatively thick membrane, a
direct continuation of the general test, fig. 12, hiding a row of
prismatic lenses. In some specimens elongate, clear, crystalline rods
continue downwards from the bases of the lenses and are probably
nothing but inorganic crystals of calcareous spar, fig. 11.—The eyes
are larger comparatively than in other species.

Nileus (Symphysurus) palpebrosus Dalman.

Pl. V figs. 16-18.
As to its general form the hypostoma resembles that of the
preceding species, but there is no border line, which is so
characteristic to the former. The maculæ have the same form and
are likewise situated on the median line. The cephalic eyes have
prismatic lenses with much convex bases, in a transverse section
they are hexaedral and of internal radiate structure.

Niobe Angelin.
The following figures have formerly been given of its hypostoma
with maculæ.
N. emarginula Br. II tab. 2 fig. 33.
N. explanata Br. II tab. 2 fig. 35.
N. frontalis Br. II fig. 37.
N. insignis Br. I tab. IV fig. 1 d, 11 tab. 2 fig. 28.
N. læviceps Br. II pl. 2 fig. 34.
The maculæ are distinguished from all other sorts of maculæ,
excepting those of Megalaspis, in being, as it were, shelved on a sort
of support, formed through the bulging of the hypostomic surface
just below them, one such console for each. Their surface lies
consequently almost rectangularly to the adjoining surface of the
hypostoma. They are white and smooth.

Niobe frontalis Ang.

Pl. V figs. 19-21.
The pocketlike consoles are shorter and broader than in N. læviceps
and the maculæ also larger and of an elliptic shape. In a horizontal
section near the surface the macula has a speckled appearance of
black dots, indicating an undeveloped prismatic structure, much
more primitive than in the Asaphidæ.

Niobe læviceps Ang.

Pl. V figs. 22-26.
It differs from the preceding through longer consoles below the
maculæ, which are oval and in a horizontal section exhibit the same
spongious structure, pl. V fig. 25. The cephalic eyes consist of
polyedric prisms, which through deterioration show a central
cylindrical core surrounded by darkish matter like Asaphus. The
passage from solid, homogenous prisms to changed ones is most
evident in the figure 22.

Ogygia Brongn.
Figures of the maculæ are found in
O. Buchi Salter, Mem. Geol. Surv., Dec. II pl. VI fig. 3 p. 2, where it
is stated that »there are two transverse furrows near the apex, with
compressed tubercles between them» There are two narrow
crescentic maculæ and between them a little lower a longer,
crescentic ridge, which may be the ridge that in other species
connects the maculæ. Moreover, the shape of the hypostoma is not
concordant with that of the other species. In Monogr. Brit Trilob. pl.
15 figs. 2, 3 there is only a reproduction of the former figure.
O. corndensis Murch. Salter in Monogr. pl. 16 fig. 10 interior side of
the hypostoma with two lateral maculæ. In the description two pairs
of furrows the uppermost is the maculæ. H. Wyatt-Edgell »On the
Genera of Trilobites Asaphus and Ogygia and the Subgenus
Ptychopyge» in Geol. Magaz. 1867, p. 14, 15 fig. 2 probably a cast
with two oblique impressions of maculæ.
O. dilatata (Asaphus) Sars var. Sarsi Ang. Sars in Isis 1835 p. 342, pl.
IX fig. 11. The figure has two small maculæ near the posterior
margin and the author says »mit einer starken Vertiefung oder
Einschnitt an jeder Seite des Endes». Angelin pl. XLII fig. 1 b.
Brögger's fig. 38 pl. 3, in II, collies near to the specimen, which is
described below, also belonging to Dr. G. Holm.

