Visit https://ebookfinal.

com to download the full version and

explore more ebook

Schaum s Outline of Basic Electricity Second Edition

Milton Gussow

_____ Click the link below to download _____

https://ebookfinal.com/download/schaum-s-outline-of-
basic-electricity-second-edition-milton-gussow/

Explore and download more ebook at ebookfinal.com

Here are some recommended products that might interest you.
You can download now and explore!

Schaum s Outline of Signals and Systems Second Edition

Hwei Hsu

https://ebookfinal.com/download/schaum-s-outline-of-signals-and-
systems-second-edition-hwei-hsu/

ebookfinal.com

Schaum s Outline of Business Statistics Fourth Edition

Kazmier L.J.

https://ebookfinal.com/download/schaum-s-outline-of-business-
statistics-fourth-edition-kazmier-l-j/

ebookfinal.com

Schaum s outline of financial management 3rd ed. Edition

Siegel

https://ebookfinal.com/download/schaum-s-outline-of-financial-
management-3rd-ed-edition-siegel/

ebookfinal.com

Schaum s Outline of Business Statistics 4th Edition

Leonard Kazmier

https://ebookfinal.com/download/schaum-s-outline-of-business-
statistics-4th-edition-leonard-kazmier/

ebookfinal.com
Schaum s Outline of Differential Equations 3rd Edition
Richard Bronson

https://ebookfinal.com/download/schaum-s-outline-of-differential-
equations-3rd-edition-richard-bronson/

ebookfinal.com

Schaum s Outline of Trigonometry 4th Edition Robert E.

Moyer

https://ebookfinal.com/download/schaum-s-outline-of-trigonometry-4th-
edition-robert-e-moyer/

ebookfinal.com

Schaum s Outline of Beginning Chemistry 3rd Edition David

Goldberg

https://ebookfinal.com/download/schaum-s-outline-of-beginning-
chemistry-3rd-edition-david-goldberg/

ebookfinal.com

Schaum s Outline of Strength of Materials 5th Edition

William Nash

https://ebookfinal.com/download/schaum-s-outline-of-strength-of-
materials-5th-edition-william-nash/

ebookfinal.com

Schaum s Outline of German Grammar Sixth Edition Elke

Gschossmann-Hendershot

https://ebookfinal.com/download/schaum-s-outline-of-german-grammar-
sixth-edition-elke-gschossmann-hendershot/

ebookfinal.com
Schaum s Outline of Basic Electricity Second Edition
Milton Gussow Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Milton Gussow
ISBN(s): 9780071702508, 0071635289
Edition: 2
File Details: PDF, 7.30 MB
Year: 2009
Language: english
 SCHAUM’S
OUTLINE OF

Basic
Electricity
This page intentionally left blank
 SCHAUM’S
OUTLINE OF

Basic
Electricity
Second Edition

Milton Gussow, M.S.

Principal Staff Engineer, (Ret.)
Applied Physics Laboratory
The Johns Hopkins University

Schaum’s Outline Series

New York Chicago San Francisco Lisbon

London Madrid Mexico City Milan New Delhi
San Juan Seoul Singapore Sydney Toronto
To Libbie, Myra, Susan, Edward, Marc, Nicole, Sara, Laura, and Jeff

Copyright © 2007, 1983 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Except as permitted under the United States Copyright
Act of 1976, no part of this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database or retrieval
system, without the prior written permission of the publisher.

ISBN: 978-0-07-170250-8

MHID: 0-07-170250-4

The material in this eBook also appears in the print version of this title: ISBN: 978-0-07-163528-8, MHID: 0-07-163528-9.

All trademarks are trademarks of their respective owners. Rather than put a trademark symbol after every occurrence of a trademarked name,
we use names in an editorial fashion only, and to the benefit of the trademark owner, with no intention of infringement of the trademark.
Where such designations appear in this book, they have been printed with initial caps.

McGraw-Hill eBooks are available at special quantity discounts to use as premiums and sales promotions, or for use in corporate training
programs. To contact a representative please e-mail us at bulksales@mcgraw-hill.com.

TERMS OF USE

This is a copyrighted work and The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. (“McGrawHill”) and its licensors reserve all rights in and to the work.
Use of this work is subject to these terms. Except as permitted under the Copyright Act of 1976 and the right to store and retrieve one copy
of the work, you may not decompile, disassemble, reverse engineer, reproduce, modify, create derivative works based upon, transmit,
distribute, disseminate, sell, publish or sublicense the work or any part of it without McGraw-Hill’s prior consent. You may use the work for
your own noncommercial and personal use; any other use of the work is strictly prohibited. Your right to use the work may be terminated if
you fail to comply with these terms.

THE WORK IS PROVIDED “AS IS.” McGRAW-HILL AND ITS LICENSORS MAKE NO GUARANTEES OR WARRANTIES AS
TO THE ACCURACY, ADEQUACY OR COMPLETENESS OF OR RESULTS TO BE OBTAINED FROM USING THE WORK,
INCLUDING ANY INFORMATION THAT CAN BE ACCESSED THROUGH THE WORK VIA HYPERLINK OR OTHERWISE,
AND EXPRESSLY DISCLAIM ANY WARRANTY, EXPRESS OR IMPLIED, INCLUDING BUT NOT LIMITED TO IMPLIED
WARRANTIES OF MERCHANTABILITY OR FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. McGraw-Hill and its licensors do not
warrant or guarantee that the functions contained in the work will meet your requirements or that its operation will be uninterrupted or error
free. Neither McGraw-Hill nor its licensors shall be liable to you or anyone else for any inaccuracy, error or omission, regardless of cause, in
the work or for any damages resulting therefrom. McGraw-Hill has no responsibility for the content of any information accessed through the
work. Under no circumstances shall McGraw-Hill and/or its licensors be liable for any indirect, incidental, special, punitive, consequential
or similar damages that result from the use of or inability to use the work, even if any of them has been advised of the possibility of such
damages. This limitation of liability shall apply to any claim or cause whatsoever whether such claim or cause arises in contract, tort or
otherwise.
 Contents

Chapter 1 THE NATURE OF ELECTRICITY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Structure of the Atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
The Electric Charge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
The Coulomb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
The Electrostatic Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Potential Difference . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Current Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
Sources of Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Direct and Alternating Currents and Voltages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

Chapter 2 ELECTRICAL STANDARDS AND CONVENTIONS ................. 15

Units
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Metric Prefixes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
Powers of 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Scientific Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Rounding Off Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Graphical Symbols and Electrical Diagrams
Schematic Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
One-Line Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Block Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Wiring Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Electrical Plan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32

Chapter 3 OHM’S LAW AND POWER . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39

The Electric Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Fixed Resistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Variable Resistors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
Ohm’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Electric Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Horsepower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Electric Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
vi Contents

Chapter 4 DIRECT-CURRENT SERIES CIRCUITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52

Voltage, Current, and Resistance in Series Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
Polarity of Voltage Drops . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Conductors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
Total Power in a Series Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Voltage Drop by Proportional Parts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61

Chapter 5 DIRECT-CURRENT PARALLEL CIRCUITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75

Voltage and Current in a Parallel Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Resistances in Parallel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Open and Short Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Division of Current in Two Parallel Branches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Conductances in Parallel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Power in Parallel Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84

Chapter 6 BATTERIES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
The Voltaic Cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Series and Parallel Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Primary and Secondary Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Types of Batteries . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Battery Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103

Chapter 7 KIRCHHOFF’S LAWS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law (KVL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Kirchhoff’s Current Law (KCL) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Mesh Currents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Node Voltages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116

Chapter 8 DETERMINANT SOLUTIONS FOR DC NETWORKS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128

Second-Order Determinants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Third-Order Determinants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Cramer’s Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Determinant Method for Solving Currents in a Two-Mesh Network . . . . . . . . . . 135
Determinant Method for Solving Currents in a Three-Mesh Network . . . . . . . . . 136

Chapter 9 NETWORK CALCULATIONS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153

Y and Delta Networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
Superposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
Thevenin’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Norton’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
Series–Parallel Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Wheatstone Bridge Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Maximum Power Transfer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Line-Drop Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Three-Wire Distribution Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
 Contents vii

Chapter 10 MAGNETISM AND ELECTROMAGNETISM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205

The Nature of Magnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Magnetic Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
Electromagnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Magnetic Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
BH Magnetization Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Magnetic Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Electromagnetic Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
International System of Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218

Chapter 11 DIRECT-CURRENT GENERATORS AND MOTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229

Motors and Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Simple DC Generator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Armature Windings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Field Excitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
DC Generator Equivalent Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Generator Voltage Equations and Voltage Regulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Losses and Efficiency of a DC Machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Direct-Current Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
DC Motor Equivalent Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
Speed of a Motor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Motor Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Starting Requirements for Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241

Chapter 12 PRINCIPLES OF ALTERNATING CURRENT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252

Generating an Alternating Voltage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
Angular Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
Sine Wave . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Alternating Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Frequency and Period . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Phase Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Phasors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Characteristic Values of Voltage and Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Resistance in AC Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261

Chapter 13 INDUCTANCE, INDUCTIVE REACTANCE, AND

INDUCTIVE CIRCUITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Induction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Characteristics of Coils . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
Inductive Reactance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
Inductors in Series or Parallel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Inductive Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
Q of a Coil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
Power in RL Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
viii Contents

Chapter 14 CAPACITANCE, CAPACITIVE REACTANCE, AND

CAPACITIVE CIRCUITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
Capacitor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
Capacitance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Types of Capacitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
Capacitors in Series and Parallel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
Capacitive Reactance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
Capacitive Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Power in RC Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316

Chapter 15 SINGLE-PHASE CIRCUITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332

The General RLC Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
RLC in Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
RLC in Parallel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
RL and RC Branches in Parallel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
Power and Power Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340

Chapter 16 ALTERNATING-CURRENT GENERATORS AND MOTORS . . . . . . . . . . . 361

Alternators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
Paralleling Generators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
Ratings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
Losses and Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
Polyphase Induction Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
Synchronous Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368
Single-Phase Motors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372

Chapter 17 COMPLEX NUMBERS AND COMPLEX IMPEDANCE

FOR SERIES AC CIRCUITS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
Definition of a Complex Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
Operator j . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
Rectangular and Polar Forms of Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
Operations with Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
Complex Impedance in Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392

Chapter 18 AC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS WITH COMPLEX NUMBERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409

Phasors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
Two-Terminal Network . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
Series AC Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
Parallel AC Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
Series–Parallel AC Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
Complex Power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
Determinant Solution for AC Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
AC
-Y and Y-
Conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
 Contents ix

Chapter 19 TRANSFORMERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455

Ideal Transformer Characteristics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455
Transformer Ratings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
Impedance Ratio . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
Autotransformer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
Transformer Losses and Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
No-Load Condition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
Coil Polarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463

Chapter 20 THREE-PHASE SYSTEMS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474

Characteristics of Three-Phase Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474
Three-Phase Transformer Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
Power in Balanced Three-Phase Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
Unbalanced Three-Phase Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 482

Chapter 21 SERIES AND PARALLEL RESONANCE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499

Series Resonance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 499
Q of Series Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
Parallel Resonance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
Q of Parallel Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
Bandwidth and Power of Resonant Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510

Chapter 22 WAVEFORMS AND TIME CONSTANTS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524

RL Series Circuit Waveforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524
RL Time Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528
RC Series Circuit Waveforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530
RC Time Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534
Calculation for Time t . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535

TABLES
2-1 Base Units of the International Metric System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2-2 Supplementary SI Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2-3 Derived SI Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2-4 Metric Prefixes Used in Electricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2-5 Powers of 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2-6 Metric Prefixes Expressed as Powers of 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2-7 Examples of Letter Symbols for Circuit Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
4-1 Copper Wire Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4-2 Properties of Conducting Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
6-1 Types of Cells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
10-1 International System of Units for Magnetism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
12-1 Conversion Table for AC Sine Wave Voltage and Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
13-1 Summary Table for Series and Parallel RL Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
14-1 Types of Capacitors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
14-2 Summary Table for Series and Parallel RC Circuits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
17-1 Summary Table of Complex Impedance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 403
x Contents

18-1 Summary Table for AC Circuit Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415

18-2 Summary of Complex Power Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
20-1 Voltage and Current Relationships for Common 3-φ Transformer Connections . . . . . . . . . . . 476
21-1 Comparison of Series and Parallel Resonance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
22-1 Time Constant Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 529

INDEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553
 Chapter 1
The Nature of Electricity
STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM
Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space. Matter is composed of very small particles called
atoms. All matter can be classified into either one of two groups: elements or compounds. In an element, all the
atoms are the same. Examples of elements are aluminum, copper, carbon, germanium, and silicon. A compound
is a combination of elements. Water, for example, is a compound consisting of the elements hydrogen and
oxygen. The smallest particle of any compound that retains the original characteristics of that compound is
called a molecule.
Atoms are composed of subatomic particles of electrons, protons, and neutrons in various combinations.
The electron is the fundamental negative (−) charge of electricity. Electrons revolve about the nucleus or
center of the atom in paths of concentric “shells,” or orbits (Fig. 1-1). The proton is the fundamental positive
(+) charge of electricity. Protons are found in the nucleus. The number of protons within the nucleus of any
particular atom specifies the atomic number of that atom. For example, the silicon atom has 14 protons in
its nucleus so the atomic number of silicon is 14. The neutron, which is the fundamental neutral charge of
electricity, is also found in the nucleus.

Fig. 1-1 Electrons and nucleus of an atom

Atoms of different elements differ from one another in the number of electrons and protons they contain
(Fig. 1-2). In its natural state, an atom of any element contains an equal number of electrons and protons. Since
the negative (−) charge of each electron is equal in magnitude to the positive (+) charge of each proton, the
two opposite charges cancel. An atom in this condition is electrically neutral, or in balance (Fig. 1-2).

Example 1.1 Describe the two simplest atoms.

The simplest atom is the hydrogen atom, which contains 1 proton in its nucleus balanced by 1 electron orbiting the
nucleus (Fig. 1-2a). The next simplest atom is helium, which has 2 protons in its nucleus balanced by 2 electrons orbiting
the nucleus (Fig. 1-2b).

