Visit https://ebookluna.

com to download the full version and

explore more ebooks

(eBook PDF) Management of Human Resources: The

Essentials, 5th Canadian Edition

_____ Click the link below to download _____

https://ebookluna.com/product/ebook-pdf-management-of-
human-resources-the-essentials-5th-canadian-edition/

Explore and download more ebooks at ebookluna.com

Here are some recommended products that might interest you.
You can download now and explore!

(eBook PDF) Management of Human Resources The Essentials

4th Canadian

https://ebookluna.com/product/ebook-pdf-management-of-human-resources-
the-essentials-4th-canadian/

ebookluna.com

(eBook PDF) Essentials of Managing Human Resources 6th

Canadian

https://ebookluna.com/product/ebook-pdf-essentials-of-managing-human-
resources-6th-canadian/

ebookluna.com

(eBook PDF) Human Resources Management in Canada 13th

Canadian

https://ebookluna.com/product/ebook-pdf-human-resources-management-in-
canada-13th-canadian/

ebookluna.com

(eBook PDF) Understanding Human Resources Management: A

Canadian Perspective

https://ebookluna.com/product/ebook-pdf-understanding-human-resources-
management-a-canadian-perspective/

ebookluna.com
(eBook PDF) Essentials of Contemporary Management 5th
Canadian Edition

https://ebookluna.com/product/ebook-pdf-essentials-of-contemporary-
management-5th-canadian-edition/

ebookluna.com

(eBook PDF) Strategic Hospitality Human Resources

Management

https://ebookluna.com/product/ebook-pdf-strategic-hospitality-human-
resources-management/

ebookluna.com

(eBook PDF) Strategic Human Resources Planning 7th

Canadian Edition

https://ebookluna.com/product/ebook-pdf-strategic-human-resources-
planning-7th-canadian-edition/

ebookluna.com

(eBook PDF) Managing Human Resources 8th Canadian Edition

by Belcourt

https://ebookluna.com/product/ebook-pdf-managing-human-resources-8th-
canadian-edition-by-belcourt/

ebookluna.com

(eBook PDF) Human Resources Management, Global Edition

16th Edition

https://ebookluna.com/product/ebook-pdf-human-resources-management-
global-edition-16th-edition/

ebookluna.com
 D E S S LE R • C H H IN Z E R • G A N N O N

MANAGEMENT OF
HUMAN RESOURCES
T H E E S S E N T I A L S

F I F T H C A N A D I A N E D I T I O N
 Contents vii

PART FIVE Building Effective Employee–Employer Relationships 236

Chapter 10 Occupational Health and Safety 236

Strategic Importance of Occupational Health and Safety 237
Entrepreneurs and HR Small Business Safety Calculator 238
Basic Facts about Occupational Health and Safety Legislation 238
What Causes Accidents? 241
Workforce Diversity Guiding Young Workers in Health and Safety 246
How to Prevent Accidents 246
Occupational Health and Safety Challenges in Canada 249
Strategic HR Fidelity Investments Canada Focuses on Employee Health 250
Employee Wellness Programs 260

Chapter 11 Managing Employee Separations: Foundations of Employee Engagement,

Communication, and Turnover Management 264
The Importance of Managing Employee Separations 265
Managing Turnover 265
Strategic HR Employers Owed Reasonable Notice for Voluntary Turnover 268
Employee Engagement and Fairness in Employee Separations 274

Chapter 12 Labour Relations 282

Introduction to Labour Relations 283
Workforce Diversity Collective Agreement Puts Aboriginals First 285
Strategic HR UFCW’s Social Media Campaign to Engage and Educate Young Canadian
Workers 286
The Labour Relations Process 288
Strategic HR NHL Lockout Timeline (2012–2013 Season) 299
The Impact of Unionization on HRM 305

PART SIX Global Issues in Human Resources Management 308

Chapter 13 Managing Human Resources in a Global Business 308

The Globalization of Business and Strategic HR 309
How Intercountry Differences Affect HRM 309
Global Relocation 312
Considerations in Global HRM 315
Managing Global Workers within Canada 321