O. dilatata var. Sarsi Ang.

Pl. V figs. 27, 28.
The hypostoma is in so far deviating that the terrace lines have a
nearly vertical direction and in this respect much resemble those of
the Phillipsiæ and the Proeti. The maculæ, near the exterior angles
of the border groove are pear- or spoon-shaped with the apex
directed downwards and outwards, and in consequence the
longitudinal axis quite opposite to that of the usual direction. The
surface is smooth, a little concave. No structure has been
discovered. From the pointed apex a slightly elevated ridge runs
along the posterior border of the hypostoma and joins the apex of
the other macula.

Paradoxides Brongn.
The oldest record of any hypostoma at all amongst the trilobites is
that given by Wahlenberg in his Petref. Suecana (1818) p. 37 Tab. 1,
fig. 6, which he, however, considered as the head of the trilobite
which he named Entomostracites bucephalus. Figures with maculæ
have been given of
Par. Davidis Salter Mem. Geol. Survey Dec. XI pl. X, fig. 3, a fine
figure of a hypostoma with two large oblique maculæ. Linnarsson in
»de undre Paradoxideslagren vid Andrarum» pl. II fig. 2 delineates a
gigantic hypostoma with two crescentic tubercular maculæ, having
10 mms. in length.
Par. Forchhammeri Angelin Pl. II fig. 3. Brögger, Paradoxidesskiffr. vid
Krækling tab. II fig. 10 two marks somewhat different from Angelin's
figure. Linnarsson 1. c. pl. I figs. 9, 10 two hypostomas with maculæ.
Par. Tessini, var. Wahlenbergi Angel. Pl. I a, fig. 1 b.
Par. Tessini, var. oelandicus Ang. Tab. I a, fig. 2 b. Angelin's figure of
this hypostoma is incomplete in so far that he had not found the
peculiar falciform horns on both sides of the posterior border. Pl. V,
fig. 33.
Par. rugulosus Corda has, according to Brögger, Krækling, pl. II fig. 2
two long, straight callosities, probably corresponding to the maculæ
in other Paradoxidæ.
Chr. Boeck gives in Mag. for Naturvidenskaberne Bd 8, 1828, in his
paper on the Trilobites on the plate fig. 16 the hypostoma of a
Bohemian species with well developed concave maculæ, probably a
cast. He compares it with the Entom. bucephalus of Wahlenberg, but
says he cannot explain its nature.
The maculæ of P. oelandicus, pl. V, fig. 34, are tubercles, oblong,
smooth, and have invariably an oblong scar along the centre, where
probably once a thinner membrane, as in the cephalic eyes of
Calymmene, contained the lenses.

Peltura M. Edw.

Peltura scarabæoides Wahlenb.

Pl. III fig. 42.
We have given a figure of the hypostoma, showing two large,
elongated tubercular maculæ or rather resemblances of such, as
they are covered with terrace lines as well as the rest of the surface.
They have, however, the same position as real maculæ might have,
but are directed in a line parallel with the longitudinal axis of the
hypostoma. The cephalic eyes have been described above at page
29.
 Phacops Emmrich.
Maculæ figured of Phac. (Acaste) Downingiæ. Salter Monogr. pl. 2
fig. 34 b, p. 25 »high up on each side a small tubercle».
Phac. rana Hall Pal. N. Y. vol. VII, pl. VIII A, fig. 18. Hypostoma with
the large commalike maculæ high up.
Of the following species Ph. cephalotes and Ph. macrophthalmus
belong to the genus Phacops proper, while Phac. quadrilineata, as
well as Ph. Downingiæ are of a quite different generic type. The
name Acaste proposed for them is not good as Leach in 1817 named
a Cirrhiped as Acasta.

Ph. cephalotes Barr.

Pl. V figs. 35, 36.
The hypostoma is elongate, almost triangular, tricuspidate at the
posterior border, a little above this there is a crescent-shaped ridge,
and still a little higher above this and the median horizontal line, the
two macula, as diminutive tubercles. Seen with magnifying powers
they are slightly oblong or reniform.

Ph. macrophthalmus Burm.

