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Teaching Secondary Science With Ict Barton Digital
Instant Download
Author(s): Barton, Roy
ISBN(s): 9780335208623, 0335208622
Edition: Kindle
File Details: PDF, 1.97 MB
Year: 2004
Language: english
TEACHING SECONDARY SCIENCE WITH ICT

This book takes a practical approach to improving secondary science

education with the use of Information and Communications Technology (ICT),
while considering the broader educational issues that inform and underpin the
approach. The material is presented from a teacher’s perspective, and explores
issues such as the selection of resources; lesson planning; the impact of ICT
on classroom organization; and how ICT affects assessment.

With topics ranging from using the Internet in school science to handling and
interpreting data, Teaching Secondary Science with ICT is invaluable in helping
teachers to make the most effective use of the ICT ‘tools’ available to them.

This practical book is essential reading for anyone involved in science

education, including trainee teachers, practising science teachers, and their
tutors and mentors. It is particularly useful to support a school science
department’s internal professional development programme.

Roy Barton is a Senior Lecturer in Education at the University of East Anglia.

He has a long-standing interest in the use of computers in science education
and has written widely on the subject. Prior to working in higher education
he spent many years working as a secondary school science teacher.

Cover design: Pentacor Book Design, High Wycombe, Bucks.

T E AC H I N G S E C O N DA RY
SCIENCE WITH ICT
 Learning and Teaching with Information and
Communications Technology
Series Editors: Tony Adams and Sue Brindley

The role of ICT in the curriculum is much more than simply a passing
trend. It provides a real opportunity for teachers of all phases and subjects
to rethink fundamental pedagogical issues alongside the approaches to
learning that pupils need to apply in classrooms. In this way it foregrounds
the ways in which teachers can match in school the opportunities for
learning provided in home and community. The series is firmly rooted in
practice and also explores the theoretical underpinning of the ways in
which curriculum content and skills can be developed by the effective
integration of ICT in schooling. It addresses the educational needs of the
early years, the primary phase and secondary subject areas. The books are
appropriate for pre-service teacher training and continuing professional
development as well as for those pursuing higher degrees in education.

Published and forthcoming titles:

Adams & Brindley (eds): Teaching Secondary English with ICT
Barton (ed.): Teaching Secondary Science with ICT
Florian & Hegarty (eds): ICT and Special Educational Needs
Johnston-Wilder & Pimm (eds): Teaching Secondary Maths with ICT
Loveless & Dore (eds): ICT in the Primary School
Monteith (ed.): Teaching Primary Literacy with ICT
Monteith (ed.): Teaching Secondary School Literacies with ICT
Hayes & Whitebread (eds): Supporting ICT in the Early Years
Stern: Teaching RE with ICT
Way & Beardon (eds): ICT and Primary Mathematics
T E AC H I N G S E C O N DA RY
SCIENCE WITH ICT

Edited by
Roy Barton

Open University Press

Open University Press
McGraw-Hill Education
McGraw-Hill House
Shoppenhangers Road
Maidenhead
Berkshire
England
SL6 2QL
email: enquiries@openup.co.uk
world wide web: www.openup.co.uk

and Two Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10121-2289, USA

First published 2004

Copyright © Roy Barton 2004

All rights reserved. Except for the quotation of short passages for the purpose of
criticism and review, no part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a
retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic,
mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior written
permission of the publisher or a licence from the Copyright Licensing Agency
Limited. Details of such licences (for reprographic reproduction) may be obtained
from the Copyright Licensing Agency Ltd of 90 Tottenham Court Road, London,
W1T 4LP.
A catalogue record of this book is available from the British Library

ISBN 0 335 20862 2 (pb) 0 335 20863 0 (hb)

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

CIP data applied for

Typeset by RefineCatch Limited, Bungay, Suffolk

Printed in Great Britain by MPG Books Ltd, Bodmin, Cornwall
 CONTENTS

List of contributors vii

Series editors’ preface ix

Introduction 1
Roy Barton

Part I The School Context 5

1 Using ICT in a secondary science department 7

Rob Musker

Part II Practical Science with Computers 25

2 Why use computers in practical science? 27

Roy Barton

3 Management and organization of computer-aided practical work 40

Roy Barton

4 Planning, teaching and assessment using computer-aided

practical work 52
Roy Barton and Caroline Still
vi CONTENTS

Part III Using Information 69

5 Using the Internet in school science 71

Patrick Fullick

6 Multimedia in science teaching 87

Jerry Wellington

Part IV Interpreting Data 105

7 Handling and interpreting data in school science 107

John Wardle

Part V An International Perspective 127

8 The approach to ICT in science education in the Netherlands 129

Ton Ellermeijer

Part VI What Next? 137

9 Integrating ICT into science education and the future 139

Laurence Rogers

10 Closing remarks 155

Roy Barton

Index 159
 L I S T O F C O N T R I B U TO R S

Roy Barton, University of East Anglia. Before joining the university Roy spent
18 years as a secondary school science teacher, much of this time as head
of physics in two comprehensive schools. His research interests are centred
on the use of ICT for teaching and learning, particularly in science educa-
tion and initial teacher education. He has produced many publications in
both areas of study.
Ton Ellermeijer, AMSTEL Institute, University of Amsterdam. For many years
Ton has been a leading figure in the development of ICT in science educa-
tion in the Netherlands. He is particularly interested in the use of inter-
active video to support the teaching of physics.
Patrick Fullick, University of Southampton. Patrick has worked on curriculum
development projects, including SATIS, Salter’s Science and Cambridge
Modular Sciences, and has written texts for GCSE and A-level sciences. He
recently won an international award for ScI-Journal, an innovative project
that publishes school students’ science work on the Internet.
Robert Musker, Lancashire Grid for Learning. Robert was previously head
of science at Archbishop Temple School, Preston. He is co-author of
Heinemann’s ICT Activities for Science and the Eureka series. His chapter
relates to his experiences while teaching science at the Cornwallis School
in Kent.
viii LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

Laurence Rogers, University of Leicester. Formerly a school teacher of physics,

electronics and science, Laurence has fostered research and curriculum
development interests in the applications of ICT to teaching. He has been
responsible for developing a range of hardware and software for science
and technology education, his best-known works being Motion Sensor
(1989), Understanding Insight (1998), Control Insight (2000) and Insight 4
(2002).
Caroline Still, University of East Anglia. Before joining the university in 2000
Caroline spent 15 years as a secondary school science teacher. At the uni-
versity she is involved in the initial training of science teachers and is
currently responsible for the secondary science PGCE course. Her research
interests centre on science education.
John Wardle, Sheffield Hallam University. John’s background is in teaching
science in secondary schools. He became an advisory teacher and later a
project officer for NCET (now BECTa). More recently he has worked with
the TTA on the ICT Training Needs Identification software and leading
the Teaching and Learning Group in the Science Consortium, the only
NOF-approved training provider to focus on science.
Jerry Wellington, University of Sheffield. Jerry’s main area of research is in
science education and the use of ICT in education. This has resulted in a
wide range of publications, including five major books and 32 journal
articles since 1980.
 S E R I E S E D I TO R S ’ P R E FAC E

It would be unusual now in science to encounter students who do not use

ICT in their school or leisure time, and equally unusual to encounter
science teachers who do not incorporate ICT in some way into their teach-
ing. However, this was not always the case. In the early days, it took a
while for the dazzling ICT presentation effects to diminish in impact so
that we could begin to think about using ICT as an integral part of making
our teaching more effective, instead of just more visually interesting. But
at this stage came the realization that in order to use ICT effectively, we
had to begin to understand teaching and learning in greater depth. Devel-
oping science teaching with ICT is not, as Laurence Rogers reminds us in
his chapter, simply about reversioning traditional science teaching, but
‘invite[s] thinking about new opportunities for teaching and learning’. We
see this type of thinking emerging in three major ways.
First is the place of science in a world that is rapidly becoming shaped by
ICT use in both leisure and the workplace. Formal curriculum documents,
such as the National Curriculum in the UK, recognize that science has a
particular and significant relationship with technology, and one that
affects the individual and society. The National Curriculum for science
(p. 102) states:

Through science, pupils understand how major scientific ideas contrib-

ute to technological change – impacting on industry, business and
x SERIES EDITORS’ PREFACE

medicine and improving quality of life . . . [Pupils] learn to question and

discuss science-based issues that may affect their own lives, the direction
of society and the future of the world.