A stable (neutral) atom has a certain amount of energy, which is equal to the sum of the energies of its
electrons. Electrons, in turn, have different energies called energy levels. The energy level of an electron is
proportional to its distance from the nucleus. Therefore, the energy levels of electrons in shells farther from
the nucleus are higher than those of electrons in shells nearer the nucleus. The electrons in the outermost shell
are called valence electrons. When external energy such as heat, light, or electric energy is applied to certain

1
2 THE NATURE OF ELECTRICITY [CHAP. 1

Fig. 1-2 Atomic structure of four common elements

materials, the electrons gain energy. This may cause the electrons to move to a higher energy level. An atom
in which this has occurred is said to be in an excited state. An atom in an excited state is unstable.
When an electron has moved to the outermost shell of its atom, it is least attracted by the positive charges
of the protons within the nucleus of its atom. If enough energy is then applied to the atom, some of the
outermost shell or valence electrons will leave the atom. These electrons are called free electrons. It is the
movement of free electrons that provides electric current in a metal conductor.
Each shell of an atom can contain only a certain maximum number of electrons. This number is called the
quota of a shell. The orbiting electrons are in successive shells designated K, L, M, N, O, P, and Q at increasing
distances outward from the nucleus. Each shell has a maximum number of electrons for stability (Fig. 1-3).
After the K shell has been filled with 2 electrons, the L shell can take up to 8 electrons. The maximum number
CHAP. 1] THE NATURE OF ELECTRICITY 3

Fig. 1-3 Energy shells and the quota of electrons for each
shell

of electrons in the remaining shells can be 8, 18, or 32 for different elements. The maximum for an outermost
shell, though, is always 8.

Example 1.2 Structure the copper atom by identifying its energy shells (Fig. 1-2d).
In the copper atom there are 29 protons in the nucleus balanced by 29 orbiting electrons. The 29 electrons fill the K
shell with 2 electrons and the L shell with 8 electrons. The remaining 19 electrons then fill the M shell with 18 electrons,
and the net result is 1 electron in the outermost N shell.

If the quota is filled in the outermost shell of an atom, an element made up of such atoms is said to be
inert. When the K shell is filled with 2 electrons, we have the inert gas helium (Fig. 1-2b). When the outer
shell of an atom lacks its quota of electrons, it is capable of gaining or losing electrons. If an atom loses one
or more electrons in its outer shell, the protons outnumber the electrons so that the atom carries a net positive
electric charge. In this condition, the atom is called a positive ion. If an atom gains electrons, its net electric
charge becomes negative. The atom then is called a negative ion. The process by which atoms either gain or
lose electrons is called ionization.

Example 1.3 Describe what happens to the copper atom when it loses an electron from its outermost shell.
The copper atom becomes a positive ion with a net charge of +1.

THE ELECTRIC CHARGE

Since some atoms can lose electrons and other atoms can gain electrons, it is possible to cause a transfer of
electrons from one object to another. When this takes place, the equal distribution of the positive and negative
charges in each object no longer exists. Therefore, one object will contain an excess number of electrons and
its charge must have a negative, or minus (−), electric polarity. The other object will contain an excess number
of protons and its charge must have a positive, or plus (+), polarity.
When a pair of objects contains the same charge, that is, both positive (+) or both negative (−), the
objects are said to have like charges. When a pair of bodies contains different charges, that is, one body is
positive (+) while the other body is negative (−), they are said to have unlike or opposite charges. The law of
electric charges may be stated as follows:
Like charges repel each other; unlike charges attract each other.
4 THE NATURE OF ELECTRICITY [CHAP. 1

If a negative (−) charge is placed next to another negative (−) charge, the charges will repel each other
(Fig. 1-4a). If a positive (+) charge is placed next to a negative (−) charge, they will be drawn together
(Fig. 1-4c).

Fig. 1-4 Force between charges

THE COULOMB
The magnitude of electric charge a body possesses is determined by the number of electrons compared with
the number of protons within the body. The symbol for the magnitude of the electric charge is Q, expressed in
units of coulombs (C). A charge of one negative coulomb, −Q, means a body contains a charge of 6.25 × 1018
more electrons than protons.∗

Example 1.4 What is the meaning of +Q?

A charge of one positive coulomb means a body contains a charge of 6.25 × 1018 more protons than electrons.

Example 1.5 A dielectric material has a negative charge of 12.5 × 1018 electrons. What is its charge in coulombs?
Since the number of electrons is double the charge of 1 C (1 C = 6.25 × 1018 electrons), −Q = 2 C.

THE ELECTROSTATIC FIELD

The fundamental characteristic of an electric charge is its ability to exert a force. This force is present
within the electrostatic field surrounding every charged object. When two objects of opposite polarity are
brought near each other, the electrostatic field is concentrated in the area between them (Fig. 1-5). The electric

Fig. 1-5 The electrostatic field between two charges of opposite polarity

∗ See page 16 (Chapter 2) for an explanation of how to use powers of 10.

CHAP. 1] THE NATURE OF ELECTRICITY 5

field is indicated by lines of force drawn between the two objects. If an electron is released at point A in this
field, it will be repelled by the negative charge and will be attracted to the positive one. Thus both charges
will tend to move the electron in the direction of the lines of force between the two objects. The arrowheads
in Fig. 1-5 indicate the direction of motion that would be taken by the electron if it were in different areas of
the electrostatic field.

Example 1.6 Draw the electrostatic field that would exist between two negatively charged objects.
When two like charges are placed near each other, the lines of force repel each other as shown below.

A charged object will retain its charge temporarily if there is no immediate transfer of electrons to or from
it. In this condition, the charge is said to be at rest. Electricity at rest is called static electricity.

POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
Due to the force of its electrostatic field, an electric charge has the ability to do the work of moving another
charge by attraction or repulsion. The ability of a charge to do work is called its potential. When one charge
is different from the other, there must be a difference in potential between them.
The sum of the differences of potential of all the charges in the electrostatic field is referred to as
electromotive force (emf).
The basic unit of potential difference is the volt (V). The symbol for potential difference is V , indicating
the ability to do the work of forcing electrons to move. Because the volt unit is used, potential difference is
called voltage.

Example 1.7 What is the meaning of a battery voltage output of 6 V?

A voltage output of 6 V means that the potential difference between the two terminals of the battery is 6 V. Thus,
voltage is fundamentally the potential difference between two points.

CURRENT
The movement or the flow of electrons is called current. To produce current, the electrons must be moved
by a potential difference. Current is represented by the letter symbol I . The basic unit in which current is
measured is the ampere (A). One ampere of current is defined as the movement of one coulomb past any point
of a conductor during one second of time. Electricity can be termed as electric current.

Example 1.8 If a current of 2 A flows through a meter for 1 minute (min), how many coulombs pass through the meter?
1 A is 1 C per second (C/s). 2 A is 2 C/s. Since there are 60 s in 1 min, 60 × 2 C = 120 C pass through the meter in
1 min.

The definition of current can be expressed as an equation:

Q
I= (1-1)
T
6 THE NATURE OF ELECTRICITY [CHAP. 1

where I = current, A
Q = charge, C
T = time, s
or Q = I × T = IT (1-2)

Charge differs from current in that Q is an accumulation of charge, while I measures the intensity of
moving charges.

Example 1.9 Find the answer to Example 1.8 by using Eq. (1-2).
Write down the known values:

I =2A T = 60 s

Write down the unknown:

Q=?

Use Eq. (1-2) to solve the unknown:

Q=I ×T

Substitute I = 2 A and T = 60 s:

Q = (2 A) × (60 s)

Solve for Q:

Q = 120 C Ans.

CURRENT FLOW
In a conductor, such as copper wire, the free electrons are charges that can be forced to move with relative
ease by a potential difference. If a potential difference is connected across two ends of a copper wire (Fig. 1-6),

Fig. 1-6 Potential difference across two ends

of a wire conductor causes electric
current
CHAP. 1] THE NATURE OF ELECTRICITY 7

the applied voltage (1.5 V) forces the free electrons to move. This current is a drift of electrons from the point
of negative charge, −Q, at one end of the wire, moving through the wire, and returning to the positive charge,
+Q, at the other end. The direction of the electron drift is from the negative side of the battery, through the
wire, and back to the positive side of the battery. The direction of electron flow is from a point of negative
potential to a point of positive potential. The solid arrow (Fig. 1-6) indicates the direction of current in terms
of electron flow. The direction of moving positive charges, opposite from electron flow, is considered the
conventional flow of current and is indicated by the dashed arrow (Fig. 1-6). In basic electricity, circuits are
usually analyzed in terms of conventional current because a positive potential is considered before a negative
potential. Therefore, the direction of conventional current is the direction of positive charges in motion. Any
circuit can be analyzed by either electron flow or conventional flow in the opposite direction. In this book,
current is always considered as conventional flow.

SOURCES OF ELECTRICITY
Chemical Battery
A voltaic chemical cell is a combination of materials which are used for converting chemical energy into
electric energy. A battery is formed when two or more cells are connected. A chemical reaction produces
opposite charges on two dissimilar metals, which serve as the negative and positive terminals (Fig. 1-7). The
metals are in contact with an electrolyte.

Fig. 1-7 Voltaic chemical cell

Generator
The generator is a machine in which electromagnetic inductance is used to produce a voltage by rotating
coils of wire through a stationary magnetic field or by rotating a magnetic field through stationary coils of
wire. Today, more than 95 percent of the world’s energy is produced by generators.

Thermal Energy
The production of most electric energy begins with the formation of heat energy. Coal, oil, or natural
gas can be burned to release large quantities of heat. Once heat energy is available, conversion to mechanical
energy is the next step. Water is heated to produce steam, which is then used to turn the turbines that drive the
electric generators. A direct conversion from heat energy to electric energy will increase efficiency and reduce
thermal pollution of water resources and the atmosphere.

Magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) Conversion

In an MHD converter, gases are ionized by very high temperatures, approximately 3000 degrees Fahrenheit
(3000◦ F), or 1650 degrees Celsius (1650◦ C). The hot gases pass through a strong magnetic field with current
resulting. The exhausted gases are then moved back to the heat source to form a complete cycle (Fig. 1-8).
MHD converters have no mechanical moving parts.
8 THE NATURE OF ELECTRICITY [CHAP. 1

Fig. 1-8 Principles of MHD converter

Thermionic Emission
The thermionic energy converter is a device that consists of two electrodes in a vacuum. The emitter elec-
trode is heated and produces free electrons. The collector electrode is maintained at a much lower temperature
and receives the electrons released at the emitter.

Solar Cells
Solar cells convert light energy directly into electric energy. They consist of semiconductor material like
silicon and are used in large arrays in spacecraft to recharge batteries. Solar cells are also used in home heating.

Piezoelectric Effect
Certain crystals, such as quartz and Rochelle salts, generate a voltage when they are vibrated mechanically.
This action is known as the piezoelectric effect. One example is the crystal phonograph cartridge, which contains
a Rochelle salt crystal to which a needle is fastened. As the needle moves in the grooves of a record, it swings
from side to side. This mechanical motion is applied to the crystal, and a voltage is then generated.

Photoelectric Effect
Some materials, such as zinc, potassium, and cesium oxide, emit electrons when light strikes their surfaces.
This action is known as the photoelectric effect. Common applications of photoelectricity are television camera
tubes and photoelectric cells.

Thermocouples
If wires of two different metals, such as iron and copper, are welded together and the joint is heated, the
difference in electron activity in the two metals produces an emf across the joint. Thermocouple junctions can
be used to measure the amount of current because current acts to heat the junction.

DIRECT AND ALTERNATING CURRENTS AND VOLTAGES

Direct current (dc) is the current that moves through a conductor or circuit in one direction only (Fig. 1-9a).
The reason for the unidirectional current is that voltage sources such as cells and batteries maintain the same
CHAP. 1] THE NATURE OF ELECTRICITY 9

Fig. 1-9 Waveforms of a constant dc current and dc voltage

polarity of output voltage (Fig. 1-9b). The voltage supplied by these sources is called direct-current voltage,
or simply dc voltage. A dc voltage source can change the amount of its output voltage, but if the same polarity
is maintained, direct current will flow in one direction only.

Example 1.10 Assuming the polarity of the battery were reversed in Fig. 1-9b, draw the new curves of current and
voltage.
With polarity reversed, the current will now flow in the opposite direction. The curves would then appear as follows:

An alternating-current voltage (ac voltage) source periodically reverses or alternates in polarity

(Fig. 1-10a). Therefore, the resulting alternating current also periodically reverses direction (Fig. 1-10b).
In terms of conventional flow, the current flows from the positive terminal of the voltage source, through the
circuit, and back to the negative terminal, but when the generator alternates in polarity, the current must reverse
its direction. The ac power line used in most homes is a common example. The voltage and current direction
go through many reversals each second in these systems.

Fig. 1-10 Waveforms of ac voltage and ac current

10 THE NATURE OF ELECTRICITY [CHAP. 1

Solved Problems

1.1 Match each term in column 1 to its closest meaning in column 2.

Column 1 Column 2
1. Electron (a) Positive charge
2. Neutron (b) Same number of electrons and protons
3. Compound (c) Electrons in first shell
4. Neutral (d) Released electrons
5. Valence electrons (e) Neutral charge
6. Atomic number (f ) Electrons in outermost shell
7. Free electrons (g) Quota filled in outermost shell
8. K shell (h) Number of electrons in nucleus
9. Ion (i) Negative charge
10. Inert (j ) Quota of 2 electrons
(k) Combined elements
(l) Number of protons in nucleus
(m) Charged atom
Ans. 1. (i) 2. (e) 3. (k) 4. (b) 5. (f ) 6. (l) 7. (d) 8. (j ) 9. (m) 10. (g)

1.2 Show the atomic structure of the element aluminum with atomic number 13. What is its electron
valence?
Because aluminum has 13 protons in the nucleus, it must have 13 orbiting electrons to be electrically
neutral. Starting with the innermost shells (Fig. 1-3), we have

K shell 2 electrons
L shell 8 electrons
M shell 3 electrons
Total 13 electrons
The atomic structure for aluminum then is shown in Fig. 1-11. Its electron valence is −3 because
it has 3 valence electrons.

Fig. 1-11
CHAP. 1] THE NATURE OF ELECTRICITY 11

1.3 In observing the maximum number of electrons in shells K, L, M, and N in Fig. 1-3, you will find that
they are 2, 8, 18, and 32 electrons, respectively. Develop a formula that describes this relationship,
where n is the shell number in sequential order outward from the nucleus.
The formula is 2n2 because the maximum number of electrons in the
K or first shell (n = 1) is 2(l2 ) = 2(1) = 2
L or second shell (n = 2) is 2(22 ) = 2(4) = 8
M or third shell (n = 3) is 2(32 ) = 2(9) = 18
N or fourth shell (n = 4) is 2(42 ) = 2(16) = 32
This relationship is true for most elements.