Pl. VI figs. 1-9.
The triangular hypostoma has a little below the median horizontal
diameter two shallow grooves, and a little above the same diameter
the extraordinary minute maculæ may with some care be observed,
figs. 8, 9. They are visible as a small bare, smooth spot amongst the
curious elevated and incoherent terrace lines of the surface. The
exceedingly small size of these maculæ naturally does not allow any
research of their structure. They are rather in this species and many
of the congeneric to be regarded as small ocelli. In some specimens
these spots are quite rudimentary and are reduced to the smallest
area possible. The anterior wings are of a peculiar earlike shape,
finely striate, enlarged and flat near the hypostoma and ending in a
little hollow horn (figs. 6, 7). A little below it, the posterior wing
emerges as a small angular knob. The aggregate cephalic eyes are
more distinct.
As the vertical section learn us the regular ovate lenses consist
generally of clear, crystalline calcareous spar and are on the surface
covered by an extremely thin membrane, not a common one for all,
but a separate cornea for each lens, which envelopes its superior
moiety and continues down as a thickened appendix between the
lens and the interstitial test (figs. 3-5). In the horizontal sections it
surrounds the lenses as an annular wall. Around some lenses there
is as if still another ring lay outside this, but more indistinct,
probably only clearer portions of the test surrounding them. The
cheeks close to the lenses are indistinctly perforated by longitudinal
tubes.

Phacops (Acaste) quadrilineata Angelin.

Pl. V figs. 37, 38.
We have not succeeded in finding any well preserved hypostoma.
The lenses of the cephalic eyes resemble much those of the
preceding species though more elongate and ovate. They are
covered by a membrane which surrounds their upper moiety and
between the lenses joins the interstitial test. In the horizontal
section these membranes surround the lenses as an annular wall.

Phaëtonides Barr.

Ph. Stokesi Murch.

Pl. VI fig. 11.
The hypostoma somewhat reminds of that of Calymmene, has
projecting angles and a prominent knob below the straight anterior
border. The two oblique and oblong macula are tubercular and
placed near the lateral borders. This hypostoma is upon the whole
much related to that of Phillipsia and Proetus.

Phillipsia Portlock.
De Koninck figured a hypostoma of Phillipsia in his »Description des
Animaux Foss. de Belgique» as Cyclus Brongniartianus pl. LII fig. J
and Novák in III figs. 6, 7 copied it and corrected the error. It is
provided with two globular maculæ united by a curved ridge.
Phillipsia Eichwaldi Woodw. Novák III fig. 5 a hypostoma with globular
maculæ. We have been able to examine three different, unnamed or
undeterminated species, which we distinguish by numbering them.
Phill. No. 1 from the Keokuk group of Crawfordsville, N. America.
The hypostoma is broader than in the other species. The nearly
horizontal elongated maculæ placed near the median line, close to
the lateral margins.
Phill. No. 2 (pl. VI, figs. 15-18) probably from the Carboniferous
formation of Belgium is of a lengthened form. The elliptic maculæ in
the groove, below the central elevation. They are smooth and
surrounded by a flat border.
The cephalic eyes are much destroyed, but seem to have consisted
of somewhat semi-prismatic lenses or prisms of the same type as
Dysplanus.
Phillipsia No. 3 (pl. VI figs. 12-14) from the Carboniferous strata of
Beeren Eiland communicated by Hr J. G. Andersson. It comes near
the preceding, is lengthened, but has broader and shorter anterior
wings and the inferior surface just above the posterior border
peculiarly pitted. The macula lying above this pitted field are ovate.
The lenses of the cephalic eye are hemispheric on the surface.

Platymetopus Angelin.

Pl. planifrons Angelin.

 Pl. IV figs. 50, 51.
This genus may well be kept distinguished from Lichas in
consequence of its peculiar hypostoma and its still more peculiar
maculæ, not to remind of the other deviating features. The maculæ
lie at the end of narrow, sigmoid grooves of their own above the
long transverse groove, separating the posterior border from the
anterior elevated moiety. They are elongated, curved and entirely
covered with a great number of irregular lenticles, translucent
through the thin covering membrane.