The interplay between science and technology has a direct effect on the
‘real world’. ‘Improving quality of life’ is rooted in the opportunities ICT
brings through, for example, speed and automation. In the classroom,
students can explore the wider world, gathering information about and
evaluating events such as space travel through websites such as NASA.
With ICT, we have the makings of global scientists who, through collabor-
ation, can indeed affect ‘the future of the world’.
Second, science is a subject where ideas are linked with practical investi-
gation. Science requires demonstrable evidence of the validity of any
theory. Part of teaching science is to bring about ‘scientific thinking’ in
students: a mind set that requires students to test out, through experimen-
tation, any given thesis. As Brendan O’Neill, Chief Executive of Imperial
Chemicals Industry plc, observes: ‘Studying science teaches us to be good
at analysis and helps us to make complex things simple. It trains minds in
a way that industry prizes.’ Training minds is about bringing about scien-
tific thinking, based on real and observable phenomena, tested through
experimentation. In the classroom, much has changed in this field.
Experiments once undertaken in the laboratory are now, with the rightly
strict guidelines of health and safety, no longer permitted in a school
setting. However, through the use of ICT, whether CD-ROM, PowerPoint
presentation or websites, virtual demonstrations can continue, ensuring
that science teachers can still use experimentation as a fundamental
scientific process but, with the added facilities of provisionality and inter-
activity, can not only demonstrate experiments in safety but illustrate the
dangers of incorrect procedures, thus enhancing the understanding of the
scientific processes under investigation.
In biology, ICT has the same function for understanding how the body
works. Dissection, again no longer seen in classrooms, can be undertaken
virtually. Indeed, so effective is ICT in this area that teaching hospitals
such as Addenbrooks at Cambridge now have virtual learning classes in
anatomy for the students. Taking a walk around a liver is not an experi-
ence that students would ever have – but the benefits of understanding
anatomy in this way are clear in the evaluations of the system given by
both teaching staff and trainee medics.
Third, and importantly, science is about ideas. ICT, through all of its
dimensions – speed and automation, provisionality, interactivity and cap-
acity and range – can support the scientific imagination in exploring the
‘what ifs’ of scientific knowledge. As Professor Susan Greenfield says in the
introduction to the science National Curriculum, ‘Science is valuable
because it meshes with all our lives and allows us to channel and use
our spontaneous curiosity’. ICT allows the what ifs to become temporary
 SERIES EDITORS’ PREFACE xi

realities, explorable in space and time in ways that pre-ICT days simply
could not support.
In a subject with the breadth of the science curriculum, any volume can
offer only a representation of the curriculum content. The pedagogies,
ideas and processes explored in this volume belong to a range of areas
within the science curriculum, but all the approaches explored here
belong to the whole of science: to ways of representing the subject, to
transferable ideas and strategies and to opportunities to break down bar-
riers that have stood in the way of the scientific imagination in bringing
about changes for the better in all our lives.

Tony Adams and Sue Brindley

 INTRODUCTION

Roy Barton

The book is intended to identify and explore the ways in which ICT can
be used to enhance secondary science education. While a predominately
practical approach is taken, this is backed up by considering the broader
educational issues which inform and underpin the approach. The material
is presented from a teacher’s perspective, discussing the rationale for
the use of a range of ICT applications, but also considering practical issues
such as the selection of resources, lesson planning and the impact of
ICT on classroom organization. The aim is to enable the reader to make
the most effective use of the ICT ‘tools’ available, complementing and
developing the ICT requirements set out for teachers in England in the
National Opportunities Funded training (NOF) (TTA 1999) and the ‘New
Standards’ equivalent requirements for Initial Teacher Training (DfEE
2002). Therefore this book will be useful for anyone involved in science
education, whatever their current level of expertise in the use of ICT,
including practising science teachers, trainee teachers and their tutors and
mentors.
In terms of structure, the book is divided into six parts, each one dealing
with a different aspect of ICT in science education. Part I starts by con-
sidering the place of ICT in science, and leads on to an exploration of ICT
use in the context of a secondary school science department. The next
three parts deal with practical science with computers, using information
and interpreting data. These chapters deal with some of the main ICT
applications that can be used in science teaching. Part V aims to set the
previous discussion into a wider context by considering the ways in which
another country, the Netherlands, has developed its use of ICT in science
education in parallel with the developments in England. Finally, the last
part of the book pulls the ideas presented earlier in the book together and
attempts to consider future developments in this area. Contributors to this
book are all experienced users of ICT in science education and their work is
well known and respected in this field.
Part I, dealing with ICT in the context of a school science department,
is written by Rob Musker, who has also published curriculum support
material for science teachers in using ICT activities in their teaching (see
2 ROY BARTON

Chapter 1). Whilst the science department described may not be an

‘ordinary’ department in terms of the level of ICT resources available, his
chapter provides an insight into some of the opportunities to enhance
science education in an ‘ICT rich’ environment. In this chapter Rob used
his personal experience and the results of research conducted in the school
to provide guidance on a range of issues, such as the role of ICT in improv-
ing literacy and numeracy skills and the ways in which pupils react to
extensive use of ICT in science. A significant part of the chapter is devoted
to providing guidance on how to go about planning for an increased use of
ICT within a school science department.
Part II, on practical science with computers, is written by Roy Barton,
who has a number of years’ experience in using, researching and writing
about the use of computers in practical science. Chapter 2 looks in detail at
the rationale for using computer-aided practical work. This is done by
illustrating the significant features and potential benefits of this approach,
stressing the importance of teachers considering their personal phil-
osophy of the use of practical work, as a important step in deciding
whether computer-aided practical work will assist in meeting these aspir-
ations. The author expresses the view that if science teachers first appreci-
ate the potential benefits of computer-aided practical work then they are
in a much better position to plan for its implementation in their teach-
ing. Chapter 3 moves on from considering why we might want to use
computer-aided practical work to how we might do it. Therefore, this chap-
ter is concerned mainly with classroom management and organizational
issues related to the use of data-logging equipment. In addition to con-
sidering the selection of equipment, the chapter identifies alternative ways
in which computers can be used with different levels of resources available
to the science teacher. In Chapter 4 the ideas on the rationale and practical
implementation of computer-aided practical work are brought together
and illustrated by three lesson case studies, which include detailed
lesson plans.
Part III of the book deals with ICT-based information sources for science
teaching, looking in particular at the use of the Internet and multimedia
resources. Patrick Fullick is a leading figure in the development of the use
of the Internet, particularly as a publishing medium for pupils and
teachers. In his chapter looking at the use of the Internet in school science,
he explores the various ways in which the Internet will impact on the ways
in which we find, publish and communicate information. He also includes
important information about the concept of ‘acceptable use’ in the con-
text of young people using the Internet. Jerry Wellington has written
extensively on the use of ICT in science education and is an acknowledged
expert in the use of multimedia resources. In his chapter he provides a
reflective and balanced discussion on the use of multimedia. He considers
issues such as what is meant by authentic and inauthentic labour for
pupils studying science and also explores the risks and opportunities of
 INTRODUCTION 3

