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 Programming C# 10
Build Cloud, Web, and Desktop Applications

Ian Griffiths
Programming C# 10
by Ian Griffiths
Copyright © 2022 Ian Griffiths. All rights reserved.
Printed in the United States of America.
Published by O’Reilly Media, Inc., 1005 Gravenstein Highway North,
Sebastopol, CA 95472.
O’Reilly books may be purchased for educational, business, or sales
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Development Editor: Corbin Collins

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Proofreader: Piper Editorial Consulting, LLC

Indexer: WordCo Indexing Services, Inc.

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Cover Designer: Karen Montgomery

Illustrator: Kate Dullea

August 2022: First Edition

Revision History for the Early Release

 2021-12-23: First Release
2022-03-28: Second Release
2022-07-12: Final Release
See http://oreilly.com/catalog/errata.csp?isbn=9781098117818 for release
details.
The O’Reilly logo is a registered trademark of O’Reilly Media, Inc.
Programming C# 10, the cover image, and related trade dress are
trademarks of O’Reilly Media, Inc.
The views expressed in this work are those of the author, and do not
represent the publisher’s views. While the publisher and the author have
used good faith efforts to ensure that the information and instructions
contained in this work are accurate, the publisher and the author disclaim all
responsibility for errors or omissions, including without limitation
responsibility for damages resulting from the use of or reliance on this
work. Use of the information and instructions contained in this work is at
your own risk. If any code samples or other technology this work contains
or describes is subject to open source licenses or the intellectual property
rights of others, it is your responsibility to ensure that your use thereof
complies with such licenses and/or rights.
978-1-098-11775-7
[LSI]
Dedication
I dedicate this book to my excellent wife Deborah, and to my wonderful
daughters, Hazel, Victoria, and Lyra. Thank you for enriching my life.
Preface

C# has now existed for around two decades. It has grown steadily in both
power and size, but Microsoft has always kept the essential characteristics
intact. Each new capability is designed to integrate cleanly with the rest,
enhancing the language without turning it into an incoherent bag of
miscellaneous features.
Even though C# continues to be a fairly straightforward language at its
heart, there is a great deal more to say about it now than in its first
incarnation. Because there is so much ground to cover, this book expects a
certain level of technical ability from its readers.
Who This Book Is For
I have written this book for experienced developers—I’ve been
programming for years, and I set out to make this the book I would want to
read if that experience had been in other languages, and I were learning C#
today. Whereas earlier editions explained some basic concepts such as
classes, polymorphism, and collections, I am assuming that readers will
already know what these are. The early chapters still describe how C#
presents these common ideas, but the focus is on the details specific to C#,
rather than the broad concepts.

Conventions Used in This Book

The following typographical conventions are used in this book:
Italic
Indicates new terms, URLs, email addresses, filenames, and file
extensions.

Constant width
Used for program listings, as well as within paragraphs to refer to
program elements such as variable or function names, databases, data
types, environment variables, statements, and keywords.

Constant width bold

Shows commands or other text that should be typed literally by the user.
In examples, highlights code of particular interest.

Constant width italic

Shows text that should be replaced with user-supplied values or by
values determined by context.
 TIP
This element signifies a tip or suggestion.

NOTE
This element signifies a general note.

WARNING
This element indicates a warning or caution.