1.4 What is the net charge of a body that contains 8 protons and 4 electrons?
The numerical value of the net charge is found by subtracting the number of one type of charge
from the number of the other type. So a positive charge of 8 (+8) and a negative charge of 4 (−4)
yields a positive charge of 4 (+4).

1.5 A charged insulator has deficiency of 50 × 1018 electrons. Find its charge in coulombs with polarity.
Since 1 C = 6.25 × 1018 electrons, 8 C = 50 × 1018 electrons. Deficiency of electrons means an
excess of protons. So the insulator has a positive charge of 8 C, or +Q = 8 C.

1.6 Write the word which most correctly completes each of the following statements:
(a) A rubber rod repels a second rubber rod, so both rods have _______________ charges.
(b) Glass rubbed with silk attracts rubber rubbed with fur. If the rubber rod is negative, the glass rod
must be ____________________.
(a) like (law of charges); (b) positive (law of charges)

1.7 Find the current needed to charge a dielectric so that it will accumulate a charge of 20 C after 4 s.
Known values: Q = 20 C; T = 4s
Unknown: I =?
Use Eq. (1-1) to find I :
Q 20 C
I= = = 5A Ans.
T 4s

1.8 A current of 8 A charges an insulator for 3 s. How much charge is accumulated?

Known values: I = 8 A; T = 3 s
Unknown: Q=?
Use Eq. (1-2) to find Q:

Q = I T = (8 A)(3 s) = 24 C Ans.

1.9 Write the word or words which most correctly complete each of the following statements.
(a) The ability of a charge to do work is its _______________________.
(b) When one charge is different from the other, there is a ________________ of
_____________________.
(c) The unit of potential difference is the ________________________.
12 THE NATURE OF ELECTRICITY [CHAP. 1

(d) The sum of potential differences of all charges is called _________________________.

(e) The movement of charges produces _______________________.
(f ) A greater amount of moving charges means a ___________________ value for the current.
(g) When the potential difference is zero, the value of current is _____________.
(h) The rate of flow of charge is called ___________________.
(i) The direction of the conventional flow of current is from a point of ________ potential to a point
of ______________ potential.
(j ) Electron flow is opposite in direction to ________________ flow.
(k) Direct current (dc) has just ________________ direction.
(l) A _____________________ is an example of a dc voltage source.
(m) An alternating current (ac) _________________ its polarity.

Ans. (a) potential (h) current

(b) difference, potential (i) positive, negative
(c) volt (j ) conventional
(d) electromotive force (k) one
(e) current (l) battery
(f ) higher (m) reverses
(g) zero

1.10 Match each device in column 1 to its closest principle in column 2.

Column 1 Column 2
1. Battery (a) Electromagnetic induction
2. Generator (b) Free electrons
3. TV camera tube (c) Ionized gases
4. Vacuum tube (d) Chemical reaction
5. Phonograph needle (e) Thermal energy
(f ) Photoelectricity
(g) Mechanical motion
Ans. 1. (d) 2. (a) 3. (f ) 4. (b) 5. (g)

Supplementary Problems

1.11 Match each term in column 1 to its closest meaning in column 2.

Column 1 Column 2
1. Proton (a) Negative charge
2. Molecule (b) Quota of 8 electrons
3. Quota (c) Excited state
4. L shell (d) Maximum number of electrons in a shell
5. Element (e) Atom negatively charged
6. Unstable (f ) Positive charge
7. Shell (g) Mass and volume
CHAP. 1] THE NATURE OF ELECTRICITY 13

Column 1 Column 2
8. Copper (h) Atomic number is 29
9. Negative ion (i) Quota of 18 electrons
10. Matter (j ) Orbit
(k) Smallest particle having same characteristics
(l) Atomic number is 14
(m) All atoms the same
Ans. 1. (f ) 2. (k) 3. (d) 4. (b) 5. (m) 6. (c) 7. (j ) 8. (h) 9. (e) 10. (g)

1.12 Write the word or words which most correctly complete each of the following statements.
(a) Electrons move about the nucleus of an atom in paths which are called _____________.
(b) The nucleus of an atom consists of particles called _____________ and ______________.
(c) The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom is known as the _________
___________________ of that atom.
(d) When all the atoms within a substance are alike, the substance is called a chemical
____________________.
(e) A ______________________ is the smallest particle of a compound which retains all the
properties of that compound.
(f ) The energy ____________________ of an electron is determined by its distance from the nucleus
of an atom.
(g) If a neutral atom gains electrons, it becomes a ________________ ion.
(h) If a neutral atom loses electrons, it becomes a _________________ ion.
(i) Unlike charges ________________ each other, while like charges ______________ each other.
(j ) A charged object is surrounded by an __________________ field.
Ans. (a) shells or orbits (f ) level
(b) protons, neutrons (g) negative
(c) atomic number (h) positive
(d) element (i) attract, repel
(e) molecule (j ) electrostatic

1.13 Show the atomic structure of the element phosphorus, which has an atomic number of 15. What is its
electron valence? Ans. See Fig. 1-12. Electron valence is −5.

1.14 Show the atomic structure of the element neon, which has an atomic number of 10. What is its electron
valence? Ans. See Fig. 1-13. Electron valence is 0. Thus, neon is inert.

1.15 What is the net charge if 13 electrons are added to 12 protons? Ans. −1 electron

1.16 What becomes of the silicon atom when it loses all the orbiting electrons in its outermost shell?
Ans. It becomes a negative ion with a net charge of −4. See Fig. 1-2c.

1.17 A charged insulator has an excess of 25 × 1018 electrons. Find its charge in coulombs with polarity.
Ans. −Q = 4 C

1.18 A material with an excess of 25 × 1018 electrons loses 6.25 × 1018 electrons. The excess electrons are
then made to flow past a given point in 2 s. Find the current produced by the resultant electron flow.
Ans. I = 1.5 A
14 THE NATURE OF ELECTRICITY [CHAP. 1

Fig. 1-12 Fig. 1-13

1.19 A charge of 10 C flows past a given point every 2 s. What is the current?
Ans. I = 5 A

1.20 How much charge is accumulated when a current of 5 A charges an insulator for 5 s?
Ans. Q = 25 C

1.21 Match each item in section 1 with its application in section 2.

Section 1 Section 2
1. Water 4. Quartz (a) Solar cell (e) Photoelectric cell
2. Cesium oxide 5. Carbon–zinc (b) Generator (f ) Turbine
3. Silicon 6. Iron–copper (c) Battery (g) MHD converter
(d) Crystal oscillator (h) Thermocouple
Ans. 1. (f ) 2. (e) 3. (a) 4. (d) 5. (c) 6. (h)

1.22 Fill in the missing quantity:

I, A Q, C T, s Ans. I, A Q, C T, s
(a) ? 10 2 (a) 5 .... ....
(b) 5 ? 4 (b) .... 20 ....
(c) ? 9 2 (c) 4.5 .... ....
(d) 7 ? 3 (d) .... 21 ....
(e) 2 6 ? (e) .... .... 3
 Chapter 2
Electrical Standards and Conventions

Units

INTRODUCTION
The international metric system of units of dimensions, commonly called SI, is used in electricity. The
abbreviation SI stands for système internationale. The seven base units of SI are length, mass, time, electric
current, thermodynamic temperature, light intensity, and amount of substance (Table 2-1). Formerly the MKS
metric system was used, where M stands for meter (length), K for kilogram (mass), and S for seconds (time).
The two supplementary units of SI are plane angle and solid angle (Table 2-2).

Table 2-1 Base Units of the International Metric System

Quantity Base Unit Symbol

Length meter m
Mass kilogram kg
Time second s
Electric current ampere A
Thermodynamic temperature kelvin K
Light intensity candela cd
Amount of substance mole mol

Table 2-2 Supplementary SI Units

Quantity Unit Symbol

Plane angle radian rad

Solid angle steradian sr

Other common units can be derived from the base and supplementary units. For example, the unit of
charge is the coulomb, which is derived from the base units of second and ampere. Most of the units that are
used in electricity are derived ones (Table 2-3).

METRIC PREFIXES
In the study of basic electricity, some electrical units are too small or too large to express conveniently. For
example, in the case of resistance, we often use values in thousands or millions of ohms (). The prefix kilo
(denoted by the letter k) is a convenient way of expressing a thousand. Thus, instead of saying a resistor has a
value of 10 000 , we normally refer to it as a 10-kilohm (10-k) resistor. In the case of current, we often use

15
16 ELECTRICAL STANDARDS AND CONVENTIONS [CHAP. 2

values in thousandths or millionths of an ampere. We use expressions such as milliamperes and microamperes.
The prefix milli is a short way of saying a thousandth and micro is a short way of saying a millionth. Thus
0.012 A becomes 12 milliamperes (mA) and 0.000 005 A becomes 5 microamperes (µA). Table 2-4 lists the
metric prefixes commonly used in electricity and their numerical equivalents.

Table 2-3 Derived SI Units

Quantity Unit Symbol

Energy joule J
Force newton N
Power watt W
Electric charge coulomb C
Electric potential volt V
Electric resistance ohm 
Electric conductance siemens S
Electric capacitance farad F
Electric inductance henry H
Frequency hertz Hz
Magnetic flux weber Wb
Magnetic flux density tesla T

Table 2-4 Metric Prefixes Used in Electricity

Prefix (Letter Symbol) Value Pronunciation

mega (M) million 1 000 000 as in megaphone

kilo (k) thousand 1 000 kill’oh
milli (m) thousandth 0.001 as in military
micro (µ) millionth 0.000 001 as in microphone
nano (n) thousand-millionth 0.000 000 001 nan’oh
pico (p) million-millionth 0.000 000 000 001 peek’oh

Example 2.1 A resistor has a value of 10 M stamped on its case. How many ohms of resistance does this resistor have?
The letter M denotes mega, or million. Thus the resistor has a value of 10 megohms (M) or 10 million ohms.

Example 2.2 A power station has a capacity of delivering 500 000 watts (W). What is the capacity in kilowatts (kW)?
Refer to Table 2-4. Kilo stands for 1000. Thus, 500 000 W = 500 kW.

POWERS OF 10
We have seen that it is often necessary or desirable to convert one unit of measurement to another unit
that may be larger or smaller. In the previous section, we did this by substituting a metric prefix for certain
values. Another way would be to convert the number to a power of 10. Powers of 10 are often termed the
“engineer’s shorthand.” Examples of expressing number as powers of 10 are shown in Table 2-5.
CHAP. 2] ELECTRICAL STANDARDS AND CONVENTIONS 17

Table 2-5 Powers of 10

Number Power of 10 Commonly Read As

0.000 001 = 10−6 10 to the minus sixth

0.000 01 = 10−5 10 to the minus fifth
0.000 1 = 10−4 10 to the minus fourth
0.001 = 10−3 10 to the minus third
0.01 = 10−2 10 to the minus second
0.1 = 10−1 10 to the minus one
1= 100 10 to the zero
10 = 101 10 to the first
100 = 102 10 squared
1 000 = 103 10 cubed
10 000 = 104 10 to the fourth
100 000 = 105 10 to the fifth
1 000 000 = 106 10 to the sixth

Rule 1: To express numbers larger than 1 as a small number times a power of 10, move the decimal point
to the left as many places as desired. Then multiply the number obtained by 10 to a power which is
equal to the number of places moved.

Example 2.3
3000 = 3.000
↑ ◦. (Decimal point is moved three places to the left.)
= 3 × 103 (Therefore the power, or exponent, is 3.)
6500 = 65.00
↑ ◦. (Decimal point is moved two places to the left.)
= 65 × 102 (Therefore the exponent is 2.)
880 000 = 88.0000
↑ ◦. (Decimal point is moved left four places.)
= 88 × 104 (Therefore the exponent is 4.)
42.56 = 4.2
↑ ◦
. 56 (Decimal point is moved left one place.)
= 4.256 × 10 (Therefore the exponent is 1.)

Rule 2: To express numbers less than 1 as a whole number times a power of 10, move the decimal point to
the right as many places as desired. Then multiply the number obtained by 10 to a negative power
which is equal to the number of places moved.

Example 2.4
0.006 = 0◦. 006.↑ (Decimal point is moved three places to the right.)
= 6 × 10−3 (Therefore the power, or exponent, is −3.)
0.435 = 0◦. 4.35
↑
(Decimal point is moved one place to the right.)
= 4.35 × 10−1 (Therefore the exponent is −1.)
0.000 92 = 0◦. 000 92.↑ (Decimal point is moved right five places.)
= 92 × 10−5 (Therefore the exponent is −5.)
0.578 = 0◦. 57.8
↑
(Decimal point is moved right two places.)
= 57.8 × 10−2 (Therefore the exponent is −2.)
18 ELECTRICAL STANDARDS AND CONVENTIONS [CHAP. 2

Rule 3: To convert a number expressed as a positive power of 10 to a decimal number, move the decimal
point to the right as many places as the value of the exponent.

Example 2.5
0.615 × 103 = 0◦. 615.↑ (The exponent is 3. Therefore move the decimal point three places to the right.)
= 615
0.615 × 106 = 0◦. 615 000.↑ (Move the decimal point six places to the right.)
= 615,000
0.0049 × 103 = 0◦. 004.9
↑
(Move decimal point right three places.)
= 4.9
84 × 102 = 84◦. 00.↑ (Move decimal point right two places.)
= 8400

Rule 4: To convert a number expressed as a negative power of 10 to a decimal number, move the decimal
point to the left as many places as the value of the exponent.

Example 2.6

70 × 10−3 = 0.070
↑ ◦. (The exponent is −3. Therefore move the decimal point three places to the left.)
= 0.07
82.4 × 10−2 = 0.82
↑ ◦. 4 (Move decimal point left two places.)
= 0.824
60 000 × 10−6 = 0.060
↑
000◦. (Move decimal point left six places.)
= 0.06
0.5 × 10−3 = 0.000
↑ ◦. 5 (Move decimal point left three places.)
= 0.0005

Rule 5: To multiply two or more numbers expressed as powers of 10, multiply the coefficients to obtain the
new coefficient and add the exponents to obtain the new exponent of 10.