the use of multimedia in science teaching. The discussion is enriched by

the inclusion of the views of teachers and pupils who have made use of
this type of software.
In Part IV John Wardle, a high-profile figure in educating science
teachers in the use of ICT, gives us the benefit of his extensive experience
in the ways in which ICT can be used to assist in handling and interpreting
information in school science. The aim of the chapter is to reflect on the
overall rationale and potential benefits of ICT ‘tools’ such as spreadsheets
and modelling software in assisting science teachers to meet their overall
teaching objectives. The ideas are illustrated by the discussion of three
scenarios that explore the potential of using the ICT-assisted approach to
data handling.
The first four parts of the book deal exclusively with the use of ICT in
English schools and so, to provide a wider context and as a means of
evaluating an alternative approach, Ton Ellermeijer provides an overview
of developments in the use of ICT in science education in the Netherlands.
Ton is a leading figure in the use of ICT in science education in the
Netherlands and so is in an ideal position to provide this discussion. The
chapter gives a fascinating picture of the parallel developments occurring
in the Netherlands, particularly their recent activities aimed at integrating
the use of a range of software ‘tools’, such as multimedia applications and
data-logging software, into an all-purpose activity-based teaching and
learning environment, called ‘Coach 5’.
The task of considering ‘what next?’ in the final part of the book falls
quite rightly to Laurence Rogers, who has been actively pushing back the
frontiers of how we think about using ICT in science education, particu-
larly in terms of the development of data-logging software, for well over a
decade. In this chapter we are able to benefit from Laurence Rogers’s
ability to step back and see the whole picture. He considers the future
direction of ICT in science education. Experience would suggest that
making predictions in the area of ICT is particularly risky but, drawing on
his considerable first-hand experience, Rogers is able to identify likely
trends in hardware and software development. However, perhaps the most
significant issues are those related to the ways in which ICT may influence
how teachers and pupils work in the future.

References

DfES (2002) Qualifying to Teach: Professional Standards for Qualified Teacher Status and
Requirements for Initial Teacher Training. London: The Stationery Office.
TTA (1999) The Use of ICT in Subject Teaching. London: TTA Publications.
 Part I
The School Context
 1
USING ICT IN A
S E C O N DA RY S C I E N C E
D E PA RT M E N T

Rob Musker

In an ideal world

Given a high level of resources, how could ICT transform a practical sci-
ence lesson? Consider this scenario. The teacher brainstorms the back-
ground science ideas behind the experimental work using an interactive
whiteboard or Mimio. The work is saved as a web page or put into a shared
file from the laboratory via a radio link to the network, so that the pupils
can use it that night.
The pupils undertake the experiment using data-logging equipment and
take digital pictures and a video of the results of their experiment. The
pupils finish the experiment and have a quick discussion among them-
selves before linking, via a webcam, to another school in another part of
the country to discuss their experiments further. The teacher plays back
the images and data from earlier work to refresh and review the topic
undertaken. The pupils go home and write up the experiment using an
authoring tool or word processor incorporating sound files of their
method, video and pictures of their experiment. They also incorporate
graphs and an analysis of their results with the help of a spreadsheet pro-
gram. During this process the pupils use resources from the Internet or link
to copies of relevant CD-ROMs on the school’s network to support their
8 ROB MUSKER

work. The finished experimental report can be mailed to the teacher or put
in the shared homework folder waiting to be marked electronically. The
above scenario can really happen at my school but not necessarily with all
these features at the same time. But it is exciting and stimulating to work
in this way for both teachers and students.
How can we work towards this approach to teaching science? This
chapter aims to explore some of the ways in which the elements discussed
above are currently used in a comprehensive school and the impact they
are having on the work of the science department.

The Cornwallis School

Writing from the perspective of a practising science teacher at the Cornwal-

lis School (an 11–18 technology college with approximately 1575 pupils, in
Maidstone, Kent), I have rooted this chapter in my own classroom experi-
ences, recognizing nevertheless that Cornwallis is unusually well resourced
in terms of information technology. It has almost 200 laptops and over 190
desktop computers and is a regional centre for the National Opportunities
Funded (NOF) ICT training for teachers, a mentor school for Microsoft and
the first school in England to have a campus-wide wireless network.
In the science department of 17 teachers, there is access to a set of 20
laptop computers, and each laboratory has up to four desktop computers
available. The class sizes never exceed 25, which makes it possible to have
a ratio of two pupils per computer in the laboratories. The department has
two half-sets of data-logging equipment giving similar pupil access. One
set uses Acorn pocketbook computers with Data Harvest Sense and Con-
trol data-loggers, while the other makes use of laptop computers and Data
Harvest Easylog data-loggers.
While the school and the science department are currently far from
typical, they do provide an indication of the likely impact that an ICT-rich
environment might have on the workings of a school science department.
In most science departments there are a range of factors which can impede
the use of ICT, such as access to computers, peripheral devices and, signifi-
cantly, the knowledge to use them effectively. Other factors that have
been suggested include the lack of suitable teaching materials (Tebbutt
2000). This chapter explores the potential benefits and the organizational
and other departmental issues that arise when many of these barriers
are removed.

ICT in the science curriculum

Communication is at the heart of all scientific activity and is itself a key

aspect of science education. The term communication is being used in its
 USING ICT IN A SECONDARY SCIENCE DEPARTMENT 9

widest sense to include not only speaking and writing but also TV, radio
and video, all of which can be linked and controlled by a computer. The
use of ICT enables the pupils to save time and provides clear and effective
ways of presenting scientific information. Table 1.1 shows some of the
ways in which ICT can be used to assist the process of communicating
within science lessons.

Table 1.1 ICT tools to aid communication in science lessons

Software program Activities

Microsoft Word Experiment reports, writing frames, templates, drag

and drop activities
Microsoft PowerPoint Slide shows and simulations
Microsoft Excel Labelling activities
Macromedia Flash Animated simulations of experiments and scientific
concepts
Microsoft Frontpage Web pages
Macromedia Dreamweaver Web pages
Matchware Mediator Web pages
Hot Potatoes Crosswords and cloze exercises
Microsoft Visio Memory maps, timelines, flow charts of
experiments and food chains, labelling activities
Various E-mail and video conferencing

In addition, programs such as the ones cited enable pupils to give added
depth to written reports by including a results graph, a digital image of the
equipment or videos of an experiment. The pupils can include hyperlinks
to related documents or websites, thus enhancing, rather than replacing,
more conventional means of communicating ideas and information. For
example, pupils who can access a video of their experiment have a visual
aid that helps them to follow and review the experiment at home. This
will help them to write their methods, see the results again and evaluate
their work much more effectively.
As with other subjects, science is now charged with the development
of basic skills such as numeracy and literacy, and here again ICT offers
opportunities for extending the learning in many aspects of the con-
ventional science curriculum. Spreadsheets can support pupils in calculat-
ing formulae or modelling numerical relationships; sliders and scroll bars,
part of the Form toolbar in Microsoft Excel, allow pupils to ascertain the
relationships between numbers and specify which formulae the relation-
ship could refer to (see Figure 1.1).
ICT can help numeracy in other more subtle ways, such as using the
zoom facility in graphing software as an aid to understanding scale factors.
A range of the software features provided in many graphing packages can
provide useful tools to assist pupils in this area of the curriculum. Pupils
10 ROB MUSKER