Notes 328
Glossary 348
Name and Organization Index 358
Subject Index 360
This page intentionally left blank
Preface
Management of Human Resources: The Essentials, Fifth Canadian Edition,
recognizes that human resources are now among the most important organiza-
tional assets, and thus brings both human resources and non-human resources
readers into a current and comprehensive discussion about human resources
today. The term human resources refers to the employee–employer relationship
in the workplace. The knowledge, skills, assets, and competencies employees
bring to their work help the organization achieve its objectives; these resources
provide a source of competitive advantage for organizations in a hyper-competitive,
global environment.
The strategic importance of human resources management (HRM) activities
is emphasized throughout the book, using recent examples from the Canadian
employment landscape. This textbook highlights fundamental knowledge of
HRM that is important for employees, supervisors, and managers in every
field—not just those working in HR departments or aspiring to do so in the future.
The fifth Canadian edition provides extensive coverage of all HRM topics,
such as job analysis, HR planning, recruitment, selection, onboarding and train-
ing, career management, compensation and benefits, performance management,
occupational health and safety, labour relations, and international HRM.

New to the Fifth Canadian Edition

• NEW! Expert Opinion boxes in each chapter provide interviews with lead-
ing Canadian researchers in the field of HR as well as industry experts from
various well-known companies about critical issues in HR in Canada. Each
interview aligns with the topics discussed in the chapter.
• A revised discussion of formerly separate chapters on recruitment and selec-
tion into a new consolidated chapter entitled Talent Acquisition (Chapter 5).
• Improved and updated graphics and figures in the chapters dealing with
designing and analyzing jobs (Chapter 3); balancing labour supply and
demand considerations (Chapter 4); and developing pay wage curves and
pay structures (Chapter 8).
• Updated Canadian data showing trends in corporate objectives for employee
benefit programming (Chapter 9), union density, and collective bargaining
demands (Chapter 12).
• Updated end-of-chapter Experiential Exercises to support classroom and
independent learning activities.

Key Features
Comprehensive Introductory Chapter. Chapter 1 provides a comprehensive
overview of the strategic importance of HR, highlighting the evolution of
HR over the years, the advances in measuring HRM’s contribution to the
bottom line, and HRM’s critical role in strategy implementation. It also
highlights HR-related professional designations in Canada.

ix
x Preface

Legal Emphasis. Chapter 2 provides a clear understanding of the often overlap-

ping areas of legislation that affect the employment relationship. This includes
a discussion of key legal cases, potential outcomes, and remedies to violations,
as well as a discussion about employer rights related to employment.
Significant Discussion of Managing Labour during Dynamic Times. Chapters 1,
4, and 11 focus on the impact and management of labour in dynamic times
when organizations must compete for talent. Chapter 11 focuses on turn-
over (quits, layoffs, termination, etc.), including legal, psychological, and
communication issues.
More Coverage on the Impact of Globalization on HR. Further discussion of the
impact of globalization on HR was added throughout this edition, with a
focus on both Canadian organizations’ interactions on a global scale and the
impact of immigrants on the Canadian labour force. Specific sections, such
as performance management (in addition to performance appraisal), the
impact of immigration on the labour force, and employability skills, are
introduced.
Integrated Chapters. Rather than approaching topics as isolated silos, the book
highlights areas of overlap in order to present HRM as an integrated set of
topics.
HR by the Numbers. This feature focuses on the impact of HR practices and
policies. The format of these sections is more magazine style and visually
enticing for the students.