Example 2.7
102 × 104 = 102+4 = 106 Ans.
10−1 × 104 = 10−1+4 = 103 Ans.
(40 × 103 ) (25 × 102 ) = 40 × 25 × 103 × 102 (40 × 25 = 1000, 3 + 2 = 5)
= 1000 × 105 (But 1000 = 103 )
= 103 × 105
= 108 Ans.
(2 × 10−2 ) (50 × 102 ) = 2 × 50 × 10−2 × 102
= 100 × 100 (But 100 = 102 )
= 102 × 1 (100 = 1)
= 102 Ans.
(3 × 10−4 ) (6 × 106 ) = 3 × 6 × 10−4 × 106
= 18 × 102 Ans.
CHAP. 2] ELECTRICAL STANDARDS AND CONVENTIONS 19

Rule 6: To divide by powers of 10, use the formula

1
= 1 × 10−n
10n
We therefore can transfer any power of 10 from numerator to denominator, or vice versa, simply by changing
the sign of the exponent.

Example 2.8
15 1500
= 15 × 101 = 150 = 1500 × 10−4 = 0.15
10−1 104
15 0.25 × 4
= 15 × 103 = 15 000 = 1.0 × 102 = 100
10−3 10−2

The prefixes in Table 2-4 are expressed as powers of 10 in Table 2-6.

Table 2-6 Metric Prefixes

Expressed as Powers of 10

Metric Prefix Power of 10

mega (M) 106

kilo (k) 103
milli (m) 10−3
micro (µ) 10−6
nano (n) 10−9
pico (p) 10−12

Example 2.9 Problem answers can be expressed in different but equivalent units. For example, 3 000 000  is different
but equivalent to 3 M.
(a) Express 2.1 V in millivolts (mV).

1 V = 103 mV

2.1 V = 2.1 × 103 = 2100 mV Ans.

(b) Express 0.006 A in milliamperes (mA).

1 A = 103 mA

0.006 A = 0.006 × 103 = 6 mA Ans.

(c) Change 356 mV to volts (V).

1 mV = 10−3 V

356 mV = 356 × 10−3 = 0.356 V Ans.

(d) Change 500 000  to megohms (M).

1  = 10−6 M

500 000  × 10−6 = 0.5 M Ans.

20 ELECTRICAL STANDARDS AND CONVENTIONS [CHAP. 2

(e) Change 20 000 000 picofarads (pF) into farads (F).

1 pF = 10−12 F

20 000 000 pF × 10−12 = 0.000 02 F Ans.

SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
In scientific notation, the coefficient of the power of 10 is always expressed with one decimal place and
the required power of 10. Several examples will make the procedure clear.

Example 2.10 Express the following numbers in scientific notation.

300 000 = 3.000
↑
00◦. × 105 (Move decimal point left five places—power is 5 by Rule 1)
= 3 × 105
871 = 8.71 2
↑ ◦. × 10 (Move decimal point left two places—power is 2 by Rule 1)
= 8.71 × 102
7425 = 7.425 3
↑ ◦. × 10 (Move decimal point left three places—power is 3 by Rule 1)
= 7.425 × 103
0.001 = 0◦. 001.↑ × 10−3 (Move decimal point right three places—power is −3 by Rule 2)
= 1 × 10−3
0.015 = 0◦. 01.5
↑
× 10−2 (Move decimal point right two places—power is −2 by Rule 2)
= 1.5 × 10−2

ROUNDING OFF NUMBERS

A number is rounded off by dropping one or more digits at its right. If the digit to be dropped is less than 5,
we leave the digit as it is. For example, 4.1632, if rounded to four digits, would be 4.163; if rounded to three
digits, 4.16. If the digit to be dropped is greater than 5, we increase the digit to its left by 1. For example,
7.3468, if rounded to four digits, would be 7.347; if rounded to three digits, 7.35. If the digit to be dropped is
exactly 5 (that is, 5 followed by nothing but zeros), we increase the digit to its left by 1 if it is an odd number
and we leave the digit to the left as it is if it is an even number. For example, 2.175, when rounded to three
digits, becomes 2.18. The number 2.185 would also round to the same value, 2.18, if rounded to three digits.
Any digit that is needed to define the specific value is said to be significant. For example, a voltage of
115 V has three significant digits: 1, 1, and 5. When rounding off numbers, zero is not counted as a significant
digit if it appears immediately after the decimal point and is followed by other significant digits. Such zeros
must be retained and the count of significant digits must begin at the first significant digit beyond them. For
example, 0.000 12 has two significant digits, 1 and 2, and the preceding zeros don’t count. However, 18.0 has
three significant digits; in this case zero is significant because it is not followed by other significant digits.
In electricity, specific values are usually expressed in three significant digits.

Example 2.11 Round off the following numbers to three significant digits.
We look at the fourth significant digit to the right and observe whether this digit is less than 5, greater than 5, or
equal to 5.
5.6428 = 5.64 0.016 95 = 0.0170
49.67 = 49.7 2078 = 2080
305.42 = 305 1.003 × 10−3 = 1.00 × 10−3
CHAP. 2] ELECTRICAL STANDARDS AND CONVENTIONS 21

782.51 = 783 12.46 × 105 = 12.5 × 105

0.003 842 = 0.003 84 1.865 × 102 = 1.86 × 102
Scientific notation is a convenient way to work problems in electricity. Often, we express a numerical
answer in terms of a prefix rather than leave the answer in scientific notation.

Example 2.12 Express each of the following first in scientific notation and then with a prefix.
(a) 0.000 53 A to milliamperes (mA)

0.000 53 A = 5.3 × 10−4 A

= 0.53 × 10−3 A
= 0.53 mA

(b) 2500 V to kilovolts (kV)

2500 V = 2.5 × 103 V

= 2.5 kV

(c) 0.000 000 1 F to microfarads (µF)

0.000 000 1 F = 1 × 10−7 F

= 10 × 10−6 F
= 10 µF

Solved Problems

Express each of the following in the units indicated.

2.1 2 A to milliamperes

1 A = 1000 mA = 103 mA
Multiply 2 by 1000 to get 2000 mA. Ans.
or Multiply 2 by 103 to get 2 × 103 mA, which is 2000 mA.

2.2 1327 mA to amperes

1 mA = 0.001 A = 10−3 A
Multiply 1327 by 0.001 to get 1.327 A. Ans.
or Multiply 1327 by 10−3 to get 1327 × 10−3 A, which is 1.327 A.

2.3 8.2 k to ohms

1 k = 1000  = 103 
Multiply 8.2 by 1000 to get 8200 . Ans.
or Multiply 8.2 by 103 to get 8.2 × 103  which is 8200 .
22 ELECTRICAL STANDARDS AND CONVENTIONS [CHAP. 2

2.4 680 k to megohms

Use two steps.
Step 1: Convert to ohms.

Multiply 680 by 1000 to get 680 000 .

Step 2: Convert to megohms.

Multiply 680 000  by 0.000 001 to get 0.68 M. Ans.

2.5 10 000 µF to farads

1 µF = 0.000 001 F = 10−6 F

Multiply 10 000 by 0.000 001 to get 0.01 F. Ans.
or Multiply 10 000 by 10−6 to get 10 000 × 10−6 , which is 0.01 F.

2.6 0.000 000 04 s to nanoseconds (ns)

1 s = 1 000 000 000 ns = 109 ns

Multiply 0.000 000 04 by 1 000 000 000 to get 40 ns. Ans.
or Multiply 0.000 000 04 by 109 to get 0.000 000 04 × 109 ns, which is equal to 4 × 101 or 40 ns.

Express the following numbers as decimal numbers.

2.7 0.75 × 103

Move decimal point right three places—Rule 3:

0.75 × 103 = 0◦. 750. = 750

↑
Ans.

2.8 0.75 × 10−3

Move decimal point left three places—Rule 4:

0.75 × 10−3 = 0.000◦. 75 = 0.000 75

↑
Ans.

2.9 (2.1 × 10−1 )(4 × 102 )

(2.1 × 10−1 )(4 × 102 ) = 2.1 × 4 × 10−1 × 102

= 8.4 × 101 (Rule 5)
= 84 (Rule 3) Ans.

2.10 Express 4160 in scientific notation.

Move decimal point left three places—Rule 1:

4160 = 4.160◦. × 103 = 4.160 × 103

↑
Ans.
CHAP. 2] ELECTRICAL STANDARDS AND CONVENTIONS 23

Express each quantity in the following problems in scientific notation and then perform the indicated arithmetic
calculation.

2.11 0.072 × 1000

Express 0.072 = 7.2 × 10−2 (Move decimal point right two places—Rule 2)



Then 0.072 × 1000 = 7.2 × 10−2 1 × 103


= (7.2 × 1) 10−2 × 103
= 7.2 × 10 (Rule 5)
= 72 (Rule 3) Ans.

2.12 0.0045 × 100

Express 0.0045 = 4.5 × 10−3 (Move decimal point right three places—Rule 2)
100 = 1 × 102 (Move decimal point left two places—Rule 1)



Then 0.0045 × 100 = 4.5 × 10−3 1 × 102


= (4.5 × 1) 10−3 × 102
= 4.5 × 10−1 (Rule 5)
= 0.45 (Rule 4) Ans.

2.13 7500 ÷ 100

Express 7500 = 7.5 × 103 (Move decimal point left three places—Rule 1)
100 = 1 × 102 (Move decimal point left two places—Rule 1)
7500 7.5 × 103
Then =
100 1 × 102



= 7.5 103 × 10−2 1/102 = 10−2
= 7.5 × 101 (Rule 5)
= 75 (Rule 3) Ans.

4000
2.14
2000

Express 4000 = 4 × 103 (Move decimal point left three places—Rule 1)

2000 = 2 × 103 (Move decimal point left three places—Rule 1)
1
4000 10
4 × 3
= =2 Ans.
2000 10
2 × 3
1
Note that any factor divided by itself cancels out to 1. That is, 103 /103 = 103−3 = 100 = 1.

1000 × 0.008
2.15
0.002 × 500
Express 1000 = 1 × 103 (Move decimal point left three places—Rule 1)
0.008 = 8 × 10−3 (Move decimal point right three places—Rule 2)
0.002 = 2 × 10−3 (Move decimal point right three places—Rule 2)
500 = 5 × 102 (Move decimal point left two places—Rule 1)
24 ELECTRICAL STANDARDS AND CONVENTIONS [CHAP. 2



1000 × 0.008 1 × 103 8 × 10−3
Then =


0.002 × 500 2 × 10−3 5 × 102
1 × 8 × 103 × 10−3
=
2 × 5 × 10−3 × 102
8 × 100
= (Rule 5)
10 × 10−1
8×1
= (Rule 5)
100
=8 Ans.

1
2.16
4 × 100 000 × 0.000 05

Express 4=4
100 000 = 1 × 105 (Move decimal point left five places—Rule 1)
0.000 05 = 5 × 10−5 (Move decimal point right five places—Rule 2)
1 1
Then =


4 × 100 000 × 0.000 05 4 1 × 105 5 × 10−5
1
=

(4 × 5) 105 × 10−5
1
= (Rule 5)
20 × 100
1
= (Rule 1)
2 × 10 × 1
10−1

= Rule 6, 1/10 = 10−1
2
= 0.5 × 10−1
= 0.05 (Rule 4) Ans.

2.17 We might read 220 V on a certain type of voltmeter, but a precision instrument might show that voltage
to be 220.4 V, and a series of precise measurements might show the voltage to be 220.47 V. How many
significant digits does each measurement have?
220 V, three significant digits
220.4 V, four significant digits
220.47 V, five significant digits
If the accuracy of measurement required is five places, then the instrument must measure to at
least five significant digits.
In Problems 2.18–2.20, perform the indicated operations. Round off the figures in the results, if necessary,
and express answers to three significant digits as a number from 1 through 10 and the proper power of 10.

0.256 × 338 × 10−9

2.18
865 000

Express 0.256 = 2.56 × 10−1

338 = 3.38 × 102
865 000 = 8.65 × 105
CHAP. 2] ELECTRICAL STANDARDS AND CONVENTIONS 25




0.256 × 338 × 10−9 2.56 × 10−1 3.38 × 102 10−9
Then =
865 000 8.56 × 105
2.56 × 3.38
−1 
= 10 × 102 × 10−9 × 10−5
8.65


= (1.00) 1013
= 1.00 × 10−13 Ans.

2800 × 75.61
2.19
0.000 900 5 × 0.0834

Express 2800 = 2.8 × 103

75.61 = 7.561 × 101
0.000 900 5 = 9.005 × 10−4
0.0834 = 8.34 × 10−2



2800 × 75.61 2.8 × 103 7.561 × 101
Then =


0.000 900 5 × 0.0834 9.005 × 10−4 8.34 × 10−2
2.8 × 7.561 103 × 101 21.17 104
= =
9.005 × 8.34 10−4 × 10−2 75.10 10−6
= 0.2819 × 1010
= 2.819 × 10−1 × 1010
= 2.82 × 109 Ans.

1
2.20
6.28 × 400 × 106 × 25 × 10−12

1 1
Then



=

6.28 4 × 102 106 2.5 × 101 10−12 (6.28 × 4 × 2.5) 102 × 106 × 101 × 10−12
1
= = 0.0159 × 103
62.80 × 10−3
= 1.59 × 10−2 × 103
= 1.59 × 101 = 15.9 Ans.

Supplementary Problems

Express each of the following in the units indicated (use powers of 10 where applicable).

2.21 5 600 000  in megohms Ans. 5.6 M

2.22 2.2 M in ohms Ans. 2 200 000  or 2.2 × 106 

2.23 0.330 M in kilohms Ans. 330 k

2.24 0.013 kV in volts Ans. 13 V

2.25 0.24 A in milliamperes Ans. 240 mA

26 ELECTRICAL STANDARDS AND CONVENTIONS [CHAP. 2

2.26 20 000 µA in amperes Ans. 0.02 A

2.27 0.25 mA in microamperes Ans. 250 µA

2.28 10 000 V in kilovolts Ans. 10 kV

2.29 4 000 000 W in megawatts (MW) Ans. 4 MW

2.30 5 000 kW in megawatts Ans. 5 MW

2.31 200 ns in seconds Ans. 0.000 000 2 s or 2 × 10−7 s

Express each of the following as decimal numbers.

2.32 0.006 × 102 Ans. 0.6

2.33 43.41 × 100 Ans. 4341

2.34 0.0053 × 103 Ans. 5.3

2.35 400/103 Ans. 0.4

2.36 3 × 10−2 Ans. 0.03

2.37 100 000 × 10−4 Ans. 10

2.38 (0.5 × 0.03)/10−2 Ans. 1.5

2.39 (3.1 × 10−1 )(2 × 10−2 ) Ans. 0.0062


2.40 600/ 5 × 102 Ans. 1.2

Express each of the following in scientific notation, that is, as a number from 1 to 10 and the proper
power of 10.