Figure 1.1 Use of scroll bars in Microsoft Excel

can often change instantaneously between different types of chart and

graph to find the one that is more suitable for their data. In addition, the
creative use of Microsoft Excel can produce spreadsheets and graphs that
model pyramids of number looking at feeding relationships in ecosystems
(the use of spreadsheets is discussed in more detail in Chapter 7).
ICT can also play an important part in supporting literacy work. Pupils
writing about scientific concepts such as investigations, reports or work on
historical ideas can be helped by using templates or writing frames, mak-
ing the frames more (or less) explicit depending on the ability of the pupil.
Supportive text provided by the teacher can be hidden on screen to stop it
being printed out, allowing just the pupils’ work to be seen. The example
in Figure 1.2 shows how a letter template, using hidden text for prompts in
Microsoft Word, can help pupils to structure their ideas about the devel-
opments Robert Hooke made on the light microscope.
Pupils can also use Microsoft PowerPoint to write presentations about
historical characters and developments, incorporating sounds and even
animations. Scientific spellings can be checked by pupils by using activ-
ities that use macros and conditional formatting in a product such as
Excel, and at my school we have often found the pupils more confident
and creative in their use of language with such support available to them.
Later in the book we will explore in detail the use of software that is
 USING ICT IN A SECONDARY SCIENCE DEPARTMENT 11

Figure 1.2 Example of children’s work showing the use of ‘hidden text’
as prompts

particularly relevant to science teaching, such as data-logging software,

information sources on CD-ROM and the Internet, and spreadsheet soft-
ware. Clearly the use of these types of applications form the core of the
ICT-related work within the science department. At this stage I want to
provide an outline of the range of ways in which we have found ICT useful
in science lessons.
Data-logging software is a particularly important application in science
since it forms the interface between practical work and the use of ICT. Using
and interpreting information from secondary sources are also important
activities in science education. Common activities involve searching and
using information from CD-ROM databases and the Internet. Other activ-
ities include using database software such as Information Workshop or
Microsoft Access to create and interrogate databases on, for example, the
planets of the Solar System, the periodic table or the classification of organ-
isms. The information-handling activities I find most effective are Internet
scavenger hunts and database activities on genetics data, such as ‘Do tall
people have big feet?’ (Chapman et al. 2001). In this latter activity pupils
look at continuous and discontinuous variation by making databases of
their class results and using scatter graphs to study relationships between
different physical attributes of the class. Therefore they can hypothesize
12 ROB MUSKER

about the relationships between the variables, for example in ‘Do tall
people have big feet?’ measure the variables, analyse the data and draw
conclusions easily using this software. There are also secondary data from
another school so that pupils can compare their data with a larger sample.
Models allow pupils to change the variables in a scientific system and see
their effects. Pupils start by learning how to manipulate simple models
and progress to making their own. Simulations are often seen as a subset of
this type of activity. Models themselves can also be broken into two
groups: static models, such as those used for calculations such as an elec-
tricity bill, and dynamic models, which look at the changes within a
system over a period of time (Carson 1997). There are many excellent
commercial simulations currently available such as those in the New
Medias Multimedia Science School, Maxis’s SimLife and Crocodile Clips.
SimLife provides a method of looking at food chains and evolution as the
students can place different organisms on their own worlds and watch
what happens to them very quickly over time. They can even invent their
own organisms by amalgamating different parts of those already available.
Multimedia Science School has many different types of simulations, ran-
ging from those modelling particle theory and elements to those that
model velocity and blood glucose levels.
Activities using spreadsheets such as Microsoft Excel have many more
uses than just graphing and calculating formulae. For example, scientific
images can be imported into Excel and labelled by inserting comments.
Simulations, including the graphics, can be made using macros (a macro is
a series of commands and functions that is stored in a Visual Basic mod-
ule). They can be used to make activities that allow pupils to simulate the
effects of different materials in blocking different types of radiation or the
effect of changing the mass and distance of a planet on the gravitational
pull of that planet. These activities allow students to experiment
independently to find out how the relationships between the variables
change. They are scientific concepts that pupils could not study by
themselves or in practical situations.

Virtual learning

Over the past two years we have focused a great deal of energy evaluating
different mechanisms for the delivery of online resources to support teach-
ing at all Key Stages. As well as forming what we termed virtual classrooms
on our own website, where resources for our courses could be downloaded,
we have used several different ‘portal systems’ in a similar manner. The
most common one used is Digitalbrain, often characterized as a virtual
learning environment. Although the use of these within the classroom has
not had an apparent significant impact yet on the achievement of the
pupils at Key Stages 3 and 4 they have proved useful:
 USING ICT IN A SECONDARY SCIENCE DEPARTMENT 13

• in providing resources or extra homework to pupils in order to sup-

port their learning during their courses and at times when they need
extra support, such as study leave and holidays;
• for e-mentoring of pupils through the portal’s e-mail and chat forum
facilities;
• to include all pupils in the learning process, even those who are ill or
excluded;
• to organize ICT resources or science courses.
It is also apparent that these environments may have their greatest impact
on those courses and subjects that have a large amount of assignment-
based coursework, such as the applied science GCSE course. We are still
evaluating other environments such as Microsoft’s Encarta Class Server
and Oracle’s Think.com and we need to scale up our studies to see how
truly effective these environments are.

ICT as a motivator

It is very difficult to pinpoint exactly how ICT improves the performance

of pupils in tests. One problem when looking for a direct relationship
between the use of ICT and pupils’ performance in standard pencil-and-
paper tests is that these tests are unlikely to relate directly to the skills
being developed when using ICT. Assessment based largely on recall may
well not reveal benefits in terms of improvements in conceptual under-
standing or the ability to analyse data more effectively. Considering the
positive impact of ICT, one of the most important is probably due to an
increased motivation for the subject (Musker et al. 1997). In science, visual
aids, such as practical or video demonstrations, have always been used to
explore difficult concepts and ICT can, especially in the form of simula-
tions and models, greatly enhance the learning experience (NCET 1994a).
It may be that the information presented in this way is put across in a
different, more visually stimulating manner; for example, ICT also allows
pupils to obtain results more quickly and easily and therefore allows them
more time to interpret them. The results themselves, such as those from
data-logging experiments, are more immediate and accurate. All these fac-
tors appeal to the pupils, especially the older ones.
Cornwallis is involved in using the materials produced as part of the
Cognitive Acceleration through Science Education (CASE) programme,
which emphasizes, among other things, the importance of classroom talk.
Strong indications are that ICT can promote such discussion, enabling
pupils to be more focused on their tasks and their discussion to be simi-
larly focused. Simulations can be incorporated in ‘CASE-like’ activities to
support the experimental parts of the lesson or in some cases instead of
them. They should be used when they add an extra element to the lesson.
14 ROB MUSKER

An example of this is density from explorescience.com. Students can study

the effect of dropping shaped objects of different mass into a measuring
cylinder to find their volume and on to a digital balance to find their mass.
They can then drop them into a beaker to see if they float. The lesson can
be structured to maximize the opportunities for pupils thinking but what
takes this a step further is at that at a flick of a switch the density of the
liquid used can be doubled or quadrupled. The objects rise to the surface
and the students have to ponder why this happens. Discussion between
pupils in lessons can also be encouraged using activities involving video
clips in Microsoft PowerPoint or simple software animations using, for
example, Macromedia Flash. The use of e-mail or video-conferencing
means that these discussions or even those related to experiments or topic
work do not have to be limited by the confines of the classroom (Musker
2000). In a project at my school called ‘Mission to Mars’, primary students
video-conferenced with space research scientists at the Rutherford
Appleton Laboratory after studying Moon rock and investigating how
they could study the surfaces on the different planets.
At Cornwallis for over two years we have made use of a device called a
Mimio, which when attached to an ordinary whiteboard enables every-
thing drawn on the whiteboard to be displayed and saved on a computer.
By using this device ‘concept maps’ can be created on the board, and each
stage in building up the map can be saved to a computer (see Figure 1.3).