Highlighted Themes
• Workforce Diversity. The Workforce Diversity boxes describe some of the
issues and challenges involved in managing the diverse workforces found in
Canadian organizations. The broad range addressed includes generational/
age, ethnic, gender, racial, and religious diversities.
• Strategic HR. The Strategic HR boxes provide examples that illustrate the
ways in which organizations are using effective HRM policies and practices
to achieve their strategic goals.
• Entrepreneurs and HR. Suggestions, examples, and practical hints are pro-
vided to assist those in smaller businesses who have limited time and
resources to implement effective HRM policies and procedures.
• Global HRM. In recognition of the increasing impact of globalization, topics
highlighted in the Global HRM boxes include cultural issues in retirement
plans, employment contracts in Europe, and the importance of personal rela-
tionships for business success in China.

Additional Features
Learning Outcomes. Specific learning goals are defined on each chapter-opening
page.
Key Terms. Key terms appear in boldface within the text, are defined in the mar-
gins, and are listed at the end of each chapter.
Current Examples. Numerous real-world examples of HRM policies, procedures,
and practices at a wide variety of organizations, ranging from small service
providers to huge global corporations, can be found throughout the text.
 Preface xi

Full-Colour Figures, Tables, and Photographs. Throughout each chapter, key

concepts and applications are illustrated with strong, full-colour visual
materials.
Web Links. Helpful Internet sites are provided throughout the text and are
featured in the margins.
End-of-Chapter Summaries. At the end of each chapter, the summary reviews
key points related to each of the learning outcomes.
End-of-Chapter Review and Discussion Questions. Each chapter contains a set
of review and discussion questions.
Critical Thinking Questions. Each chapter contains end-of-chapter questions
designed to provoke critical thinking and stimulate discussion.
Experiential Exercises. Each chapter includes a number of individual and group-
based experiential exercises that provide learners with the opportunity to
apply the text material and develop some hands-on skills.

Student Supplements
MyLab Management delivers proven results in helping individual students suc-
ceed. It provides engaging experiences that personalize, stimulate, and measure
learning for each student. Students and instructors can make use of the follow-
ing online resources:
• NEW MediaShare: Consisting of a curated collection of videos and custom-
izable, auto-scored assignments, MediaShare helps students understand
why they are learning key concepts and how they will apply those in their
careers. Instructors can also assign favorite YouTube clips or original con-
tent and employ MediaShare’s powerful repository of tools to maximize
student accountability and interactive learning, and provide contextualized
feedback for students and teams who upload presentations, media, or busi-
ness plans.
• Personal Inventory Assessment (PIA). Students learn better when they can
connect what they are learning to their personal experience. PIA is a collec-
tion of online exercises designed to promote self-reflection and engagement
in students, enhancing their ability to connect with concepts taught in prin-
ciples of management, organizational behaviour, and human resource man-
agement classes. Assessments can be assigned by instructors, who can then
track students’ completions. Student results include a written explanation
along with a graphic display that shows how their results compare to those
of the class as a whole. Instructors will also have access to this graphic repre-
sentation of results to promote classroom discussion.
• Study Plan: As students work through the MyLab Study Plan, they can
clearly see which topics they have mastered—and, more importantly, which
they need to work on. Each question has been carefully written to match the
concepts, language, and focus of the text, so students can get an accurate
sense of how well they’ve understood the chapter content.
• Pearson eText: MyLab Management also includes an eText version of Man-
agement of Human Resources: The Essentials, including a complete Glossary
and Index. This dynamic, online version of the text is integrated throughout
MyLab Management to create an enriched, interactive learning experience
for students. Users can create notes, highlight text in different colours, create
xii Preface

bookmarks, zoom, and click hyperlinked words and phrases to view defini-
tions and go directly to weblinks. The Pearson eText allows quick navigation
to key parts of the eText using a table of contents and provides full-text
search.
Instructors and students can also access quizzes, cases, simulations and other,
study tools designed to engage learners and improve student understanding.