Using Code Examples

Supplemental material (code examples, exercises, etc.) is available for
download at https://github.com/idg10/prog-cs-10-examples.
If you have a technical question or a problem using the code examples,
please send email to bookquestions@oreilly.com.
This book is here to help you get your job done. In general, if example code
is offered with this book, you may use it in your programs and
documentation. You do not need to contact us for permission unless you’re
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usually includes the title, author, publisher, and ISBN. For example:
“Programming C# 10 by Ian Griffiths (O’Reilly). Copyright 2022 by Ian
Griffiths, 978-1-098-11781-8.”
If you feel your use of code examples falls outside fair use or the
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Acknowledgments
Many thanks to the book’s official technical reviewers: Stephen Toub,
Howard van Rooijen, and Glyn Griffiths. I’d also like to give a big thank
you to those who reviewed individual chapters, or otherwise offered help or
information that improved this book: Brian Rasmussen, Eric Lippert,
Andrew Kennedy, Daniel Sinclair, Brian Randell, Mike Woodring, Mike
Taulty, Bart De Smet, Matthew Adams, Jess Panni, Jonathan George, Mike
Larah, Carmel Eve, Ed Freeman, Elisenda Gascon, Jessica Hill, Liam
Mooney, Nehemiah Campbell, and Shahryar Saljoughi. Thanks in particular
to endjin, both for allowing me to take time out from work to write this
book, and also for creating such a great place to work.
Thank you to everyone at O’Reilly whose work brought this book into
existence. In particular, thanks to Corbin Collins for his support in making
this book happen, and to Tyler Ortman for his support in getting this project
started. Thanks also to Cassandra Furtado, Deborah Baker, Ron Bilodeau,
Nick Adams, Rebecca Demarest, Karen Montgomery, and Kristen Brown,
for their help in bringing the work to completion. Thanks also to Kim Cofer
for her thorough and thoughtful copy editing, and Kim Sandoval’s diligent
proofreading. Finally, thank you to John Osborn, for taking me on as an
O’Reilly author back when I wrote my first book.
Chapter 1. Introducing C#

The C# programming language (pronounced “see sharp”) is used for many

kinds of applications, including websites, cloud-based systems, IoT devices,
machine learning, desktop applications, embedded controllers, mobile apps,
games, and command-line utilities. C#, along with the supporting runtime,
libraries, and tools known collectively as .NET, has been center stage for
Windows developers for over twenty years. Today, .NET is cross-platform
and open source, enabling applications and services written in C# to run on
operating systems including Android, iOS, macOS and Linux, as well as on
Windows.
The release of C# 10.0 and its corresponding runtime, .NET 6.0, marks an
important milestone: C#’s journey to becoming a fully cross-platform, open
source language is now complete. Although open source implementations
have existed for most of C#’s history, a sea change began in 2016 when
Microsoft released .NET Core 1.0, the first platform fully supported by
Microsoft for running C# on Linux and macOS as well as Windows.
Library and tool support for .NET Core was initially patchy, so Microsoft
continued to ship new versions of its older runtime, the closed-source,
Windows-only .NET Framework, but five years on, that old runtime is
effectively being retired,1 now that the cross-platform version has
comprehensively overtaken it. .NET 5.0 dropped the “Core” from its name
to signify that it is now the main event, but it is with .NET 6.0 that the
cross-platform version has really arrived, because this version enjoys full
Long Term Support (LTS) status. For the first time, the platform-
independent version of C# and .NET has superseded the old .NET
Framework.
C# and .NET are open source projects, although it didn’t start out that way.
In C#’s early history, Microsoft guarded all of its source code closely, but in
2014, the .NET Foundation was created to foster the development of open
source projects in the .NET world. Many of Microsoft’s most important C#
and .NET projects are now under the foundation’s governance (in addition
to many non-Microsoft projects). This includes Microsoft’s C# compiler,
and also the .NET runtime and libraries. Today, pretty much everything
surrounding C# is developed in the open, with code contributions from
outside of Microsoft being welcome. New language feature proposals are
managed on GitHub, enabling community involvement from the earliest
stages.