Figure 1.3 Visio space ‘concept map’

 USING ICT IN A SECONDARY SCIENCE DEPARTMENT 15

Replaying this file enables the steps used to be revisited or even modified
in the light of new understanding.
Pupils themselves appear to feel that ICT has a great impact on their
performance. In a study at my school (Musker et al. 1997) the following
reasons were given by pupils as to why computers made science more
interesting, although it would seem that these comments could relate just
as well to other curriculum areas:
• it allows me to work independently;
• it makes tasks quicker and easier (‘I finish my work quicker when I use a
computer’);
• it is more entertaining than ‘normal’ lessons;
• it is more visual;
• it improves presentation (a response made only by boys).
Further findings showed us that over 85 per cent of the pupils surveyed
enjoyed using computers in science lessons and almost all of these
thought their use improved their understanding of science topics,
although this was just based on the pupils’ subjective judgement. The
other 15 per cent of the sample did not enjoy using ICT in lessons. This
group was predominantly made up of girls from lower band groups.
These pupils stated that they preferred to have more traditional teacher-
led lessons because these lessons needed fewer interactions from the
pupils themselves (Musker et al. 1997). This would suggest that we need
to reconsider how we introduce and support these pupils when using ICT.
However, for the majority of pupils ICT has been found to allow flexibil-
ity for an individual’s learning needs; for example, pupils can work at
their own pace and go over work they are unsure of with a computer
(NCET 1994a). The type of activity used in the classroom also has an
effect on the enjoyment of the pupils. In the Musker study, activities
involving PowerPoint, CD-ROMs and the Internet were considered by
these pupils as being the most enjoyable. These activities rated highly as
they allowed the pupils the opportunity to work independently and the
activities were more visual and sometimes more entertaining. Many boys
also stated that they liked Microsoft PowerPoint as it improved their pre-
sentation and they could make it ‘look cool’ (Musker 2000), which is
useful since it impacts on the motivation of such pupils. The tasks that
involved using spreadsheets were deemed the least enjoyable, with activ-
ities using sensors and other software packages being rated between these
activities (Musker et al. 1997). All these findings have allowed us to
plan and write our activities taking into consideration what aspects of
ICT the pupils enjoy doing and what may be the most effective uses of ICT
for them.
16 ROB MUSKER

Organizing ICT in a science department

Responsibility for ICT within a science department is often given to those

who have the greatest enthusiasm, such as the ICT coordinator, or left to
the head of the department to organize. More democratic departments
may spend time developing their ideas and plans as a group. Whatever the
situation, it is important to consider the following issues:
• the development of the ICT skills in science lessons;
• the purchasing of relevant resources to meet the specific needs of the
department;
• the management of those resources;
• technical support;
• staff and pupil competence;
• staff training;
• how to evaluate whether the developments have been a success.
The development of ICT in a department starts with the identification of
the needs and aims for ICT. A development plan can be drawn up to out-
line the targets, the time-scale for these aims and how they are going to be
implemented. Furthermore, the plan should consider all the bullet points
listed above and these will have to fit in with the school’s development
plan for ICT and any ICT policies. The aims of the plan should also be
prioritized (NCET 1994b). For example, it may be that developing data-
logging in Key Stage 3 is a higher priority than developing it in Key Stage 4.
I will now deal with each of these issues in turn within the context of the
science curriculum.

Curriculum

ICT can be integrated into the majority of lessons but its use must be
carefully monitored so that it is educationally justified. Initially the activ-
ities must be easy to implement and known to work. The type and num-
ber of activities chosen will depend on many of the considerations
already highlighted, especially staff competence and resources. We have
found it important that the activities chosen are written into the
departmental schemes of work, to ensure there is sufficient time for their
inclusion and so that pupils’ use of ICT is properly planned and moni-
tored. Many departments now use schemes such as Eureka or Spotlight
Science, which have ICT integrated into their course work, or use courses
such as ICT Activities for Science 14–16 that provide step-by-step guides
to implement a wide variety of ICT activities. Our department uses
ICT activities from the Eureka scheme in conjunction with our own
activities and some from other written sources, including ICT Activities for
 USING ICT IN A SECONDARY SCIENCE DEPARTMENT 17

Science 14– 16. These are planned to give us good coverage of the science
curriculum that enhances learning and provides the pupils with
opportunities to implement many different types of activity. ICT is also
used in those topics in which it is difficult to incorporate practical work.
The department may also be involved in covering some of the require-
ments of the National Curriculum for ICT. It is possible to cover all the Key
Stage 3 requirements within the science department but generally science
departments in schools are expected to implement the measuring part of
the ICT curriculum, through, for example, the use of data-logging equip-
ment. In my department some of the most common experiments are:
measuring the velocity of a trolley using light gates; investigating the rate
of photosynthesis using an oxygen sensor; and studying neutralization
using a pH sensor.

Hardware

There are many ways of using hardware and software in order to enable
ICT to support the teaching of science. The number of computers available
is obviously the biggest influence on how these activities will be managed.
If the science classrooms have only a single computer it can be used as a
demonstration tool, especially if a large monitor or, better still, a data
projector is available. Single computers can also be used for extension
activities or as part of a ‘circus’ of practical activities. If network rooms are
available then science can use these effectively for all ICT activities except
data-logging.
In my school, laptops are used widely, with many half-class clusters
available around the school. We are also lucky to be supported by a radio
network, which allows us to access the network in any of the rooms. Radio
networks are already proving a success in many schools, as they allow
teachers to teach in their own rooms, improving their confidence and
allowing them access to the resources they use every day. Pupils can access
all their ICT work wherever they are in the school, even on the school
field. This ensures that their work is always saved and is also accessible to
the teacher.

Peripheral devices
There are many extra pieces of hardware or peripheral devices that can
make the curriculum more exciting or easier to implement. Some per-
ipheral devices are a must, such as printers. Most now have infra red
capabilities, allowing computers such as laptops to send documents for
printing via this link. Table 1.2 lists some of the available equipment that I
have found extremely valuable in science teaching.
18 ROB MUSKER

Table 1.2 Useful peripheral devices

Device Importance

The multimedia data projector The most vital piece of equipment I use in my
laboratory is the data projector. This is the most
used piece of equipment in our department. It
makes CDs come to life and makes teaching
aspects of ICT and science clearer and easier.
Pupil presentations are greatly improved and
multimedia Internet pages are riveting on a big
screen. Both videos and flexicams can be plugged
into many projectors, thus saving money on
buying TVs.
Mimio/interactive white board The Mimio makes my white board interactive for
much less money than an interactive white
board. Every pen stroke can be saved on to a
computer and played back at a later date to
review the work. I found it excellently employed
for making mind maps and everything can be
saved and put on to the web so that pupils can
access the information later. Interactive white
boards such as SMART boards or Promethean
boards have similar properties and offer other
features, such as screen cams.
Digital cameras Pictures and videos of experiments can be taken
and incorporated into experiments or presenta-
tions within minutes. This gives pupils direct
visual access to experiments for review purposes
and makes presentations highly entertaining.
Data-logging equipment This is improving every year as the technology
makes even greater leaps and bounds. The onset
of radio-linked boxes and sensors should open up
opportunities for even easier to implement
experiments, especially when studying different
environments.
Scanners These are great to support presentation work and
for scanning in written work for use on the
Internet.