Pliomera Ang.

Pliomera Törnquisti Holm in Trilobit. Dalecarliens p. 5

fig. 2.
While Pl. Fischeri and Pl. actinura not have any hypostomic maculæ,
this species, which Dr. Holm with some doubt joins in the same
genus, has a hypostoma, which as to its general shape resembles
that of both the mentioned species, evenly rounded at its posterior
border, with a shallow groove encircling the central field. A little
below the horizontal diameter of this the maculæ stretch obliquely
inwards and downwards. They rest on a little elevation and are
elongate, anteriorly acuminated. The figure on Holm's plate does not
show the maculæ.

Proetus Steininger.
There are some indistinct indications of maculæ in several of the
hypostomas figured in Barrande's Système pl. 15.
Proet. signatus Lindstr., Gotl. Trilob. Pl. XV fig. 17, shows very
distinctly the two maculæ.

Proet. concinnus Dalm.

 Pl. VI figs. 19-23.
In this, as well as in the few other species of Proetus which we have
studied, there is that peculiarity of the surface of the hypostoma that
two more or less distinct ridges form an acute angle just below the
faintly arcuated anterior border. The terrace lines are exactly alike
those of the Phillipsiæ, only visible on the central field and ceasing
just above the maculæ, where there is a transverse smooth field.
The posterior margin has two pair of very short points, one on each
side. The macula are lengthened tubercles, somewhat bent and have
an oblique position. They are surrounded by tiny prickles and as
seen in fig. 23 the macula proper forms a white, elliptic spot on the
tubercle. The cephalic eyes are lengthened prisms covered by a thick
membrane. They are convex at their base and in a transverse
section they show a radiate structure of their interior.

Proet. conspersus Angelin.

Pl. VI figs. 24-26.
We have figured a decorticated hypostoma with impressions of two
reniform maculæ. The vertical sections of the cephalic eyes show a
thin stratum where the lenses are much shorter than in the previous
species and covered by a thin film of the common test. The same is
also the case in a species which probably is Proet. verrucosus.

Proet. signatus Lindström.

Pl. VI figs. 27-30.
On the lateral borders of the hypostoma there are short spines, two
on each side, but they are placed differently on the specimens and
even wanting in some. The elongated, elliptical maculæ bear in their
lower end a white spot on which is seen a little cluster of a varying
number of small, segregated ocelli, from three to five, according to
the different specimens, like so many black points. The maculæ
attain the exceptional length of 4,7 millim. in some specimens, but
commonly only 2 millim. We have as yet not been able to detect
these remarkable ocelli in any other species of Proetus.

Ptychoparia Corda.
Walcott in »Palæontology of the Eureka District», gives on plate X
fig. 21 a representation of a hypostoma which near the posterior
margin shows two maculæ as narrow, crescentlike ridges and above
them two longer and thicker ridges directed obliquely toward the
central axis of the hypostoma.

Ptychopyge Ang.
Previous figures of hypostomas with maculæ are the following:
Pt. aciculata Br. II, pl. 1 fig. 13.
Pt. glabrata Br. II, pl. 1 fig. 14.

Pt. aciculata Ang.

Pl. VI figs. 40, 41
The broad hypostoma bears the elongated, acuminated maculæ in
an oblique direction, contrary to what is seen in most other species.
The anterior end slopes inwards and the lower end outwards, the
surface, which in the cast drawn is surrounded by a marginal line, is
directed sidewards against the broad lateral wings and is obscured
by the declivity formed by the groove. The same disposition of the
mature also occurs in Ptych. glabrata. These two species
consequently in this respect differ essentially from the other four
species which we have examined, but there is for the rest no reason
to make these form different genera or subgenera.

Pt. angustifrons Dalm.