Instructor Supplements
These instructor supplements are available for download from a password-pro-
tected section of Pearson Canada’s online catalogue (www.pearson.com/higher-
education). Navigate to your book’s catalogue page to view a list of those
supplements that are available. Speak to your local Pearson sales representative
for details and access.
Computerized Test Bank. Pearson’s computerized test banks allow instruc-
tors to filter and select questions to create quizzes, tests, or homework. Instructors
can revise questions or add their own, and may be able to choose print or online
options. These questions are also available in Microsoft Word format.
Instructor’s Manual. The Instructor’s Manual includes Learning outcomes,
chapter summaries, chapter/lecture outlines, discussion box summaries, ethical
dilemmas, key terms from the text, and answers to the end of chapter questions.
PowerPoint Slides. This practical set of PowerPoint slides outlines key con-
cepts discussed in the text, and includes selected tables and figures from the text.
Learning Solutions Managers. Pearson’s Learning Solutions Managers work
with faculty and campus course designers to ensure that Pearson technology
products, assessment tools, and online course materials are tailored to meet
your specific needs. This highly qualified team is dedicated to helping schools
take full advantage of a wide range of educational resources, by assisting in the
integration of a variety of instructional materials and media formats. Your local
Pearson Canada sales representative can provide you with more details on this
service program.
 Preface xiii

Acknowledgments
The manuscript was reviewed at various stages of its development by a number
of peers across Canada, and we want to thank those who shared their insights
and constructive criticism.
Ian Gellatly, University of Alberta
Noel Genoway, Langara College
Janet Latremouile, Humber College
Robin McQueen, Camosun College
Grace O’Farrell, University of Winnipeg
April Wallace, Queen’s University
Qi Wang, George Brown College
Dileeni Weerasinghe, University of Guelph–Humber
At Pearson Canada, we are very grateful to Karen Townsend, Acquisitions
Editor; Leigh-Anne Graham, Darcey Pepper/Lisa Gillis Marketing Managers;
Jennifer Murray, Content Developer; Sarah Gallagher, Project Manager; and all
the other people behind the scenes who have helped make this edition possible.
A special note of thanks is extended to research assistant Rachelle Phillips.

Gary Dessler
Florida International University
Nita N. Chhinzer
University of Guelph
Gary L. Gannon
University of Toronto
This page intentionally left blank
About the Canadian Authors
Dr. Nita N. Chhinzer
Dr. Nita N. Chhinzer is an Associate Professor in
the Department of Management, University of
Guelph. She was recognized as one of the top 25
HR professionals in Canada in 2016. Her research
is concentrated on Strategic Human Resources
Management, with a strong focus on downsizing
practices, procedures, and ethics. Her program of
research includes securing a stronger understanding
of downsizing activity in the Canadian context,
with an aim to affect public policy and legislation
regarding layoffs. She has gained international rec-
ognition with conference participation in such
places as Athens, Greece; Paris, France; Dubai,
UAE; and many North American speaking engagements. From May 2012 to
2017, Dr. Chhinzer was the recipient of the prestigious Fellowship in Leadership,
HRM and Work.

Dr. Gary L. Gannon

Dr. Gary L. Gannon (PhD, CHRL) has 18 years of
experience in progressive HR management roles in
the health care and higher education sectors. He is
recognized as an expert in building and revitalizing
HRM services in medium and large organizations
in order to fulfill strategic business objectives. Dr.
Gannon is a certified member of the Human
Resources Professionals Association (HRPA) and
serves on the Association’s Academic Standards
Committee. He has also advised several not-for-
profit organizations on HRM-related matters as part of his involvement in the
local community. In 2015, Dr. Gannon was awarded Durham College’s Faculty
Excellence Award. He presently teaches HR management and Labour Relations
courses in the School of Continuing Studies at the University of Toronto.

xv
 Visit https://ebookluna.com
now to explore a diverse
collection of ebooks available
in formats like PDF, EPUB, and
MOBI, compatible with all
devices. Don’t miss the chance
to enjoy exciting offers and
quickly download high-quality
materials in just a few simple
steps!
This page intentionally left blank
 © Shutterstock
PART ONE Human Resources Management in Perspective CHAPTER

THE STRATEGIC ROLE OF HUMAN

RESOURCES MANAGEMENT
LEARNING OUTCOMES
1
AFTER STUDYING THIS CHAPTER, YOU SHOULD BE ABLE TO:

DEFINE human resources management (HRM), and ANALYZE the strategic

significance of HRM.
DESCRIBE the evolution of HRM, and EXPLAIN how HRM has changed over
recent years to include a higher-level advisory role.
EXPLAIN how HRM has taken on the characteristics of a profession.
DISCUSS the internal and external environmental factors affecting HRM policies
and practices, and EXPLAIN their impact.