An example: using digital video

Digital video cameras are expensive and they need suitable software to
allow films to be edited. However, whole-class activities can be undertaken
with just one camera and one computer for editing. A digital video camera
can be used in any classroom and outside and is very portable. My
 USING ICT IN A SECONDARY SCIENCE DEPARTMENT 19

students can write, film and edit presentations in an hour’s lesson. We

have used it to film virtual dissections, make interactive periodic tables
and create plays about global warming. It has formed an integral part of
my ‘ICT (Innovation, Creativity and Thinking) in Science’ project. Digital
video is also an excellent way of observing lessons and analysing thinking
skill lessons.

Software

The most common software in schools is probably the Microsoft Office

suite of programs. This is very versatile software and all the programs can
be used very successfully in science. There is also specialist software, which
is discussed in detail in later chapters. There is much now that is good
value for money but obtaining site licences for some of this software can
be extremely expensive and you have to be careful not to break the terms
of your agreements. Roger Frost (1997) has produced this helpful list to
consider. Does the software fit the needs of the department in terms of:
• the curriculum targets;
• the learners’ needs;
• hardware capabilities;
• ease of use;
• cost?
And does it enhance the science curriculum?
Ideally you want the software to be cheap and easy to use, to suit the
computers you have, to save time or make scientific concepts easier to
visualize and to be generic so that it fulfils many roles. Software that easily
fulfils all these criteria includes data-logging software such as Insight or
DataHarvest’s Sensing Science Laboratory. National conferences such as
the ASE Annual Meeting and the BETT Show provide a good opportunity
to discuss ICT needs with many different software and hardware suppliers.
When you are considering which software, support materials and hard-
ware to invest in, the needs of the pupils should be considered. This will
include consideration of:
• educational and motivational qualities of the resources;
• pupils’ ICT capabilities;
• differentiation;
• grouping of the pupils.
We have found that the varied experience of Year 7 pupils means that
using ICT early in this year is difficult. We have spent some time not only
teaching ICT as a course in Year 7 but also spending a few lessons teaching
the pupils how to use specialist software, such as the data-logging kit. As a
result of liaison with some of our feeder primary schools we now teach
pupils in Years 5 and 6 how to use data-logging sensors in science, in
20 ROB MUSKER

preparation for their work in Year 7. Science teachers visit the primary
school for a few sessions of about two hours to introduce and use data-
logging equipment with the primary pupils. The teacher works closely
with the primary staff to ensure that the science covered is suitable for the
level of pupil and to build the links between the school.

Support material

There is a wide range of articles, books and on-line resources available to

help teachers develop schemes of work to integrate ICT into their teach-
ing. Journals such as the ASE’s School Science Review have articles on soft-
ware, hardware and using ICT in the classroom. Websites such as SciShop,
(www.scishop.org), another ASE initiative, provide numerous ICT
resources to download. Some of the ICT and science courses, such as IT
Activities for Science 11– 14 (Chapman and Lewis 1998) and ICT Activities for
Science 14– 16 (Chapman et al. 1999), also provide step-by-step guides on
how to use different types of software and hardware as well as differenti-
ated activity sheets.

Technical support

Sustained problems with hardware or software can lead to a lack of staff

confidence in its use and may deter staff from wanting to use it. Computers
develop faults and ICT equipment needs to be updated from time to time.
Without technical expertise or access to expertise, the use of ICT in the
classroom could grind to a halt. In my school we are fortunate to have three
full-time IT technicians to maintain our capabilities, but this has been a
recent development. Sometimes the provider of the network or hardware
provides the expertise, but access to this sort of help can be variable.

How to train staff and develop ICT skills within

the department

ICT training should aim to give staff the skills for their needs. This should
enable the teachers to implement the activities outlined in the schemes of
work and ensure the targets in the development plan are met. There are
distinct stages in this process, outlined in Table 1.3.
At my school we have found that external training sessions are useful to
excite and supply information on new software and hardware, but general
skills training can be done successfully as part of a regular INSET pro-
gramme within the department. Skills training seems to be most successful
when it is done at the time it is needed and using the equipment present
within the department (‘just-in-time’ learning).
 USING ICT IN A SECONDARY SCIENCE DEPARTMENT 21

Table 1.3 The stages in training staff in a science department

Stage Action

A Identify the needs and competencies of The skills of the teachers are assessed.
the teachers This is normally done by questioning
the teachers. I have found it is better to
ask teachers not only if they can use a
piece of software but also break it down
to key skills with that software.
B Plan the training The type of training received by the
teachers is decided. The training may
need to look at:
• how the curriculum is developed;
• how to improve the ICT skills of the
teachers.
The training can be delivered:
• externally to harness expertise
elsewhere;
• on a school or departmental basis;
• by self-study such as using an online
training resource;
• as part of a course such as NOF
training.
C Carry out the training The teacher undergoes the training ses-
sion or course and uses it to help them
implement their lessons or develop
their curriculum planning.
D Evaluate the success of the training The targets of the training such as the
implementation of lessons, the effects
on teaching and learning or the devel-
opment of the curriculum need to be
assessed (NCET 1994b).

Health and safety

Health and safety issues related to IT equipment have received much cov-
erage in the press over the past few years and there are several European
Union directives regarding its use. Teachers have overall responsibility to
ensure that IT equipment is used correctly and safely, to avoid eye strain,
tendonitis, carpal tunnel syndrome, repetitive strain injury and even
electrocution.
22 ROB MUSKER

Review and evaluate your use of ICT

The use of ICT should be evaluated to see if the educational and curricu-
lum targets have been met. It is important to evaluate use regularly and
act on what you find. When I evaluate its use within our science depart-
ment I try to ensure that any changes reflect:
• targets in the development plan;
• the introduction of new software and hardware;
• the best use of the current resources;
• the current competence of the science staff;
• changes in the ICT or science curriculum.
Recently, looking at the use of the Mimio and interactive whiteboards in
the department, I realized that these pieces of equipment were having an
impact on learning when they were being used, but they were generally
underused. There were two main reasons for this: first, the staff had not
had much training in their use; second, because of the way they are used
they had not been fully written into schemes of work. Therefore, we are
solving these problems and already this is having an impact. What is
important is that the position is evaluated constantly.
It is difficult to evaluate targets such as the effects of ICT on learning. In
previous studies we have used pre- and post-test strategies, pupil and
teacher questionnaires, interviews, observations and value-added indica-
tors. The easiest and most obvious piece of evidence would be the ICT and
science grades reported at the end of Key Stage 3. The process of evaluation
should also remove lessons that are unsuccessful and add others
that incorporate any new software or hardware where appropriate.
Teacher evaluation is still the primary method to assess ICT lessons in our
department.

The future

It is important that ICT helps pupils to learn and provokes them to think
about science and scientific concepts. We have had some success in linking
ICT and critical thinking skills, a sort of ‘thinking ICT’ approach, and I see
great potential in this area. Sometimes technology is used to support and
enhance thinking skills lessons and sometimes thinking skills strategies
are used to give structure to or ‘frame’ ICT lessons. We have used several
different thinking skill strategies such as de Bono’s Six Hats (De Bono
1985), CASE and Concept mapping and cartoons to provide structure to
lessons (McGuiness 1999). Related to this is the impact that ICT can have
on science education outside the classroom. Pupils now have access to
some high-quality science resources, such as simulations and revision
material, at home and the teacher must be aware of the opportunities they
 USING ICT IN A SECONDARY SCIENCE DEPARTMENT 23

offer and try to harness them if possible. The speed of technological

change continues, with the key software and hardware making huge
strides every year. The present generation of Microsoft Office products
allows voice recognition and it will be interesting to see whether this can
impact on how pupils record activities such as science investigations. Sci-
ence teachers need to concentrate on the educational value of the software
and hardware. We have found that by using these tools in an innovative
way we have been able to enhance our lessons while retaining the main
focus on learning science.