Why C#?
Although there are many ways you can use C#, other languages are always
an option. Why might you choose C# over those? It will depend on what
you need to do, and what you like and dislike in a programming language. I
find that C# provides considerable power, flexibility, and performance, and
works at a high enough level of abstraction that I don’t expend vast
amounts of effort on little details not directly related to the problems my
programs are trying to solve.
Much of C#’s power comes from the range of programming techniques it
supports. For example, it offers object-oriented features, generics, and
functional programming. It supports both dynamic and static typing. It
provides powerful list- and set-oriented features, thanks to Language
Integrated Query (LINQ). It has intrinsic support for asynchronous
programming. Moreover, the various development environments that
support C# all offer a wide range of productivity enhancing features.
C# provides options for balancing ease of development against
performance. The runtime has always provided a garbage collector (GC)
that frees developers from much of the work associated with recovering
memory that the program is no longer using. A GC is a common feature in
modern programming languages, and while it is a boon for most programs,
there are some specialized scenarios where its performance implications are
problematic, so C# enables more explicit memory management, giving you
the option to trade ease of development for runtime performance, but
without the loss of type safety. This makes C# suitable for certain
performance-critical applications that for years were the preserve of less
safe languages such as C and C++.
Languages do not exist in a vacuum—high-quality libraries with a broad
range of features are essential. Some elegant and academically beautiful
languages are glorious right up until you want to do something prosaic,
such as talking to a database or determining where to store user settings. No
matter how powerful a set of programming idioms a language offers, it also
needs to provide full and convenient access to the underlying platform’s
services. C# is on very strong ground here, thanks to its runtime, built-in
class libraries, and extensive third-party library support.
.NET encompasses both the runtime and the main class libraries that C#
programs use. The runtime part is called the Common Language Runtime
(usually abbreviated to CLR) because it supports not just C#, but any .NET
language. Microsoft also offers Visual Basic, F#, and .NET extensions for
C++, for example. The CLR has a Common Type System (CTS) that enables
code from multiple languages to interoperate freely, which means that .NET
libraries can normally be used from any .NET language—F# can consume
libraries written in C#, C# can use Visual Basic libraries, and so on.
There is an extensive set of class libraries built into .NET. These have gone
by a few names over the years, including Base Class Library (BCL),
Framework Class Library, and framework libraries, but Microsoft now
seems to have settled on runtime libraries as the name for this part of .NET.
These libraries provide wrappers for many features of the underlying
operating system (OS), but they also provide a considerable amount of
functionality of their own, such as collection classes and JSON processing.
The .NET runtime class libraries are not the whole story—many other
systems provide their own .NET libraries. For example, there are libraries
that enable C# programs to use popular cloud services. As you’d expect,
Microsoft provides comprehensive .NET libraries for working with services
in its Azure cloud platform. Likewise, Amazon provides a fully featured
development kit for using Amazon Web Services (AWS) from C# and other
.NET languages. And libraries do not have to be associated with particular
services. There’s a large ecosystem of .NET libraries, some commercial,
and some free, including mathematical utilities, parsing libraries, and user
interface (UI) components, to name just a few. Even if you get unlucky and
need to use an OS feature that doesn’t have any .NET library wrappers, C#
offers various mechanisms for working with other kinds of APIs, such as
the C-style APIs available in Win32, macOS, and Linux, or APIs based on
the Component Object Model (COM) in Windows.
In addition to libraries there are also numerous applications frameworks.
.NET has built-in frameworks for creating web apps and web APIs, desktop
applications, and mobile applications. There are also open source
frameworks for various styles of distributed systems development such as
high-volume event processing with Reaqtor, or high-availability globally
distributed systems with project Orleans.
Finally, with .NET having been around for over two decades, many
organizations have invested extensively in technology built on this
platform. So C# is often the natural choice for reaping the rewards of these
investments.
In summary, with C# we get a strong set of abstractions built into the
language, a powerful runtime, and easy access to an enormous amount of
library and platform functionality.

Managed Code and the CLR

C# was the first language designed to be a native in the world of the CLR.
This gives C# a distinctive feel. It also means that if you want to understand
C#, you need to understand the CLR and the way in which it runs code.
For years, the most common way for a compiler to work was to process
source code, and to produce output in a form that could be executed directly
by the computer’s CPU. Compilers would produce machine code—a series
of instructions in whatever binary format was required by the kind of CPU
the computer had. Many compilers still work this way, but the C# compiler
does not. Instead, it uses a model called managed code.
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