1
2 Part 1 Human Resources Management in Perspective

1.1 THE STRATEGIC ROLE OF HUMAN

RESOURCES MANAGEMENT
human resources management Human resources management (HRM) refers to the management of people in
(HRM) The management of people organizations. Human resources professionals are responsible for ensuring that
in organizations to drive successful the organization attracts, retains, and engages the diverse talent required to meet
organizational performance and
achievement of the organization’s
operational and performance commitments made to customers and shareholders.
strategic goals. Their job is to ensure that the organization finds and hires the best individuals
available, develops their talent, creates a productive work environment, and con-
tinually builds and monitors these human assets. They have the primary respon-
sibility for managing the workforce that drives organizational performance and
achieves the organization’s strategic goals.1
The aim of this book is to help every manager develop the skills he or she
needs to carry out the HRM–related aspects of his or her job, such as recruiting,
selecting, training, appraising, and incentivizing employees, as well as providing
them with a safe and fulfilling work environment.2 In addition, establishing an
awareness of the factors (strategic, legal, political, structural, etc.) that impact
how individuals, teams, or units are recruited, selected, evaluated, developed,
compensated, and removed from the employment relationship can be helpful for
the reader in his or her role as an employee.
More specifically, HRM involves formulating and implementing HRM sys-
tems (such as recruitment, performance management, and compensation) that
are aligned with the organization’s strategy to ensure that the workforce has the
competencies and behaviours required to achieve the organization’s strategic
objectives. In practice, the various HR topics are not isolated but interact with
and affect other areas of HR. For example, hiring people who don’t have the
potential to learn the job will doom their performance, regardless of how much
training they get. Similarly, each HRM function, from job analysis to recruiting,
selecting, training, and rewarding employees, should aim to produce the
employee behaviours and competencies that the company needs to achieve its
strategic goals. Accordingly, it is crucial that the HR strategy be aligned with the
company’s strategic plan (see Figure 1.1).
Just as important as the financial capital that is required for an organization
to operate, the knowledge, education, training, skills, and expertise of a firm’s
human capital The knowledge, workers represent its increasingly valuable human capital. More and more orga-
education, training, skills, and nizations are awakening to the importance of human capital as the next com-
expertise of an organization’s petitive advantage.3
workforce.
Research studies over the past two decades have confirmed that effective HR
practices are related to better organizational performance.4 Organizational benefits
range from employee empowerment to extensive training that affects the produc-
tivity of employees.5 The resource-based view of the firm suggests that practices in
human resources contribute to the development of embedded knowledge of a firm’s
culture, history, processes, and context, which are non-imitable.6 More specifically,
three HR practices (profit sharing, results-oriented performance management, and
employment security) are strongly related to important accounting measures of
performance (return on assets and return on equity).7 High-performance HR prac-
tices (comprehensive employee recruitment and selection procedures, incentive
compensation and performance management systems, and extensive employee
involvement and training) have a positive relationship with turnover, productivity,
and corporate financial performance (gross rate of return on capital).8
 Chapter 1 The Strategic Role of Human Resources Management 3

FIGURE 1.1 Linking Company-Wide and HR Strategies

Company’s competitive environment

Economic, political, demographic,
competitive, and technological trends

Company’s strategic plan

For example
Company’s strategic situation • Should we expand geographically?
• Cut costs?
• Diversify?