References

Carson, S. R. (1997) The use of spreadsheets in science – an overview, School Science

Review, 79 (287): 69–80.
Chapman, C. and Lewis, J. (1998) IT Activities for Science 11– 14. Oxford:
Heinemann.
Chapman, C., Lewis, J., Musker, R. and Nicholson, D. (1999) ICT Activities for Science
14– 16. Oxford: Heinemann.
Chapman, C., Musker, R., Nicholson, D. and Sheehan, M. (2001) Eureka: Success in
Science Activity Pack. Oxford: Heinemann.
De Bono, E. (1985) Six Thinking Hats. New York: Little Brown.
Frost, R. (1997) Computer software for science teaching – choosing and using,
School Science Review, 79(287): 19–24.
McGuiness, C. (1999) From Thinking Skills to Thinking Schools. London: DfEE.
Musker, R., Reardon, K., Poole, P. and Hearne, P. R. (1997) The Enhancement of
Academic Performance Due to an Enriched IT Curriculum. London: Teacher
Training Agency.
Musker, R. (2000) The Effects of ICT on Learning in Science. Torun, Poland: University
Nicolas Copernika.
NCET (1994a) IT Works: Stimulate to Educate. Coventry: NCET.
NCET (1994b) Enhancing Science with IT: Planning for IT. Coventry: NCET.
Tebbutt, M. (2000) ICT in science: problems, possibilities . . . and principles? School
Science Review, 81(297): 57–64.
 Part II
Practical Science
with Computers
 2
WHY USE COMPUTERS IN
P R AC T I C A L S C I E N C E ?

Roy Barton

Introduction

I feel I should start this chapter by stating clearly that I am a strong advo-
cate for the use of computer-aided practical work in science. My convic-
tion comes mainly from my experiences as a secondary school science
teacher. From the time of my own initial training, being inducted into the
possibilities of the Nuffield approach to science teaching, I felt that prac-
tical work had the potential greatly to enhance pupils’ learning in science.
Although I never changed that view, over the years I became increasingly
frustrated by the logistical limitations on what could be done in the school
laboratory. I wanted pupils to spend more of their time analysing and
interpreting data but instead the exercise of collecting and processing the
data seemed to dominate. Consequently, in the late 1980s, when I first
became aware of the potential of computers to transform practical work, I
became a convert. In the account that follows I explain my reasons for this
‘conversion’.
This part of the book looks at computer-aided practical work in three
chapters. This chapter is intended to provide a rationale for using com-
puters. Chapter 3 looks at resources and other implications for the school
laboratory. In Chapter 4, three case studies provide specific examples
28 ROY BARTON

of how the ideas presented in the preceding two chapters could be put
into practice. The sequence of these three chapters is significant, since it
is my view that unless science teachers become convinced of the edu-
cational benefits of computer-aided practical work, there is no point in
exploring such details as resources or activities. Science teachers need to
be convinced at an intellectual, rather than just a practical, level that the
educational benefits outweigh the problems, and realistically there are
problems. My own experience, however, and that of colleagues, seems to
indicate that once science teachers decide that they want to use com-
puters for educational reasons, then they are adept at overcoming any
organizational and logistical problems that may arise. A useful parallel is
to consider the use of practical work itself. I think all science teachers
would agree that it would be easier not to do practical work, since it
gives rise to a range of logistical and classroom management-related
difficulties. However, we continue to use practical work because the
educational benefits outweigh the practical and financial problems.
My argument is that the advantages of practical work become even more
evident when we make use of computer-aided practical work. This is
why this chapter argues in terms of educational advantage, while the
following chapters deal with issues such as equipment and classroom
organization.

Practical work

It is impossible to separate the aims of practical work in general from those

related to computer-aided practical work. So it is useful to begin by explor-
ing some fundamental questions about practical work; then we can sens-
ibly explore what computers might offer in this area. In countries like
Britain, where practical work has such a central place in science education,
there is a danger of taking it for granted and not stepping back to consider
why we devote so much of our time and limited resources to it. Interest-
ingly, however, even a brief look at the very extensive literature on prac-
tical work in school science indicates that there is no clear consensus
about why we are doing it and what the main objectives should be. One of
the main areas of contention is the debate about the relative merits of
illustrative and investigative practical work. Illustrative practical work is
used to demonstrate a facet of science and pupils are usually guided by a
series of step-by-step instructions, whereas investigative practical work
stems from pupils’ statements and predictions in response to what they
have seen, experienced or discussed with the teacher. Whether you
advocate one approach over the other, or even support a balance between
the two approaches, I suggest that there is a subset of common goals for
practical work, which most science teachers are likely to subscribe to.
These include:
 WHY USE COMPUTERS IN PRACTICAL SCIENCE? 29

• encouraging pupils to become actively involved in science lessons, mak-

ing them more likely to engage with the ideas and processes;
• providing pupils with a context in which to discuss their own ideas and
to hear the ideas of others;
• providing pupils with the opportunity to suggest explanations for what
they observe;
• providing pupils with the opportunity to try out their own ideas.
Equally important is the role of the teacher both during and after the
activity. When pupils are engaged in practical work they need guidance,
structure and most significantly an explanation of the context in which
they are working. For example, after illustrative practical work, pupils
need to be offered explanations, models and analogies from the teacher to
help them in their efforts to construct their own understanding of what
they have experienced. Following pupil-led investigations the teacher is
also needed; for example, in helping pupils to identify ways in which they
could improve areas such as planning, data analysis and identifying ways
of improving future investigations. However, factors such as involvement,
discussion and explanation, which have been identified above, are all
present during conventional practical activities, so what is so special about
using a computer?

Computer-aided practical work

Computer-aided practical work is conducted by collecting data using sen-

sors connected to a data logger. This information is then transferred to a
computer and displayed, usually in a graphical form, on a computer
screen. The process is controlled by software (see Chapter 3 for more about
this process), but in this chapter I wish to concentrate on teaching and
learning issues. The first factor I would like to highlight relates to the ways
in which the presentation of data on the computer screen has the poten-
tial to focus pupils’ attention on the important process of analysis rather
than on routine data processing. To illustrate this point I will use the
example of a simple activity looking at cooling by evaporation. This can be
done by using three temperature sensors (thermometers). One therm-
ometer is placed on the desk as a control, while the others are dipped into
a volatile liquid. Once the logging of data has started the two thermo-
meters are removed from the liquid, and one is held still while the other is
gently waved through the air. The data-logging software enables the tem-
perature of each thermometer to be recorded as a graphical trace on the
screen of a computer. A typical trace is shown in Figure 2.1.
By only seeing a static image of the final graph printed on the page we
lose much of the benefit of the activity, but we can start to identify the
advantages of this approach by considering the conventional alternative.
30 ROY BARTON

Figure 2.1 Cooling by evaporation

If it was possible to read a liquid-in-glass thermometer during an experi-

ment of this type, pupils would focus entirely on the data collection dur-
ing the activity. They would then be asked to ‘plot a graph’, and the subset
who managed to do this successfully would at this stage be able to analyse
the results. Contrast this with the approach outlined above, which has a
number of advantages, including:
• providing an immediate link between the activity and the result,
making it much more likely that the pupil will relate the graphical rep-
resentation of the data to the activity itself;
• giving time for the pupil to think and to watch rather than being pre-
occupied by data gathering;
• making it possible to start with a qualitative analysis, which enables
pupils to look at the overall shape of the graph in terms of the trends
and gradients (the conventional approach requires pupils to deal with
numbers in order to plot the graph before they can conduct a qualitative
analysis);
• by seeing the data presented so quickly pupils are encouraged to ask
‘what if ?’ questions and consequently to conduct follow-up activities;
• having the graph on the computer screen provides a focus for both
pupils and the teacher to discuss the activity.
So is there a relationship between these advantages and the subset of aims
for practical work identified earlier? Discussion of ideas, both the pupils’
own and those of others, would be generated in a lively manner given
the immediacy of the data presentation and the way in which the screen
 WHY USE COMPUTERS IN PRACTICAL SCIENCE? 31

provides a central focus. The focus effect of the screen is also relevant
when considering opportunities for providing explanations, both from
the pupil and by the teacher. The ways in which this relates to the active
involvement of pupils are perhaps more contentious. Many teachers have
suggested to me that they are concerned that when using computer-aided
practical work pupils will be relegated to mere bystanders. This is an
important point worthy of further exploration.