Pl. VI figs. 31-36.
There are two varieties of hypostomas: one broad fig. 32 and one
more elongated fig. 33. The maculæ having a convex surface lie at
the inferior end of the lateral grooves prominent on a semicylindrical
support, slightly inclining outwards. In the broad variety they are
oblique (fig. 34) and in the elongated variety they are horizontal (fig.
35). In a vertical section fig. 36 we have the same indications of a
prismatic arrangement in the maculæ as in the Asaphi. The
horizontal section does not represent so clear and distinct a
reticulate structure as in the Asaphi, the prisms are much smaller.
The cephalic eyes are composed of closely packed hexaedral prisms,
the gradual change from solid homogenous ones to those which are
interiorly destroyed, only with the exterior form preserved is easily
seen. The figure of a horizontal section (fig. 31) gives a good idea of
the peculiar destruction of the interior of these prisms. In the
vertical section the prisms are not discernible.

Pt. cincta Brögger? according to Friedr. Schmidt in

Mus. Holm.
Pl. VI figs. 37-39.
The hypostoma which Brögger figures (II, pl. I fig. 2 a) as belonging
to this species is completely identical with that of Pt. angustifrons,
while the specimens which Fr. Schmidt has marked out as being the
true Pt. cincta have a different hypostoma. The maculæ vary in the
specimens, being in some placed horizontally or in a right angle to
the longitudinal axis of the hypostoma, in others, again, a little
obliquely outwards. They form prominent, free lying tubercles. It is
from the superior face that the rudimentary lenses have left their
traces, as seen in a longitudinal section (fig. 39). It is consequently
this superior surface which is the macula proper.

Pt. glabrata Ang.

Pl. VI fig. 42.
We have given a figure of the elliptic acuminate maculæ as seen on
a cast of the inside of a hypostoma, the same which is the original to
fig. 14 in Br. II.

Schmidtia Marcou.
Moberg has in his paper on »Sveriges äldsta Trilobiter», pl. 15, fig. 6,
drawn a hypostoma of Schmidtia Torelli with scars of maculæ,
placed like that of the Paradoxidæ. There is no mention made of
them in the descriptions.

Trochurus Beyrich.

Tr. pusillus Ang.

Pl. IV figs. 52, 53.
The strange transverse, bipartite hypostoma carries the small,
round, tuberculose maculæ on the superior moiety. As seen from the
interior (fig. 53) they are obscurely maculate, but it is doubtful
whether these black dots are derived from lenses, as the
surrounding hypostomic surface also has the same mottled aspect.

Trochurus sp.
Pl. IV figs. 54, 55.
This hypostoma belongs to an unknown species of Trochurus from
the Southern Gotland (Burs). Its macula are placed almost as in the
preceding species, but are much larger. They are surrounded by
prominent margins. No lenses have been discovered on them.
 CONCLUSIONS.
In reviewing the genera and species enumerated above, as to their
number in which the structure of the macula has been observed, we
arrive at the following results.