Company’s internal strengths

and weaknesses
Company’s HR (and other functional)
strategies
What are the basic courses of action
Organizational performance HR will pursue to ensure that the recruiting,
selecting, training, appraising, and
compensation systems support the
company’s strategic plan?

Source: © Gary Dessler, Ph.D., 2007.

1.2 THE EVOLUTION OF HRM

Is it accurate to say that HRM existed tens of thousands of years ago? Ancient
armies and organized efforts always required attracting, selecting, training, and
motivating workers. But personnel tasks like these were mostly just part of every
manager’s job, something that lasted in most countries until the late 1800s. At that
time, labour problems began arising in many of the post–industrial revolution’s
new factories. Soon employers were setting up “welfare offices” and “welfare sec-
retaries” to manage activities like factory washrooms, and “safety bureaus” to
oversee plant safety. By 1900, employers set up the first “hiring offices,” training
programs, and factory schools. These early stages of HRM were known as per-
sonnel management.9
In these early firms, personnel managers took over hiring and firing from
supervisors, ran the payroll departments, and administered benefits plans. As
expertise in testing emerged, personnel departments played a greater role in
employee selection and training.10 New union laws in the 1930s added “Helping
the employer deal with unions” to personnel management’s tasks. New equity-
oriented laws in the 1970s and 1980s made employers more reliant on person-
nel management to avoid discrimination claims.11
Around that time, globalization made gaining a competitive edge through
engaged employees—and therefore personnel management—increasingly impor-
tant. Today economic and demographic trends (recall the diminishing workforce
participation rate and aging population, for instance) make finding, hiring, and
motivating employees more challenging, while the existence of more high-tech
and service jobs means employers must excel at managing employees’ knowledge,
skills, and expertise (human capital) through aptly renamed HRM departments.12
Many HR experts (industry and academic) recognize the changing face of HR. Dr.
Rick Hackett’s perspectives on the profession and hot topics for the future are
highlighted in the Expert Opinion box.
4 Part 1 Human Resources Management in Perspective

Academic Viewpoint
EXPERT OPINION

Focus: Executive/managerial workforce with an increasing use

assessment, leadership, HR recruit- of contingent workers. The issues
ment, testing, selection, work of what this means for retention,
attitudes, absenteeism, and perfor- information security, intellectual

Dr. Rick Hackett

mance assessment. property, and the impact on the
labour force composition requires
1. In your expert opinion, who consideration.
is responsible for managing IV. Intrepreneurship: Innovation
the added value associated within the organization requires
with human resources an exploration of what kinds of
(employees) in an infrastructure we need in place to
organization? support new information and
innovation.
My one-word answer: Everyone.
Responsibility for managing employ- Identification:
ees in an organization might start at Dr. Rick Hackett 3. Why should those who
the executive level (executives Professor and Canadian Research manage human resources in
develop the mission and vision that Chair in Organizational Behaviour an organization use aca-
essentially drive the organizational and Human Performance, and demic articles in peer-
strategy), but all stakeholders Fellow of Canadian Psychological reviewed journals to inform
(employees, managers, specialists) Association their decisions?
facilitate the execution of that vision Affiliation: Pressing demands of the day-to-day
or mission. We rely on people to DeGroote School of Business, job requirements make it hard for
express the values required to meet McMaster University practitioners to manage information
the goals and objectives of the organi- overload. Instead, researchers should
zation, which involves alignment of work with media teams at their
culture, incentives, process, and prac- research centres (e.g., universities,
tices that often permeate through HR. data accessible through HR sys-
tems. Big data in HR changes in government agencies) or develop
real time; it’s dynamic, with con- industry-oriented papers to commu-
2. What are some of the hot nicate information in a meaningful
stantly changing algorithms.
topics being researched in way outside of the research commu-
II. Technology for Performance
the world of HRM now, nity. Recent research grant applica-
Management: This is linked with
which existing and future tions have started asking about plans
data analytics, but addresses how
managers should know for research dissemination, but we
we harness technology to make
about? can also build in incentive systems to
HR more effective. For example,
I. Data Analytics: In recent years HRIS requires packages tailored to recognize research communicated in
there has been a lot of discussion the needs of specialized workers. practitioner forums.
of big data, specifically about how III. Contingent Workforce: Organi­ Source: Reprinted by permission from Dr. Rick
we can harness the volume of zations have a smaller core Hackett.