Comparison of computer-aided and conventional

approaches

During practical activity there are two ways to distinguish between the
conventional and computer-aided approaches: the mode of measurement
and the recording of data. In the case of measurement using the computer,
data collection occurs automatically, whereas in the conventional
approach, pupils need to read scales manually. Even though some may
argue that pupils get a better ‘feel’ for the data if they read the scales, it is
clear that a misreading of scales can introduce problems when it comes to
pupils interpreting their data. Is the purpose of the activity to improve
pupils’ skills in reading a specific scale or is it more important to get good-
quality measurements quickly so that pupils can move on to evaluate
them? Clearly the answer to this question will not always be the same, but
I would suggest that in most cases good-quality data are most significant.
Manual recording is not only another potential source of errors; it also
seems to have the effect of making pupils detached from the experiment
itself. I have observed the ways in which manual data recording can
become an end in itself (Barton 1996). Pupils seemed to ‘switch off’ during
this time, taking on specific roles of reading or recording data, with no
apparent thought for the meaning or significance of the values they were
measuring. It should be noted that while the sensors are collecting the
data in the computer-aided approach, the experiment is still taking place
in front of the pupils on the laboratory bench. For example, when a gas
syringe is being used with a position sensor to monitor the rate of a reac-
tion, the pupils are still able to observe the evolution of gas as they have
always done. Indeed, it could be argued that when pupils are freed from
routine data gathering they are in an even better position to observe these
events during the experiment, with the additional benefit of being able to
relate them to the graphical representation appearing on the computer
screen.
This leads on to the area of graphical analysis. Not only does the com-
puter take over the task of data gathering, the software also frees pupils
from the need to plot the graphs for themselves. There are arguments for
and against this way of working. My view is that in science, graph plotting
is simply a means to an end; we plot graphs to help us to interpret data.
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
 Clarification of Vinegar.

For those who desire an extra fancy product of extraordinary brightness,

suitable for bottling, it will be necessary to subject the vinegar to a special
process of clarification known as fining. According to Bioletti[*], the best
results are obtained by using isinglass. This is employed at the rate of from
one-half to three-fourths of an ounce of isinglass to each one hundred
gallons of vinegar.
[*] Bioletti, Frederic T., Grape Vinegar, Bull. 227, California Exp. Sta.,
1912.

"The isinglass is cut into small pieces and soaked for twelve to twenty-
four hours in a little water containing acetic or tartaric acid equal in weight
to the isinglass used. When thoroughly soft it is then rubbed several times
through a fine sieve, gradually adding a little more water until a perfectly
fluid liquid is obtained. This fluid is then well mixed with a little vinegar
and thoroughly stirred into the cask. With some vinegars it is necessary to
add a little tannin, from one-half to one-seventh the amount of the isinglass
used. This tannin should be added at least twenty-four hours before the
finings.

When the finings have settled and the vinegar is perfectly bright it is
ready for bottling."

Pure Cultures for Vinegar Making.

Reference has been made above to the use of pure cultures, both yeast
and acetic acid bacteria, for vinegar making. For a little more than one year,
the Bacteriological Laboratory of the Colorado Experiment Station has been
supplying these at fifty cents (50c) per set, post paid, sufficient for one
barrel, to those who care to give them a trial. Full printed directions for
their use are included. These cultures have been selected because of certain
properties which they possess which make them especially suited to the
vinegar industry. No guarantee, either expressed or [Page 14] implied, goes
with the cultures, since it is not the purpose of the Experiment Station to
exploit these products, but rather to distribute them at the cost of production
for experimental purposes. Inasmuch as one of the cultures is to be added to
the sweet cider, the set should be obtained a few days, not longer, before the
cider is to be made.

Requests for cultures should be addressed to the Bacteriological

Laboratory, Colorado Experiment Station, Fort Collins, Colorado, and
should be accompanied by a remittance of fifty cents (50c).

Directions For Using Pure Cultures in Making Vinegar

Preparation of Yeast Culture.

1. For each barrel of sweet cider, sterilize one two-quart Mason jar by
washing thoroughly and boiling for five minutes in clean water.

2. Cover the top of the jar with a single layer of clean muslin or cheese
cloth just removed from boiling water and secure it in place by a string tied
about the neck of the can.

3. Select 6 or 8 medium sized ripe apples; pare and quarter or slice

them; add one quart of water and boil till soft; strain liquid through clean
cloth while hot into Mason jar, first removing the cloth covering from the
top.

4. Make up the volume of liquid to approximately one quart with

boiling water; add 4 tablespoonfuls of sugar and replace the cloth
immediately.

5. When the liquid has cooled thoroughly, partly remove the cloth
covering and add the contents of the culture bottle marked "Yeast." Replace
the cloth. Just previous to opening the culture bottle, shake thoroughly and
immerse the lip and cork only, ten second in boiling water. Do not touch the
lip while removing cork.

6. Keep the jar in subdued light at a temperature of 75 degrees F. to 90

degrees F. After two to four days the foaming characteristic of alcoholic
fermentation should appear.
 7. After four to six days, add the entire contents of the yeast jar to the
barrel of freshly made sweet cider. The barrel must not be more than two-
thirds full; it should be placed on its side, and the bung-hole be left open, or,
better, plugged loosely with a tuft of clean cotton batting.

8. Keep the barrel at 75 degrees F. to 85 degrees F.

[Page 15]

Preparation of Acetic Culture.

1. Three to four weeks after the yeast culture has been added to the cider
prepare the Acetic Culture in precisely the same manner as described for
the yeast in paragraphs 1 to 6 above. See that all of the culture is removed
from the bottle; rinse with a little cooled boiled water if necessary. Do not
shake the jar while the culture is developing.

2. By the end of one to two weeks, a white, gelatinous film or

membrane should be visible on the surface of the liquid. This is a growth of
acetic acid bacteria and constitutes the "Mother of Vinegar."

3. When this acetic membrane is well formed, which will require about
two weeks, with a clean sliver of wood, previously dipped into boiling
water, remove the membrane from the jar, but do not lay it down; pour the
contents of the jar into the barrel of cider, now fermented, to which the
yeast was added some five or six weeks before; next drop the sliver with the
attached acetic film into the barrel through the bung-hole. The wood will
serve to float the acetic membrane on the surface of the hard cider and
thereby hasten its development by keeping it in contact with the air.

4. Keep the barrel at 65 degrees F. to 75 degrees F. till the vinegar has

formed.

5. When vinegar of satisfactory quality has been obtained, in three to six

months, draw off and store at a cool, even temperature in casks which are
kept full and tightly bunged.
 6. Both of these cultures can be propagated indefinitely by employing a
small portion of the jar cultures in the same manner as the original bottle
starters.
 *** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK HOME-MADE
CIDER VINEGAR ***

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