Number of Number of species in

species the maculæ of which
Genera.
with the structure has
maculæ. been examined.
1 Acaste 1 —
2 Acidaspis 1 ? —
3 Asaphus 18 7
4 Barrandia 1 —
5 Bronteus 9 5
6 Bumastus 7 1
7 Calymmene 4 2
8 Centropleura 1 —
9 Chasmops 1 —
10 Chirurus 9 2
11 Ctenopyge? 1 —
12 Dalmanites 10 2
13 Dysplanus 2 2
14 Encrinurus 3 1
15 Griffithides 1 —
16 Herpes 2 —
 17 Harpina 1 —
18 Holmia 2 —
19 Homalonotus 2 1
20 Hysterolenus 1 —
21 Illænus 9 5
22 Lichas 4 1
23 Megalaspides 2 —
24 Megalaspis 3 1
25 Nileus 2 2
26 Niobe 5 2
27 Ogygia 3 —
28 Paradoxides[42] 8 —
29 Peltura 1 —
30 Phacops 3 —
31 Phaëtonides 1 —
32 Phillipsia 5 —
33 Platymetopus 1 —
34 Pliomera 1 —
35 Proetus 3 —
36 Ptychoparia 1 —
37 Ptychopyge 4 2
38 Schmidtia 1 —
39 Trochurus 2 —
Total 136 36
[42] To these have here been added two Bohemian species P.
bohemicus and P. spinosus omitted above at page 64.
We have thus 136 species of 39 genera in which hypostomic maculæ
have been found and only 36 species, in which it has been possible
to study the structure of the maculæ through sections.
Common for a great number of maculæ in various groups, whether
they show any organic structure or not, is the excessive thinness of
their shell in comparison with that of the surrounding hypostoma.
This is also in accordance with the tenuity of the cephalic eyes in
relation to the test of the cheeks.
The structure which characterizes the macula as a visual organ,
although often so rudimentary, is not in all instances spread through
the whole substance of the macula. This structure has in several
species been restricted to a narrow circumference of the body of the
macula, to its interior apex as in Bronteus and Proetus. Only in the
Asaphidæ, in Illænus and Lichas the entire macula shows this
structure. Perhaps, to judge by certain indications in Bronteus, once
in a larval or preceding stage of evolution the whole surface of the
macula was also in that genus covered with lenses, which have been
reduced.
The different groups in which the examined genera may be divided
are the following seven, showing the remarkably great diversity of
these organs. There is even in the same genus so great a variability
that species with structure in the macula occur along with those
devoid of any structure or also, as in Lichas, with a different
structure. It must, however, be remembered, that the species of
such genera may not be coeval.
Group 1. In the sectioned macula there is no trace whatever of any
structure. The test of the macula considerably thinner than that of
the hypostoma. According to the affinities of the genera they may be
subdivided as follows. a Bumastus, Dysplanus. b Nileus,
Symphysurus, ? Ogygia. c Calymmene, Homalonotus. d Chirurus pro
parte.
Group 2. The whole macula is of a spongious or irregularly polyedric
structure, showing prisms in vertical sections. Its concordance with
the structure of the deteriorated cephalic eyes or with the so called
border zone is complete. If a supposition may be hazarded, I think
that the spongious or reticulate structure in the maculæ is their real
and original state, a lower stage of development of the visual
organs, out of which the prisms in the cephalic eyes have been
formed, and that the prismatic lenses in their decay, as seen in the
Asaphidæ, reveal to us their original state and structure, and thus,
as it were, return to the primary stage in the maculæ.
Asaphus, Isotelus, Megalaspis, Ptychopyge, Niobe, ? Megalaspides, ?
Barrandia.
Illænus, Lichas, Trochurus, ? Platymetopus.
Encrinurus also probably belongs to this group.
Group 3. Maculæ with well developed globular lenses on the interior
third of the macula. The blank part of the macula without any
structure. In one instance (Chirurus spinulosus) the whole macula
covered with lenses.
Bronteus, Chirurus spinulosus.
Group 4. The macula form sunk pits with smooth bottom. Structure
unknown. In a few species there seems to be no less than four
maculæ in two pair above each other.
Dalmanites.
Group 6. The elongate straight maculæ carrying on their innermost
point from three to five diminutive, segregate ocelli situated on a
clear, white patch. Proetus.
As yet these ocelli have not been observed on the related genera
Cyphaspis, Phaëtonides, Phillipsia and Griffithides, but they may be
preliminarily ranked here in consequence of their close conformity.
Group 7. The maculæ have in this group been reduced to a pair of
tiny ocelli situated high up on the hypostoma, near its anterior
margin.
Phacops, Acaste.
The position of the hypostomic eyes on the ventral surface of the
trilobites is not quite so abnormous, nor so isolated a feature
amongst the crustaceans as might at first be supposed. Amongst the
recent crustacea there is probably none, which as to the
conformation of its labrum or hypostoma resembles the trilobites so
closely as the species of the genus Apus, however different they
may else be in all other respects. We have studied chiefly the
hypostoma of Apus cancriformis. In its shape as seen from the
outside and as to its outlines it reminds strongly of the trilobite
hypostoma. It is nearly square (pl. VI figs. 46, 47) with rounded
corners. The anterior margin is arched and in the middle it has a
broad tonguelike prolongation. On the sides of the anterior margin
there are two short, sharply pointed wings. The lateral margins are