2.41 120 000 Ans. 1.2 × 105

2.42 0.006 45 Ans. 6.45 × 10−3

2.43 2 300 000 Ans. 2.3 × 106

2.44 550 × 10−4 Ans. 5.5 × 10−2

2.45 0.0008 × 103 Ans. 8 × 10−1

Perform the indicated operations. Express the answer in scientific notation.

200 × 0.008
2.46 Ans. 8 × 10−1
0.02 × 103

1
2.47

 Ans. 5
4 × 104 0.5 × 10−5
CHAP. 2] ELECTRICAL STANDARDS AND CONVENTIONS 27



3.2 × 102 1.4 × 10−1
2.48

 Ans. 5.6 × 10
2 × 10−3 4 × 102

400 000
2.49 Ans. 2 × 10−2
2 × 107



300 4 × 10−5 102
2.50 Ans. 1 × 10−3
12 × 102

Round off the following numbers to three significant digits.

2.51 3.824 Ans. 3.82

2.52 3.825 Ans. 3.82

2.53 3.826 Ans. 3.83

2.54 205.6 Ans. 206

2.55 0.004 152 Ans. 0.004 15

2.56 2096 Ans. 2100

2.57 7.803 × 102 Ans. 7.80 × 102

2.58 0.001 205 × 10−3 Ans. 0.001 20 × 10−3

Perform the indicated operations. Round off the answers to three-place accuracy.



8.31 × 100 5.7 × 103
2.59

 Ans. 7.52 × 10−2
2.1 × 10−1 3.0 × 106




5 × 102 6 × 104 9 × 1016
2.60


 Ans. 2.57 × 104
7 × 10−6 5 × 1010 3 × 1014

170 000(6910) (100 000)

2.61 Ans. 2.37 × 105
9185(54 000)

790(0.0014) (0.01)
2.62 Ans. 3.69 × 10−3
0.000 006(500 000)

Graphical Symbols and Electrical Diagrams

SCHEMATIC DIAGRAM
A simple electric circuit is shown in pictorial form in Fig. 2-1a. The same circuit is drawn in schematic
form in Fig. 2-1b. The schematic diagram is a shorthand way to draw an electric circuit, and circuits usually
are represented in this way. In addition to the connecting wires, three components are shown symbolically
28 ELECTRICAL STANDARDS AND CONVENTIONS [CHAP. 2

in Fig. 2-1b: the dry cell, the switch, and lamp. Note the positive (+) and the negative (−) markings in
both pictorial and schematic representations of the dry cell. The schematic components represent the pictorial
components in a simplified manner. A schematic diagram then is one that shows by means of graphic symbols
the electrical connections and the functions of the different parts of a circuit.

Fig. 2-1 A simple lamp circuit

The standard graphic symbols for the commonly used electrical and electronic components are given in
Fig. 2-2.
Examples of common letter symbols used to denote various circuit components are given in Table 2-7.

Table 2-7 Examples of Letter Symbols for Circuit Components

Part Letter Example

Resistor R R3 , 120 k
Capacitor C C5 , 20 pF
Inductor L L1 , 25 mH
Rectifier (metallic or crystal) CR CR2
Transformer T T2
Transistor Q Q5 , 2N482 Detector
Jack J J1

A schematic diagram of a two-transistor radio receiver is shown in Fig. 2-3. The circuit diagram in Fig. 2-3
shows the components in the order from left to right in which they are used to convert radio waves into sound
waves. With the use of the diagram, it is then possible to trace the operation of the circuit from the incoming
signal at the antenna to the output at the headphones. The components in a schematic diagram are identified
by letter symbols such as R for resistors, C for capacitors, L for inductors, and Q for transistors (Table 2-7).
Symbols are further identified by letter–number combinations such as R1 , R2 , and R3 (sometimes written as
R1, R2, R3) to prevent confusion when more than one type of component is used (Fig. 2-3). The letters B,
C, and E near the transistor symbols indicate the base, collector, and emitter of the transistors (Fig. 2-3). The
numerical values of components are often indicated directly in the schematic diagram, such as 220 k for R1
and 0.022 µF for C2 (Fig. 2-3). When these values are not given in this way, they are stated in the parts list
or the notes which accompany the diagram.
CHAP. 2] ELECTRICAL STANDARDS AND CONVENTIONS 29

Fig. 2-2 Standard circuit symbols

Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
and Lead remain white. These Glasses being (by an artificial
reduction) reduced into their bodies, are much better and nobler
than they were before. This sudden fire also clippeth the wings of
Mercury, so that part of him is constrained with the ♃ to abide the
fire. That swift fluxing powder which is compounded of Nitre, Tartar,
and Sulphur, mentioned in the second part of my Furnaces, is also
not to be contemned, for when that mass is mixed with ☿, and
kindled by a live Coal, the ☿ is altered, as when it is to suffer the fire,
it maketh a cracking noise, till it breaks through the fire, but being
apprehended by the Fulmen of Jove, it hath no time allowed it to cry
out; for when it beginneth to feel the heat, it singeth a Swan-like
song, but before it can break out from the Fulmen it is killed. Basilius
calleth this The Song of the Swan, alluding to what the Ancients
have delivered concerning that Bird, viz. That when she is old, and
ready to die, she sings a song, which being ended, she presently
dieth. This Saying the vulgar believe of that Bird, which yet is false,
seeing that I never yet heard any man say that he had heard the
Song of a dying Swan. The ancient Philosophers hereby meant our
Metallick Swan. But let any one enquire, whether the Amalgama of
♃ and ☿ may be compared with a Swan; because it may every way
be broken, within and without, it is like to the Feathers of the said
Bird, and therefore the Philosophers have not unfitly called it a
Swan. As for its singing, it is thus; When the Amalgama is mixt with
Salt-Petre, and wrapt up in Papers, and one after another of them
cast into the Iron man, the ☿ with the ♃ beginneth to sing a Song
like the fine Note of some Bird, which endureth no longer than the
crowing of a Cock, seeing that the flame presently followeth, which
maketh the separation.
But that any one may be more certain of this matter, I will openly
and clearly expound the Operation word by word.
R. of Tin and ☿ each ℔ j. make an Amalgama, as I have taught
above; grind this with ℔ ij. of pure Salt-Petre, freed from all its
fæces, reducing the whole mass into a minute powder, till the
Amalgama can be no more felt by the fingers. This fine powder
distribute into sixty equal parts, more or less, and put each part into
a Paper, so that every Paper may contain about two lothones, or an
ounce, wrap them up: This quantity is not to be exceeded, especially
if the Iron man and the Receivers be not large; for the lesser Vessels
require the less of the matter: For the matter being cast into the
red-hot Vessel in Papers, when it taketh flame, giveth a crack or puff
like Gun-powder, which is kindled with a Coal. The Labour is easie,
which may be called The Work of Women, or Play of Boys. For as
soon as one Paper is enkindled, the vapours ascending with smoak
and wind, pass into the Receivers, which being quietly settled,
another Paper is presently to be cast in that it may sing its Swan-like
Song, and pass into the Receivers in a fume. This casting in of the
Papers is so long to be continued till they are all spent. You can
scarcely put in above ten Papers, or fifteen at the most, in an hour;
for if one Paper be cast in too soon after another, the ascending
Spirits of the ♃ and ☿ would not all settle, but some would fly out at
the hole of the last Receiver, and be lost. By this means the Iron
man is nourished by degrees with his food, viz. the white Swan,
even as Infants are successively fed by their Mothers.
After all the Papers are in, the fire is to be let go out of its own
accord; and when all the Spirits are condensed in the Receivers, the
Receivers are to be removed one after another, in which is the
Anima of Tin and Mercury, and of that metal which was added, of a
white or ashy colour, if Tin and Mercury only were used. But if Gold
was added, it will be of a purple colour; if Silver, of a yellow; if
Copper, the colour will be reddish. And this is not only to be
understood of the matter which passeth into the Receiver, but also
of that which remains in the bottom of the Iron man. The Anima
hideth it self in the corporeal flowers which ascend into the
Receivers, by which it is the more easily acquired, and which
otherwise, perhaps, by reason of its great subtilty, would be very
difficult to obtain. If you can put your hand into the Receivers, you
may take out the flowers with a bent spoon, which hide the Anima;
but if not, with an Iron Wier fitted for the scraping them off, or by
washing them out with Water, which are to be handled further, as
you shall presently hear.
The mass remaining in the stomach of the Iron man, being taken
out when it is cold, hath a fiery nature and a white colour, if it were
only of Tin and Nitre, but if any other metal was added, the colour
will be varied, as above. This mass cannot be reduced to its former
body by Fire alone, how vehement soever it be, seeing that when it
is melted, it runneth into glass, and that too very difficultly.
Nevertheless, by the following operation it may be reduced to its
pristine Body: Put it into a very strong Crucible, which cover, and set
in a Wind-Furnace that will give a very strong Fire (such as is my
Fourth Furnace) the Fire being raised by degrees, let it be made
white-hot, and when it is so, the Cover being a little removed, throw
into the fiery mass a little Sulphur, Antimony, or Coals in fine powder,
put on the Cover again, and lastly, cover the Crucible over with
Coals, that all the matter may flow well. In this operation the
combustible Sulphur will enter the fixt Nitre, and separate it from the
fixed Metal, and with the same, whatsoever of Sulphur, Antimony, or
Coals was added, will be turned into black Scoria. The Tin, with the
Mercury, and the Metal, if any were added, separateth it self from
the Scoria, and returneth into a metallick body, which after it is
poured out and cold, is to be Separated from the Scoria. Jupiter hath
the aspect of his former body, but is amended, as the proof will
shew him that pleaseth to make it; the remaining Scoria are to be
kept, because an excellent universal Medicine may be made of them.
The Regulus being melted again, is again to be amalgamated with
its own weight of Mercury, which Amalgama is to be mixed with its
equal weight of Nitre, and put up into Papers, and again cast into
the Iron man, as we have shewed before, that the Flowers and
Anima may be collected and added to the former. The remaining
mass is to be precipitated with sulphur, as before, and the Scoria
being separated from the Regulus, to be added to the former, and
the Regulus to be again brought with Mercury to an Amalgama, that
with Nitre the Flowers and Anima may be again elicited. This Labour
is to be so often repeated, until half the Regulus be converted into
scoria: That part which remains being examined by the Cupel, will
shew how much gold and silver is generated by this Labour. Which
profit will serve to buy other Coals and Metals to carry on the Work.
The Anima which passed into the Receivers yieldeth a most excellent
medicine; so do also the scoria which were reserved at divers times,
afford one little inferiour to that; and how they are to be handled,
we will teach in order. Therefore by this only operation a universal
medicine for humane and metallick bodies is acquired particularly,
and from the remaining part, an amended metal paying the
necessary costs which are required for the continuing the great
Work.
How therefore particularly of Tin and Copper often fulminated,
one may get a profit not to be contemned, I will clearly shew;
forasmuch as I have not performed that labour only once, but many
times; in like manner I will deliver the way and mode whereby an
excellent medicine may be prepared for the curing of all curable
Diseases, which also I have often done. But how a Universal
medicine may be prepared of the Anima of metals, for humane and
metallick bodies, I cannot teach; for I have not hitherto had time
and opportunity of perfecting so great a Work. Nevertheless, I do
not at all doubt, but that the Philosophick stone may be made of this
Anima: But by what means I think this may be effected, (saving to
every man his own judgment) I will not conceal from the studious of
the Divine Wonders. What I have done with my hands, I can render
others the more certain of; those things which I have not done, I
leave as they are. The beginning of the Labour I have clearly enough
proposed; from which, if any man cannot learn more, ’tis best for
him to abstain from this kind of Labour.
All the Philosophers cry out with one voice, Fix the volatile, and
volatilize the fixt, and you shall have the true universal medicine.
From which scope he will not erre, who shall take good subjects for
his work. Therefore, because in this our operation, Gold (besides the
rest of the metals) being endowed with a most pure body, is
rendered volatile and fugacious, and stript of its Anima, verily it will
be credible, that of the Anima of Gold, if the Anima of Mercury shall
be joined with it and digested to fixation, may be made the
Salamander constant in the Fire. The purple Anima of Gold and
Mercury which hath passed into the Receivers, I free from the
Flowers of Tin, by washing it out with the sweet universal Water,
known to every one, filtring it through Paper, coagulate it, and then
fix it into a tinging stone. And I doubt not, but some good thing will
thence proceed.
From the scoria remaining after the reduction, you may easily
extract a medicine. Nevertheless, those scoria are divers, and have a
diverse nature; for those which remain after the operation with Tin
and Argent-vive, are of another nature and property than those
which proceed from the working with other Metals adjoined to those
two, as Gold, Silver, Copper, or Iron. Every Metal hath its own proper
powers and virtues, which in the extraction of the Scoria go forth
together, and render that Extract more noble, or else diminish its
virtues. Gold and Silver have a different nature and properties from
Copper and Iron. Nevertheless Copper and Iron are not malignant or
hurtful in the Scoria, but also possess great virtues. Nevertheless the
greatest virtues which are elicited from the Scoria, are to be taken
for a Tincture of Sulphur; for the Metals being destroyed by
fulmination, and again reduced into a body, leave but a very small
part in the Scoria, seeing that their greatest part returneth into a
metallick body. Therefore the Scoria principally consist of fixt Nitre,
and that Sulphur by which the destroyed Metals are again reduced
into a metallick body from the Nitre. The Scoria of the Metals
destroyed and precipitated by Coals, or common Sulphur, have one
and the same nature, virtues, and properties. The Scoria of that
reduction made by Antimony, partake of another nature, to wit, of a
grosser and stronger than those which are made by common
Sulphur or Coals, for they sometimes cause vomiting, which the
other do not.
And this I would note, that because Antimony as yet containeth
many Arsenical qualities, common Sulphur containeth but few, and
Coals none at all; that therefore also the Scoria made by these, are
safer than the other; nevertheless, I confess that those are
somewhat cruder, and more immature than those made with
Antimony; but being extracted with Spirit of Wine, yield an excellent
Tincture, which is a kind of a Universal Medicine; for it is sufficiently
known, that no subjects (Gold and Silver excepted) are found fitter
for Medicine, than Antimony and common Sulphur. And because
Wood-Coals exactly answer to this common Sulphur in their nature,
properties, powers, and virtue, therefore I commend the Scoria’s
made by them, and prefer them to those prepared by Mineral
Sulphur and Antimony; not that there is a greater efficacy in Coals
than in Antimony and common Sulphur, but because those of Coals
dissolved by fixt Nitre, are rendered more apt and easie to render
their virtues to spirit of Wine, are of a more easie extraction, and are
somewhat more familiar to the animal nature, than common Sulphur
and Antimony. But the Medicine prepared of either of those scoria, is
efficacious, and differeth but little in its external species and colour.
All the difference in those Tinctures, is, That that which is extracted
from the Antimonial scoria, if it be taken in a little the larger dose,
before fixation, causeth vomiting, and operateth more forcibly than
the other two. All three after the manner of sulphurs, gild silver, help
the growth of Vegetables, by dunging, and nourish and augment
Gold being made spiritual, and closed up in the moist way.
And although I do not yet know what it can perform in the
transmutation of Metals, yet I am perswaded, that if it were fixed
and rendered constant in the Fire, and made to have ingress into
metals, that it would effect something in transmutation. It sufficeth
me at this time to have indicated the way by which a universal
Remedy against all curable Diseases, is to be prepared of the
remaining scoria. He that desires to know more, let him set to his
hand, and search farther; the way is opened to him: But if he
desires somewhat better, let him set upon the Spirit of Mercury and
Gold, which is forced into the Receivers, and search for it in that. As
for the remaining parts, viz. the metallick flowers, and the running
Argent-vive, which passed together into the Receivers, the running
Argent-vive may be separated from the Flowers, and used again for
the like labour, by amalgamating it with Jupiter. The Flowers are
again to be reduced with the fulminated metals, that nothing of the
Gold and Silver may be lost; so this labour being continued, will give
a perpetual encrease of Gold and Silver, besides the tinging Anima,
and the Expences will be only for the Salt-Petre, which will be little
to those who know how to make Salt-Petre themselves, for the
making of which, I have shewed the way; so that without any great
labour, trouble, and cost, not only an honest livelihood may be
gotten, but also a good medicine, for the relief and comfort of the
forsaken Sick.
But before I conclude this my concentration of metals by Salt-
petre, I think fit here to adjoin some admonitions for the benefit of
the studious of these Labours. When in the reduction of the metals
destroyed by the Fulmen of Jove, the scoria are left too long upon
the gold, and not poured off in due time, they (after a certain
magnetick manner) attract the remaining Anima which the Fulmen
hath left in the Gold, and leave the whole pale. If Argent-vive be
amalgamated afresh with this pale Gold, and this Labour sometimes
repeated, the Gold will be wholly spoil’d of its Anima, being partly
driven into the Receivers, and that which is left attracted by the
scoria, then the gold loseth all its colour, and the scoria put on a
bloody colour. From this red scoria the Tincture is to be extracted, by
a certain singular Artifice, and to be used in the known manner. The
pale Gold recovereth its yellow colour by Iron, Copper or Antimony.
Moreover, this is also to be observed, When by the Fulmen of Jove
the anima of ☉ and ☿ is propelled into the Receivers, the Receivers
being taken off, the Flowers which hide the Anima, are to be taken
out, and kept in Glasses close stopt. For the said Anima of ☉ and ☿
is so spiritual, volatile, and fugacious, that like a Bird it presently flies
away, and leaves an empty Nest; the truth of which thing I have
experienced. He that will not believe what I say, let him try, and he
will find it to be true.
But that I may shew the studious of the Hermetick Medicine how
he may experience this matter, I will declare by what chance I my
self came to know it.
 At a certain time, when I had taken the anima of Gold and
Mercury, made by the Fulmen of Jove, out of the Receivers, not
clearing one Receiver so well, but that somewhat of the anima
remained therein; I put in some ounces of Water, that I might
thereby the better wash out the remaining Flowers: In the mean
time, some more urgent business called me away, I set the Receiver
with the Water in it, upon a Table in my Laboratory, before or near a
Window, and forgetting it, left it there for some daies; the Cold
being then very sharp, in that time had frozen all into Ice; I coming
into my Laboratory, to see if some Glasses, in which were Water,
were not broken by the Ice, as is usual, I found some wholly filled
with Ice, and seeing this Receiver to lie there, I presently believed
that Receiver to be broken by the Frost; but taking it up in my hand,
I found that the Water in it was not frozen, but remained clear,
therefore I rejoiced that the Glass remained unhurt, and wondered
much whence it should proceed; but I could impute it to no other
thing, but to the hot spirit of Gold and Mercury, of which
notwithstanding there could not above three or four grains remain in
the Glass, which although so very little, preserved some ounces of
Water from freezing. From that time weighing the matter more
diligently, I found an incredible heat in that Anima. Let others
enquire and search what may be performed by such a heat; this I
know, that hereafter there will be sedulous Artists, who will thank
me for this my faithful Institution.
For it is very likely, that this subtile and fiery Spirit of Gold and
Mercury, such as it yet is before fixation, may be presently used with
great profit, in the taking away many occult Diseases of the Body.
Moreover, it is to be observed, That if Metals, whether Gold, Silver,
or Copper be to be conjoined by amalgamation with Tin and Argent-
vive, they ought first to be reduced into pure and shining Calces,
that they may be the more readily received by the Mercury: But only
a fourth or sixth part of the Calx is to be added in the
Amalgamation, lest the Tin (by too great a quantity of the Calx) be
hindered in fulminating, for the whole operation consisteth in a right
fulmination. But lest any should erre in working, he may first make
trial, whether all things be well mixed and prepared, by putting half
a dram of the mixture into a small Crucible, and upon that a live
Coal, and beholding the Fulmen with an intent eye, that he may see
what colour it gives: If it riseth so white and clear, that it dazleth the
eyes, as the looking upon the Sun is wont to do, all things are rightly
and orderly mixt; the smoak is tinged with the colour of the adjoined
Metal, as Purple from Gold, Blue from Silver, Green from Copper, but
Tin and Argent-vive only give White. Also from the Mass remaining
in the Crucible, it may be seen whether the Fulmen be rightly
performed, viz. if the Caput Mort. or residing Mass be porous, and
fiery upon the Tongue, being touched therewith. The Colours also of
that Mass are various, according to the added Metal; Tin and Argent-
vive alone leave a fiery white matter.
Neither is this to be passed by, being of no small moment, viz. If
you seek not a Medicine, but only the emendation of Metals, it is not
necessary to add Mercury with the Metals, but the Gold, Silver, or
Copper may be melted with Tin, for so they become a brittle Mass,
which may be powdered in a Mortar, and mixed with an equal
weight, or a little more, of Salt-petre, and put into a strong Crucible,
and covered, then put into a circular fire, so that the fire may
approach it by degrees, till the Crucible and Matter be hot, and at
length taking flame, may be enkindled and dispersed. In which
operation many Flowers flie away, and a fiery Mass remaineth in the
bottom, which is again to be reduced into a metallick body in a
strong Crucible, in a Wind-Furnace, by the addition of some
combustible sulphur, and after the reduction, to be reduced again
into powder, and mixed with fresh Nitre, and again treated in the
same manner, by sometimes repeating the former Labour. At length
that Mass being reduced in a Crucible, the Gold, Silver, or Copper will
be found augmented by the Tin.
NB. Because in this operation, not a little of the Metals flies away
in fume, the Crucible may be set in some Wall, and on the Wall over
it some Vessels or subliming Pots capacious enough may be fastened
over it, that the Metals being kindled by the Fulmen, the elevated
Flowers may be preserved and advanced to a purer Metal than they
were before. This Labour doth not differ much from the Operation of
Basilius, in which Salt-petre saith, My Lover is a cheerful or pleasant
Woman, &c.
There are only two feminine Metals, viz. Luna and Venus, either of
which serveth to this Labour, yet this is more profitable than that,
yea, and the same Labour giveth an augment to Sol, Mars, and
Saturn, which are not feminine. When Tin is melted with ♀ or ☽,
these pleasant females are elevated with joy, they sing, dance, and
suffer themselves to be handled in what manner soever it shall
please one to treat them, therefore they are called brisk or pleasant
Women. This is an Operation not to be contemned, forasmuch as it
well compensateth the Labour, and requireth but small costs besides
the Salt-Petre, and also may be wrought in a great quantity, but our
former with Mercury is better. There is yet more lies hid in this
operation, but I think it not necessary here to recount all things. Let
the Reader kindly accept of this, and shortly (God willing) more and
better shall follow.
Whatsoever I have here written, is the very truth, and confirmed
by many Experiments, in which every one may safely confide, and if
he operates aright, will find the truth; for all things here delivered,
are to be understood according to the Letter, and so to be observed
in all the Labours.
 A

T R E A T I S E
Of an Universal Medicine;
OR ,

A True Aurum Potabile.

Being an accurate Description of a True Universal Medicine, and of
its admirable Virtue and Efficacy which it sheweth upon the
Vegetables, Animals, and Minerals. A Gift presented unto all
such Noblemen as are desirous to preserve their Health, and to
attain to a Long Life; it being an Universal Medicine, or A True
Aurum Potabile.

A
fter that I had by G O D’S assistance described three excellent
Processes in the Continuation of the Miraculum Mundi, and
had bestowed the same on men of several orders, that
thereby they might the easilier, and with a safer Conscience, provide
themselves with Food and Raiment: I was also desirous of tendering
some small Present to Noblemen too, and such who are of eminent
power and authority, and whom I had not forgotten to present with
some Gift, which may serve for the preservation of their good health
for a long time, and for the restauration of it when lost.
For it is a thing of the greatest Concernment for the Nobles, and
such men as are placed in the degree of Power and Authority, to
have the fruition of bodily health, whereby they may wisely rule over
the subjects committed unto them by God, and may use a sound
mind about the defence of the Good, and the punishment of the
Ungodly. Now a sound mind inhabiting in a sound body, doth
proceed (next after the Divine Grace) out of a sound Heart and
Brain. And it cannot be, that a publick Government can be rightly
and well administred without a good Health; and this is as clear and
evident as the noonday light is. Forasmuch therefore as the safety
and preservation of all Kingdoms and Republicks is placed in the
Wisdom of their Rulers and Magistrates, and that imprudence and
ignorance of the Rulers is wont to ruin their Subjects, it is a thing of
the highest consequence to save the Head of the whole Kingdom or
Country sound, whole, cheerful, prudent and ingenious, and that he
be not made unfit or uncapable for the Government, by diseases,
sadness, slothfulness, and stupidity. Therefore the love of my
Neighbour constrains me to publish this Universal Medicine for the
sake of the Great ones of the World, seeing it is so much conducive
to the perpetual felicity and happiness of a sound and good
Government; for no man can be said to be a sound man, if he be
not of a sound constitution of Body. What benefit, I pray, can a sick
man bring to himself, or to other men? Verily none at all, but is
rather an hindrance and detriment both to himself, and unto others
likewise: For when the Head is ill, there are a great many Members
must serve it; but if the Head be sound and well, it exerciseth the
governance of the whole Body very happily.
What profit has a man that is tormented with Sicknesses and
Dolours, of all his vast Wealth and Riches, since he can neither use
them nor enjoy them, looking upon them with a kind of nauseate,
and at last leaving them with grief behind. Certainly a sound body is
to be preferred far before all the Treasures of this World, and no
body will gain-say this. He is to be judged the Happiest man, that
possesseth those two the greatest Gifts of God, viz. good Health and
Riches. Sickness and Poverty are to be esteemed worse than even
Death it self.
We sometimes see, that pious Magistrates and Governours are
snatcht away, and killed with small Diseases, which otherwise might
have yet Ruled very many years over their subjects, had they had
but good Medicaments, by help whereof they might have been
succoured.
As for the way of Conserving good Health, and recovering it when
lost, this little Book doth most exactly shew the same, which I
commend unto all those who are desirous of its preservation.
 Of a Universal Medicine,
O R,

AURUM POTABILE.