thick, almost as doubled, and bent forward so that a groove is
formed alongside them and the large, evenly vaulted median surface
of the hypostoma. These grooves are continued in a short groove
parallel with the posterior margin. From this margin a narrow oblique
surface is slanting backwards, as it were, doubling that margin. On
its surface there are two small, resplendent, white or clear spots,
almost of the shape of a crescent, though more irregular when seen
in higher enlargement (pl. VI fig. 49). They are translucent as to be
visible on the interior side of the hypostoma. In Apus glacialis there
are also similar spots in the same position, but they form short
narrow, straight stripes, parallel with the border of the posterior
margin. I have no opinion as to the nature or function of these white
spots. I do not think that they at all are homologous with the
macula; of the trilobites. On the other hand we see a little higher up
on the exterior side of the hypostoma two faintly elevated elliptic
tubercles which as to their position and shape highly remind of the
maculæ of the trilobites. They are hollow on the inside and we have
not been able to find any peculiar structure in them. That they have
any visual function is precluded through the circumstance that the
whole exterior surface is densely covered with microscopic bristles
(pl. VI fig. 49) which are especially remarkable along the posterior
margin.
In the class of the Cirrhipedia a sufficient number of facts is known
to ascertain us of the presence of eye spots on the hypostomas of
the larva. The researches of Spence Bate[43] show in the larva of
Balanus balanoides, on the hypostoma or labrum, which he calls
proboscis, an eye, a little from the posterior margin of the labrum. It
seems during the various moults of the animal to have changed its
place, being in the two first moults situated near the anterior margin
of the hypostoma. In Clitia Strömi it lies at the anterior part of the
labrum (figs. 9, 10). Spence Bate does not accept the opinion of their
nature as eyes, but the following authors as Darwin and Claparède
agree in considering these spots as eyes. Darwin[44] describes two
such eyes in Lepas australis and, if I catch his meaning rightly, one
on each side of the labrum. Claparède has given a figure of the larva
of Lepas anatifera[45] in the hypostoma of which (by him called
»Rüssell», proboscis) a single eye is seen, having at the sides two
round problematic organs, that he at first considered as auditory
cells, but later as eyes. Hesse[46] has also in a species of Scalpellum
seen several coloured spots on the inferior surface of the carapace,
below the antennæ and he expressly says that they are eyes and a
special pair of supplemental eyes that are becoming functional after
the first moult.
[43] On the development of the Cirripedia, Ann. Mag. Nat. list.
1851, p. 324, pl. VI figs. 1, 2, 3, pl. VII fig. 10.
[44] Monogr. of Cirripedia I p. 17.
[45] Beobachtungen ... über wirbellose Thiere, 1863, pl. XVII fig.
22.
[46] Mémoire sur les métamorphoses que subissent les Anatifes
appelés Scalpels obliques. Annales des Sciences nat. 1859. Tome
XI p. 163.
These sternal eyes in the larva are previous to the eyes in the dorsal
side of the later stages and whenever such are discovered in other
groups of adult animals as the trilobites they must of course be
considered as remnants from the larval stage. As a rule, in several
tribes of the crustacea it has been observed that the eyes originate
on the ventral or sternal side of the body and in the advancement of
growth move to the superior side. So according to Packard and
others the embryo of Limulus has originally the median eyes on the
ventral side. In the same way the cephalic eyes of Dalmanites move,
as Barrande has shown, from the ventral side to their permanent
place on the superior side of the head shield. But while in the
Cirrhipedia the larval or hypostomic eyes are lost in the adult they
remain on the hypostoma of a great number of the adult trilobites
and have probably left their mark behind in A pus. No wonder then
that we find these maculæ developed as precursors of the
hypostomic eyes in a number of the oldest and in other respects
blind trilobites as the Olenellidæ and Paradoxidæ to which they may
have been of some use as a sort of visual organs, though probably
very imperfect.
We find the maculæ of the trilobites present from the oldest
Cambrian times and we find also in them a progressive evolution, in
some to a high degree, lenses and facets, perfectly identical with
those of the eyes on the head shield, converting them into true
eyes. It was in the Lower Silurian times, in the Lower grey
Orthoceratite limestone of Sweden, that Illænus Esmarki appeared
provided with actual prismatic lenses on its maculæ and probably
also Lichas. Still higher at the top of the Lower Silurians, in the
Leptæna limestone of Dalecarlia the genus Bronteus has appeared
with those highly developed hypostomic eyes.
But there are, no doubt, still more facts to adduce for filling up
extant lacunæ in the knowledge of these matters. The material now
at hand has, however, not been sufficient for doing this. At present I
must leave this interesting field of investigation and be contented if I
have succeeded in showing where rich harvests await every one who
will make a search for them.
 Explanation
of