T
he Medicine that is honoured with the Title of Universal must
be of this property, viz. to operate universally upon the three
Kingdoms, viz. the Vegetable, Animal, and the Mineral, and to
be able to succour each of them, as a most high Medicine should do.
Whatsoever now does not abound with such an excellent property,
the Title of Universal is falsly attributed unto it; nor is it worthy such
a Noble Name.
Therefore it doth, in the first place, behove me really, and in very
deed, to demonstrate in this Book which treats of such a Universal
medicine, that this same medicine which is so intituled, doth also
possess those very same virtues and properties which a Universal
medicine ought to have. And farther, Such a Universal medicine
ought not only to be a most friendly Auxiliary and Helper, universally,
to those three Kingdoms, viz. the Vegetable, Animal, and Mineral,
but it is likewise necessary that it be also preparable out of all those
three Kingdoms, Vegetable, Animal, and Mineral, and that too out of
each apart, without the addition of any peregrine thing, and without
any great labour, for the benefit and profit as well of the Poor as of
the Rich.
They therefore do extreamly erre who are of such a foolish
opinion, as to Dream that the matter of the universal medicine is
only produced in such or such a place, and is to be fetch’d out of
this or that Country with a great deal of Labour and Charges.
This opinion is Diametrically opposite to the common Vogue and
Saying of all true Philosophers, who do unanimously confess, that
their matter is every where to be found, and every one has it, and it
is in the possession both of the Poor and of the Rich: And this verily
is so open and evident a Saying, that nothing can be spoken more
apparently.
For my part, I do affirm, that this Art is Vegetable, Animal, and
Mineral, and that there is not a man to be found in the whole World,
that has not the knowledge of this universal matter, and that does
not use the same. Yea more, I do also affirm, that even a new-born
Infant cannot live without it.
I have already accurately demonstrated in many places of the
Writings I have hitherto published, that Nitre is found in all the
things of the whole World; and so not only in all Vegetables,
Animals, and Minerals, but also in the very Elements themselves, viz.
in the Earth, in the Water, in the Air, in the Fire: And for this reason
it both may, and deservedly ought to be called a Universal matter;
for without the Elements can no man live. And now, whether any
one believes this which I here mention, or does not credit it, ’tis all a
case to me, what I have said I have said, nor need I say more. And
thus much let suffice concerning the universal matter.
The Preparation I have openly enough treated of in many places
of my Writings, but especially in my Miraculum Mundi, and in the
other Writings thereunto appertaining; and therefore I forbear to
make any more prolix declaration, and to multiply any more words
about it.
But yet notwithstanding, I do here adjoin thus much, and confess,
that although I have several times prepared that universal medicine,
yet the Preparation thereof has not at all times answered my
desires; nor hath it as yet been ever brought by me unto the utmost
perfection and fixation, because I have wanted both time and
opportunity of accomplishing it, and many other Impediments have
hindered me from compassing the same according to my mind. But
as concerning what Progress I have therein made, and that I can as
yet perform or finish the same in three daies time; this, I say, I will
consecrate to eternal memory, and in no case hold my peace, but
speak on, for the instructions sake of Posterity.
 And this I do to this end, that the omnipotence and bounty of God
may be the more manifest, and that His Divine Name may be
honoured the more, and that many Thousands of Sick people may
be succoured with a most present and speedy Remedy.
This is the only cause that stirred me up to make this Discourse of
the universal medicine; for I neither would, nor indeed ought I to
burthen my Conscience by the concealment thereof, nor to hide and
bury with me in my Grave, such a noble Gift of God, and the Talent
which of His Gracious Benignity He hath been pleased to bestow
upon me.
But yet I would not that any one should perswade himself that he
shall (by his soothing words and large promises of golden
mountains) squeeze out from me the Preparation of the same,
whereby he may make use thereof to lead his Life in Pleasures,
Pride, and Impiety, and so hurt poor mankind. No, let such an one
be assured, that I will never do so, for it is not in my power to reveal
to every one such a great Gift, and which is of God, and not of Man,
but ’tis in the power of God alone so to do: And as for my self, I
would much rather die, than to reveal and prostitute it to a wicked
man. Besides, I would not have any one to suppose, that whereas I
call this medicine of mine Universal, it is therefore able to transmute
the Imperfect metals into Gold, so as to furnish one with such vast
Treasures as the Philosophers attribute unto their universal
medicine: No, for I am as yet ignorant of such a transmutation, nor
indeed do I covet it, or gape thereafter, but give unto God only most
great Thanks for that medicine, by which (being vouchsafed me of
His meer bounty) I am able to succour the miserable, sick,
tormented, and diseased ones, and celebrate the glory and benignity
of the Lord. I do withal readily confess, that I have not as hitherto
received any benefit at all therefrom about the bettering of the
Metals thereby; nor do I at all seek after any benefits in that kind of
way, being contented with that Medicine, advanced to such a pass,
as whereby it may be able to suffice me to get Food and Raiment by
God’s help. I covet not after abundance of Riches, and do only beg
of God, that He would neither afflict me with Poverty and Want, nor
bestow on me too much Satiety and Fulness, lest I should be lifted
up with Pride, and say, Who is the Lord? Nay verily, if I could with
this Medicine get my self great benefit, as to the metallick affairs,
yet would I not do it, nor would I lay out such a great Gift of God,
upon temporary things, thereby to rob the poor, miserable, sick
people of the same, for whose sake God was pleased to bestow it.
Perhaps it may so come to pass, that this my Medicine may, by the
labour of diligent searchers, be brought to such a pass, as to be
capable of exercising its power upon the lesser and imperfect
metals, and that by a fruitful or profitable amending and correcting
them: But this is a thing that God reserves to Himself, as posited in
His alone good pleasure, whose Grace and Favour we must with a
patient expectation wait for: Mean while we may lawfully enjoy this
most excellent medicine, which being a most certain Argument of
the verity and power, arising from such a notable Art, doth
abundantly serve to stop the shameless mouths, and break the
mischievous Teeth of all Farnnerian Asses. But yet notwithstanding
some or other of them may haply spue out some poisonous stuff out
of his shameless mouth, and say, With what right can I impose the
name of Universal Medicine upon this Medicine of mine, seeing that I
do not in the least deny, that it is not available to bring me any
benefit out of the metals, but can only heal the Diseases of the Sick:
Whereas the Philosophers do on the contrary attest, that their
Universal medicine hath such virtues as are wont to transmute the
lesser or meaner metals into Gold, and that with most exceeding
profit.
For answer to such as these, I say, that although this medicine of
mine which is here treated of, hath not hitherto brought me any
profit by the melioration of the metals, yet it demonstrates it self to
be universal, and to be worthy that same Title; for I have been
hindered through want of time and other letts (as I said afore) from
hitherto bringing it unto perfection and fixation. And I pray who can
tell what God will be pleased to vouchsafe in process of time. A new-
born Infant cannot well be upbraided (if wanting wit and judgment it
does not attempt and effect some great matters) and be on this wise
twitted. Ho! it is not a man, ’tis beardless, it understands nothing, it
lies along and cannot help it self, it has nothing but what they reach
out unto it. Well, well, let the Infant but arrive unto its due age, and
let its due meat and drink be administred unto it, and then in length
of time it will attain to a requisite stature and strength, and will
propagate and multiply its own kind. For if there be but once the
humane form, there will not proceed ought else thencefrom, but a
perfect man. Just so stands the case with my medicine, which is
exceeding like to a new-born Infant, whereto regard being had,
according to a Philosophical manner, there will be no doubt, but that
it will arrive unto a due perfection.
And now, the things which it doth even already perform, do all of
them sufficiently argue and testifie, that process of time both can &
indeed must produce thereout of some better thing; even as a good
Parent wisheth for nothing more, than that (whilst himself is living)
his Children may grow up to man’s estate, and be happily married,
and by a new Offspring preserve his Name and Stock, and yield their
help towards the multiplication of mankind, and he himself is
wondrously joyed in his Grandchildren: But yet in the meanwhile he
cannot be at all certain that his Life shall be so long prorogued, as to
have a fruition of so much happiness, and therefore must commit
the whole affair to God’s pleasure, and patiently wait upon him, and
See what that Omnipotent Creator (who indeed shewed unto Moses
the Promised Land, but granted him not so long Life as to enter
thereinto) will do with him and his; even so hath the Lord shewed
unto me the Promised Land, but whether or no I am worthy to arrive
so far as to enjoy the pleasant Fruits thereof, G O D only knows; His
merciful bounty hath bestowed upon me in my old Age a
Philosophical Infant, which doth exceedingly rejoice me: But yet
verily am I utterly ignorant whether or no He will vouchsafe unto me
so long a Life, as to see the virile or man-like age thereof.
Therefore, like as a Father, unto whom in his old Age the Divine
Bounty hath vouchsafed an Heir, tho’ (haply) he well knows that the
said Heir cannot possibly arrive unto man’s estate, during his (viz.
the Father’s) life, yet nevertheless he is exceedingly joyed, in that he
hath an Heir to keep up his Name, and which will in time trace his
Father’s footsteps (viz. have more Children): Even just so doth my
new-born Philosophical Infant exceedingly rejoice me, though haply
I know that my Life will not last so long, as to be a Possessor of the
same, in the state of its being advanced unto perfection. However, I
doubt not but that God will stir up other nursing Fathers to this
tender Infant, that being educated and nourished by them, it may
arrive unto a Man-like strength, and unto virile powers and virtues,
and may become serviceable to the advancement of the Honour of
God, and to the succouring of many Thousands of sick People. The
way of attaining this, I have, according to my simple judgment, too
and agen, and peicemeal as it were, opened and revealed in divers
places of my Work, viz. how it may be most commodiously effected,
and therefore I judge it needless to treat thereof any farther in this
place.

Of the Nature, Form, Properties, and admirable Virtue and

Efficacy of my True Aurum Potabile.

A s touching the form of this same new-born Infant, I would have

the well-minded Reader know, that it is like unto a poor, naked,
tender Babe, of no splendour, of a simple aspect, but yet carries
within it self all the colours of the whole World, which by how much
the older it grows, so much the fairer colours doth it yield. The Fire
affords it nutriment, and clothes it with Garments of various colours,
and makes it strong, fair, noble, and potent, insomuch that it may
not undeservedly be termed its Father. Being born out of the Earth
its Mother, it loves it, and useth it for its nutriment, until that arriving
unto full years, it becomes like its Father the Fire, and leaves its
Mother the Earth, and like a Lord of full age, bears rule over its
Hereditary Possessions. But during its Minority and Infancy, all its
actions are look’d on as childish, but yet so that presently (or even
now) appears what kind of notable man he will be, making good
that Proverb; Urit mature quod vult urtica manere.
 That which will a Nettle be,
Stings betimes, trust you me.

For seeing that a new-born Infant doth abound with so much

virtue, as to be able to do so much good, What would not he be
capable of effecting, should he attain to a ripeness of years? It will
be therefore worth while to hear and see what virtues it is able to
exercise upon Vegetables, Animals, and Minerals; and first, we will
treat about the Vegetables.

By what way a Trial is to be made, whether or no this Aurum

Potabile, or Aqua-vitæ of the Philosophers, be a most high
Medicine for the Vegetables.

E very body knows, that the Vegetables which are to grow up, and
be multiplied, must be also nourished. This nourishment now is
nothing else but a sulphureous Salt, whether it hath its Rise from the
Vegetables, or from the Animals, or from the Minerals; for ’tis all a
case to the Vegetables, from whatsoever it proceeds, so that they
have but their nutriment, by which they may grow, be encreased,
and be multiplied. The Husband-man useth the Dung of any Cattel
or Sheep, to dung his Lands withal, that the Seed sown in the
dunged Earth, may thence extract the Salt, and convert it into its
own nutriment, and so grow up, and be encreased; and besides this
kind of Dunging he knows none.
But the true Naturalist makes use of the Excrements of other
Animals, yea, and the Minerals themselves too, for the dunging of
the Ground; concerning which thing, I have written at large in my
other Writings, and especially in my Miraculum Mundi; and therefore
there’s no need at all of making any farther repetition of the same
here. Forasmuch therefore as my Aurum Potabile is also a
sulphureous Salt, but yet far stronger, and more efficacious than that
which lies in the common Dung of Beasts and Cattel, and so
consequently promotes the accretion or growth, and multiplication of
all the Vegetables in a wonderful maner. I have judged it a thing
worth while to set down in this place the use thereof in the
melioration of the Vegetables, that so it may be evidently
demonstrated, that this my Potable Gold is the most excellent
Medicine for all the Vegetables, and that their Particular Medicine
which doth first proceed from the Dung of Sheep and Cattel, doth
afterwards display its virtues by an Universal operation. For if the
Dung of Horses, Cows, and Sheep (as ’tis barely Dung) could but
succour Men and Metals, like as it brings a medical or helping
succour unto the Vegetables, then might it by the same reason be
likewise called Universal.
But whereas it is an helper to the Vegetables only, and hath no
conjoining familiarity with the Minerals and Animals, therefore is it
rightly and deservedly to be referred to the order of particular
Medicines, which are helpful to the Vegetables only. But yet
notwithstanding, the Salt being extracted out of those sorts of Dung,
and converted into Saltpetre, (which is a thing easily done) doth
then admit of being transmuted into a Universal Medicine: But now,
afore such a Transmutation be made, it does not exceed the order or
bounds of Particular Medicaments. But this Aurum Potabile of mine
merits the name of a true Universal Medicine, as being not only a
most high Medicine for the Vegetables, but also for the Animals and
Minerals too, and this shall be perfectly demonstrated as follows.
You must get some Vessels made of the best Earth, and strong,
and such as being well burnt in the Fire, become like a Stone. And
amongst such Earths, the Colen, Siburg, Waldenberg, and other
such-like natured Earths, are the fittest for this Work; let them be
made very thick, and such as will not imbibe any Water. If you want
such as these, cause then your Vessels to be made of Glass; for
every porous kind of Earth, though it be glazed over with Lead-glass,
yet it is not so fit for this kind of operation; therefore you must of
necessity provide your self with fit and convenient Vessels, and have
a most especial regard to this admonition. Let such a Vessel be a
span long, or high, or deep, and let it have the same breadth or
largeness, and let its bottom be perforated with some small holes,
like as those Pots which are made for the keeping of Flowers in are
wont to be: The Pots being thus prepared and filled up top-full, with
clear and lean Sand, you may put or plant therein three or four
Seeds of such Herbs that you have a mind to plant, that so if haply
one of them comes not to good, the second, third, or fourth may.
When the seeds are on this wise put in the said Sand, and shall have
been moistened with our Universal Water, the Pots must then be set
abroad to the Sun and Air, that so the Seeds may spring up and
grow; which seeds, if good, and not too old, will in a few daies time,
grow up out of the Sand, as if they had been in any other fat Earth.
Now, when they shall have sprouted up so high as a fingers length,
you must leave in your said Pots two of the biggest and strongest
stalks or sprouts, and pluck up the others, lest they should impede
each others growth; and you must let them have room enough in
the Pot to grow.
This Vessel thus filled with Sand, and planted with seeds, is to be
set upon another strong Dish or Platter, and which is made of the
like sort of Stone-like Earth, that so if that medicinal water should
happen to penetrate and destil through the sand, it may not be lost,
but being saved, may be again poured into the pot-full of sand.
Moreover, you must diligently take heed that no Rain-water fall
therein and wash away that medicinal water, and so take from the
Herbs their nutriment. The sand must not be too much wetted, but
lie alwaies somewhat moist, lest by being quite dry, or too wet, the
whole Work be corrupted by either the excess or defect of the due,
temperament: All things here prescribed being duly observed, the
Herb springs up in a short time, and bears Flowers and Fruits sooner
and better, than if it had grown in other dunged Earth. The Colours
become fairer, the Odours will be stronger, the Virtues also will be
greater, and these Herbs do likewise longer keep their virtues, and
are not so corruptible as others are. After that all the humidity which
you poured first on, shall have been consumed by the Sun and the
Air, so as that it is plainly vanisht, there must some other Rain-water
(wherein a little of that potable Gold shall have been dissolved) be
again poured on upon the Sand, that so the Herb may have its due
supply of nourishment, so long as it shall be a-growing, for the
whole World knows, that there does not grow ought at all out of
sand, which is only wetted with bare Rain-water.
Likewise by the help of this Universal Medicine all kinds of Herbs
and Plants may be made apt to germinate and grow even in mid-
Winter, and may be at any time amended, if so be that dissolved
Liquor be but poured on upon the Roots. So will they be sooner ripe,
and yield their Flowers and Fruits much speedier than those that are
dunged after the common way; yea, and more too. I say, that as to
their virtues and efficacy, they are to be preferred far before the
common ones. The bare simple Universal Medicine is wont to shew
so much efficacy, as is here mentioned: But now some metallick
Ferment being added thereunto, makes it far more efficacious; for
by means thereof, the Herbs acquire greater and better virtues.
If there be adjoined thereunto an aureous ferment, the Herbs will
not only get the virtues of the Gold, but will also appear spotted
here and there, in their Leaves and Flowers, with golden spots like
little Stars, and will wonderfully please the sight by their delicate
aspect.
If a Silver Ferment be thereto added, the Herbs will be
impregnated with Silvery virtues, and be painted with silver spots as
they grow. The Herbs being by this means bettered with a golden
Ferment for the Heart, and with a Silver Ferment for the Brain, do
with a more admirable efficacy succour those Members. And if the
great ones of the World did for their Health’s sake take care for the
nourishing such Herbs as these in their Gardens, there’s no doubt at
all to be made, but that they would thencefrom obtain most great
benefits. For, besides their wonderfully delighting the sight with their
beauty and delicateness, and besides their admirable virtues, in
which they far excel the common Herbs, they do likewise bring this
exceeding great profit, viz. they may be made use of instead of my
Aurum Potabile, which perhaps some great men may be averse from
taking, through the perswasions of their ignorant Physicians, who
most-an-end do, by reason of their sottish stupidity and ignorance,
snarle and bite at such kind of eminent Medicines, and divert their
Lords and Masters from the using of them, as if they were so many
Poisons.
If therefore (to free themselves from that needless care) they did
but make use of these Herbs instead of my Potable Gold, they would
however, by the help of such Vegetables, enjoy so much of the
efficacy of my Potable Gold, as to keep themselves in good Health,
or to recover it, being lost.
Besides too, the said Potable Gold may be most commodiously
and fitly applied to the use of Mankind, not only by the help of the
Vegetables, but also of the Animals too, and that on this wise.
Hens (or Pullets, &c.) are to be a while nourished with Oats,
Barley, Wheat, or other kind of Grain, macerated with the Liquor of
that Universal Medicine; and being nourished therewithal, they will
by concoction or digestion transmute those Medicinal Virtues into
their Flesh, and so be far more efficacious and nobler than the flesh
of other Hens or Poultry. The Dung likewise of such Fowls may be
Saved, and mixt with Sand, and Herbs be therein planted, which by
this means will be rendered better than the common Herbs, because
they assume to themselves the Reliques of that Liquor which the
Fowls did not consume, and by digestion transmute into their Flesh,
and so do convert it into their proper juice, so that there is not any
thing at all of that Liquor lost, but the whole of it passeth into most
notable profit.
Verily this is an excellent and admirable Transplantation of an
Universal Medicine, into the Vegetables and Animals, the which the
tender great ones of the World may make use of with the greatest
security.
Such now as these (viz. the great ones) seeing that this Universal
Medicine of mine doth not at all hurt the tender seeds of Herbs, or
the young Pullen, but rather bestows on them a greater efficacy and
strength, will doubtlesly be induced to believe and understand thus
much, viz. that this same Medicine will in no case prove hurtful unto
Men, who as to tenderness, cannot be like the seeds of Herbs, or
like tender Pullen.
If this Medicine be of so great an efficacy as to be capable of
transmuting some venenate Mineral, such as Mercury is, into true
Gold, and that in a few hours space, as we shall see and hear by
and by, it must necessarily follow, that it is not infected with any
malignity or venom, for the malignity of one thing does not amend
or correct the malignity of another thing, but rather makes it worser.
From hence it is apparently manifest, that that Potable Gold does
not at all partake of any malignity, but is a most wholsome Medicine
for both Vegetables, Animals, and Minerals: Which thing, if any one
will not give credit unto, or shall not be capable to understand the
same, I know not what other help to afford him; for minding my
own affairs, I have propounded and set down all things out of a
good and sincere mind; if so be that any one hath ought that is
better, let him produce it out-right, and not despise those things
which he does not understand, lest haply he hazardeth his good
name, as that convicted Lyar Farnner hath done, and be derided,
and made a laughing-stock to the common People.
But Farnner’s setting upon me with his calumnies and slanders,
hath ministred unto me an occasion of answering, and of defending
my self: Upon this occasion of my replying, there have sprung up,
and come forth to the Light most excellent Secrets and Arcana’s of
Nature. Surely I should never have so openly published my
knowledge in natural things, but should have lain hidden in quiet,
had not that Blood-sucker and secret Murtherer thrown me out of
my tranquility by his venomous biting.
But that it may not seem a thing strange and absurd, that I write,
that this Aurum Potabile of mine doth induce into the growing Herbs
a golden Nature, it seems a thing expedient unto me, to confirm the
business by some true Histories.
In the Hungarian and Transylvanian Chronicles, it is mentioned,
That in those Countries, in which the soil or ground hath every
where about in the Mountains, an aureous or golden nature, and
from whence, for this Thousand years, even to this very day, much
Gold hath been, and yearly is digged out by the GoldMiners, and
been molten, and coined into Moneys, there have been oft times
found such Vines, as have not only had their Leaves, but also the
Grapes too gilded over, as it were, with Gold, just as if they had
been artificially gilt. Nor is this an old Wife’s Fable, but a thing most
certainly true, and which many have affirmed unto me for a most
undoubted Truth, some of which Persons have had their Habitations
in those places, and othersome of them do even live there at this
day. About some six years since, when I lived in Franconia, it
chanced, that a Vine to whose Roots I laid Gold opened, and
reduced into its first Ens, produced Bunches of Grapes, whose
Stones were gilded: Which Story I have mentioned more at large in
the Consolation of Navigators. And but very lately a certain
Nobleman of Hungary, told me for a most certain Truth, that not far
from Cremnitz, being one of the Mountain Cities of Hungaria, a
certain Husbandman found in his Vineyard a piece of corporeal Gold,
above an Ell long, grown out of a Stone, and twined round about the
said Stone, a little piece of which was given me by the said
Nobleman, because of the Novelty and Wonders sake.
But put case that this were not true, which notwithstanding is very
true and indubitable, as being a thing known to the whole World,
that such gilded Grapes are often found in Hungaria and
Transylvania; yet however, those things that I have mentioned, and
attributed unto my Potable Gold, are most assuredly true.
Nor can I alleadge any other cause for these gilded Grapes and
Leaves in Hungaria, but this, that the Earth there is impregnated
with golden vapours, or with the not yet hardened and coagulated
first Ens of Gold, and that aureous water being mixt with the Rain-
water, insinuates it self into the Roots and from thence ascends up
into the Boughs and Grapes, and in them manifests it self, and
becomes visible.
 Even thus also is it with my Aurum Potabile, (which is like to a
spiritual Gold) if it be dissolved with common Rain-water, and be
therewithal commixt, and the sand (in which the seeds of the
Vegetables were sown) be moistened with that Liquor, the nutriment
is attracted out of the sand by the Vegetable Herbs, and being
attracted, renders them partakers of an aureous nature: And this
experience testifies to be a thing most true; nor can it be otherwise.
By these few things here spoken, every body (as I suppose) will
sufficiently enough perceive, that my Aurum Potabile is a most high
Medicine for the Vegetables. Now we will likewise prove by some few
but yet clear and convincing Arguments, that it is a most high
Medicine for the Minerals too.

Of the Use of my Aurum Potabile in the melioration of the Minerals.

A s concerning the bettering of the Minerals by my Potable Gold,

thus stands the case: It is capable of exhibiting to those that
are inquisitive after the transmutation of the Metals, and would
make trial of the same, some most exact proofs of the possibility
thereof, both in the moist and in the dry way.
In the first place, it is behoveful for every one to know, that the
said Aurum Potabile, when brought to its due perfection, and such
as my self know, hath the resemblance of a bright and clear water, is
of a burning, hot, and fiery taste upon the tongue, and gives out a
sulphureous, but yet pleasant odour.
But some may say, What can any such virtues be in a clear Water?
What reason have you to call it Potable Gold, for that ought to be
yellow or red? To such an one I answer, That in the whiteness is a
redness hidden, which is not discernable in its tender Infancy; but
when by the help of the fire it arrives to a greater age, then it
discovers it self, and shews forth its comeliness and excellency
together with most eminent strength and efficacy: For thus say the
Philosophers, Unless you make our Gold white, you cannot make it
red. And in another place, If any one knows how to destroy Gold, so
as it shall be Gold no more, he hath arrived to a most great Secret.
And again, in another place, Our Gold is not common Gold, but Gold
potential, not formal (or Gold in power, not in shape). Such Sayings
and Sentences the whole Troop of the Philosophers is full of; by
which it is exactly demonstrated, that the true Aurum Potabile ought
not to be presently red, as to the outward view, but that it merits
this Title, if there be but only that golden and red virtue and efficacy
lying hidden in its internal principle. For if this whiteness did not
cover over an hidden redness, it could never possibly become red.
Now my Aurum Potabile being coagulated by the means of fire, and
reduced to a stability in the fire, is turned into a stone of a blood-red
colour, and yields not in the melting any corporeal Gold, unless a
metallick body be adjoined unto it, into which the Spiritual and
Philosophical Gold, betakes it self, that so cloathing it self with a
body, it may become Corporeal.
This potable Gold of mine is, Lac Virginis, or the Virgins Milk,
which is coagulated with a small heat. This Coagulum Passeth into
(or becomes) the Dragons-blood, which being coagulated, must
necessarily yield the constant or durable Salamander. I confess, that
hitherto I have not prepared it; nor had I any opportunity to prepare
it, but remain contented with my Lac Virginis, as with a most
excellent Universal Medicine, patiently expecting what the Divine
Grace will in time to come bestow upon me.
But that I may proceed on to shew that my Aurum Potabile doth
likewise heal the Minerals, amend them, and make them golden, I
will here set down some waies of doing the same both in the dry,
and in the moist way.

The manner of trying (by the moist way) whether or no my Aurum

Potabile be a true Philosophical Volatile Gold.

T ake of my potable Gold ℥ j. and ℈ j. or ʒ ss. of Common Quick-

silver, put them into a strong Glass, and so small, as that it may
be half full with this matter. (NB. The glass must have a round
bottom, whether it be a piece of some small Bolthead, or of some
small Phial, that so the Mercury may gather it self into one Ball in
the bottom) and place your glass, with the potable Gold and Quick-
silver, in Sand, to the heighth of the Liquor, then heat it, and leave it
for about one hour in a sufficient heat, that the Phlegm being
exhaled, the potable gold may stay behind in the form of a white
Salt: This done, pour agen upon that Salt so much Rain-water as it
evaporated in the boiling, or fill the glass so full with Rain-water, as
it was before full of the Aurum Potabile, that so lying a while upon
the said Salt, it may dissolve it, which is hereby again turned into the
same potable Gold, having the same colour, the same taste, and the
same virtues as it had before. The Mercury being freed from the said
potable Gold, which is to be poured off, is found to be hard, and fix
in the bottom like the best gold, and of the same bigness or
quantity, as when it was put into the glass. NB. If by some errour
committed the Argent-vive be not enough tinged and brought to a
due degree, but hath gotten some blackness, it is to be taken out of
the glass, and put into some little Crucible, and to be heated red-hot
with live Coals, that so it may receive the due golden colour; which
said colour it will get, and will be like the best Duckat Gold, and will
abide good and firm in all trials. But that Aurum Potabile which was
used about the coagulation of the Quick-silver, may be often made
use of about the same labour; but yet you are to note, that you
alwaies take each time less and less Quick-silver to this operation,
because the potable Gold doth in each of those successive labours
lose by little and little its virtues.
This way of coagulating of Mercury may be likewise used about
the coagulation of other Minerals and Metals, provided that the said
metals be reduced into thin Plates or Leaves, and so put in; for
being put in too thick, they cannot be totally digested in so short a
time by the Aurum Potabile, into the due degree of Perfection, but
remain (as their inside part) crude, and therefore an accurate regard
is hereunto to be had. If this Labour be rightly done, the Metals will
be throughly transmuted into pure and good Gold, and that of the
same magnitude, figure, and form they were of when you put them
in; but yet one metal is sooner transmuted, and more commodiously
than another, according as it shall be of a nearer affinity unto gold.
NB. If the Metal be not in a due manner proceeded withal, but be as
yet black when it is taken out of the potable Gold, it is then to be
well heated red-hot, that so it may get its golden colour. And if there
be even yet any doubt left, let him put it in ♃, and purge it by the
Cineritium, or the Cupel, that so he may be assured of having true
gold, and may be freed from all kind of scruple and doubt; for
neither ♃ nor ♁ will take away ought therefrom; which thing the
proof it self will most clearly demonstrate.

The manner of making a Trial, by the dry way, concerning the

Transmutation of the Imperfect Metals, by my Potable Gold.

Take of my potable gold, or Lac Virginis, ℥ j. and put it in a glass

dish; which done, and the dish placed in sand, evaporate all the
humidity, until there remain about almost half an ounce of white
Salt; put this Salt in a Crucible, with ℈ j. or ʒ ss. of the Plates of
Silver, or Copper, or Iron, for Tin & Lead need not be laminated:
Place your Crucible, together with the Salt and the Metal, amongst
Wood-Coals, and the Salt will presently melt like Wax, and penetrate
all the whole Metal, and transmute it into gold; and this operation is
done in one quarter of an hour, or half an hour at the utmost. The
molten Salt being poured forth out of the Crucible, you will find in
the Same Crucible the Plate of the Metal, of the same quantity and
shape it was of when put in, and throughly transmuted into pure
good gold. The Tin and the Lead will be molten into Granes, as
being of easie fusion, which Granes will have the nature of pure
good gold. If the Crucible should be too much heated with too
intense a Fire, it may also happen, that even the ☽, Copper, and Iron
too may melt into granes. And this I thought good to inform the
Studious of.
These (O thou Lover of Arts) are the too Examens and Proofs of
my potable gold, and of trying it both by the dry and the moist way,
which if thou shalt rightly perform, thou shalt not erre from the
Welcome to our website – the ideal destination for book lovers and
knowledge seekers. With a mission to inspire endlessly, we offer a
vast collection of books, ranging from classic literary works to
specialized publications, self-development books, and children's
literature. Each book is a new journey of discovery, expanding
knowledge and enriching the soul of the reade

Our website is not just a platform for buying books, but a bridge
connecting readers to the timeless values of culture and wisdom. With
an elegant, user-friendly interface and an intelligent search system,
we are committed to providing a quick and convenient shopping
experience. Additionally, our special promotions and home delivery
services ensure that you save time and fully enjoy the joy of reading.

Let us accompany you on the journey of exploring knowledge and

personal growth!

ebookfinal.com