the plates.

All specimens figured belong to the Swedish State Museum,

unless otherwise stated.
 Pl. I.
Acidaspis crenata Emmr. p. 85.
Fig. 1 & 2. Vertical sections of the eye 60/1.
» 3. The outside of the hypostoma 6/1.
» 4. The anterior margin of the hypostoma, showing
one of the clubshaped spots in transmitted
light 20/1.
» 5. The granulations of the hypostoma in transmitted
light 80/1.
» 6. Vertical section of the hypostoma with granules
60/1.
Specimens from Djupvik, Eksta.
Agnostus glandiformis Angelin p. 35.
Fig. 7. Vertical section of a part of a rolled up specimen
8/1.
Specimen signed CQ. Andrarum, Scania.
Asaphus expansus l. p. 39.
Fig. 8. Horizontal section of the eye near the upper
margin.
a. The surrounding spongious zone,
b. The surface of the eye with lenses 60/1.
Spec. CG.
» 9. Horizontal section from the centrum of the eye
60/1. Spec. CF.
» 10. Horizontal section near the inferior margin,
a the eye, b marginal zone, c a portion
of the cheek 60/1. Specim. CF.
» 11. Vertical section near the inferior margin 60/1,
same specimen as in fig. 10.
 » 12. Eye fractured vertically showing regular prisms
in the eye (a) and irregular ones in the
marginal
zone (b) 30/1.
» 13. Part of the hypostoma with the macula 12/1.
» 14. The right macula from the inside 12/1.
» 15. A vertical section across the hypostoma,
aa the maculæ 8/1.
» 16. A similar one of the macula at left in the
preceding figure 60/1.
» 17. The right macula from the outside in transmitted
light 60/1. Sp. BQ.
Asaphus fallax Dalm.? p. 41.
Fig. 18. Horizontal section of the eye 60/1. Spec. CD.
» 19. Vertical section of the same passing obliquely
through two rows of prisms 60/1.
» 20. Fragment of the same eye with entire prisms 30/1.
» 21. The hypostoma seen from the inside 3/1 from
Sandvik, Öland.
» 22. The left macula 12/1. Spec. BO. From Vestanå,
Östergötland.
Asaphus raniceps Dalm. p. 40.
Fig. 23. The left macula 12/1. Spec. BV.
» 24. Horizontal section of right macula 60/1. Spec. BY.
» 25. Vertical section of a macula 60/1.
» 26. A similar section of a macula (a) in the
longitudinal axis of the hypostoma 12/1.
Exterior surface at right.
All from Östergötland.
Asaphus sp. p. 41.
Fig. 27. A portion of the eye near the superior margin
30/1.
» 28. Horizontal section of the eye 60/1.