1.2.1 Critical Competencies for HR Professionals

A 2011 national survey of HR professionals identified five critical pieces of
knowledge required by HR professionals today. Presented in order of priority,
they are business acumen, an understanding of employment law and legislation,
talent management, broad HR knowledge, and employee–labour relations
knowledge.13 The results align with an overall trend towards increased
 Chapter 1 The Strategic Role of Human Resources Management 5

expectations of HR professionals, suggesting that there are six core competencies

that those responsible for HR activities (within the HRM department and out-
side of it) must secure to help deliver value to the organization.

1.2.1.1 Credible Activist

A core HR competency is that of being both credible (respected, listened to,
trusted) and active (a person who takes a position and challenges assumptions).
Both of these qualities are required to help an organization optimize the value
added from its human resources.
The activist role is shared with non-HR positions as well. For example, a
recent study conducted by Monster.com found that 73 percent of CEOs spend
more than 25 percent of their time on talent-related activities, with three in
every five identifying employee satisfaction/engagement as a key goal for their
job, and three of every four identifying retention of high-performing employees
as one of their goals.14

1.2.1.2 Culture and Change Steward

The ability to appreciate, help shape, and articulate an organization’s corporate
culture includes understanding, guiding, and reacting to both internal and exter-
nal stakeholder expectations. HR staff has a responsibility to shape and support
a culture of change, as well as develop programs, strategies, or projects to embed
desired change throughout the organization.
Intense global competition and the need for more responsiveness to environ-
mental changes put a premium on employee engagement: the emotional and employee engagement The
intellectual involvement of employees in their work, and the intensity, focus, emotional and intellectual
and involvement they bring to their jobs and organizations. Engaged employees involvement of employees in their
work, and the intensity, focus, and
drive desired organizational outcomes—they go beyond what is required; under- involvement they bring to their jobs
stand and share the values and goals of the organization; perceive that there are and organizations.
opportunities for growth, development, and advancement; enjoy collegial rela-
tionships with managers and co-workers; trust their leaders; and regard the suc-
cess of the organization as their success.15 According to an analysis of a Hewitt
Associates database (over 4 million employees from almost 1 500 companies),
there is a strong positive relationship between employee engagement and orga-
nizational performance (sales growth and total shareholder return).16 Similarly,
a recent Global Workforce Study of 32 000 employees found that companies
with engaged employees secured profit margins almost three times higher than
companies with disengaged employees.17

1.2.1.3 Talent Manager and Organizational Designer

Traditional linear career paths are changing, and the importance of an HR pro-
fessional’s ability to effectively manage human resources has become more criti-
cal as employees enter, exit, or move up, down, or across the organization.
Accordingly, HR specialists must embed theory, research, and practice into the
processes, policies, and structures of an organization.
HR professionals and line managers play a pivotal role in lowering labour
costs, the single largest operating expense in many organizations, particularly in
the service sector. Doing so might involve introducing strategies to reduce turn-
over, absenteeism, and the rate of incidence of occupational illnesses and inju-
ries. It could also mean adopting more effective recruitment, selection, and
training programs. At one international tire manufacturing firm, adopting a
 6 Part 1 Human Resources Management in Perspective

behaviour-based interview strategy as the basis for selection of entry-level engi-

neers resulted in savings of $500 000 in three years. These savings were due to
lower turnover, lower training costs, and improved capabilities of the engineer-
ing staff because of a better fit.18

1.2.1.4 Strategy Architect

HR professionals significantly contribute to strategy by integrating internal
stakeholder and external stakeholder expectations. By identifying, forecasting,
and facilitating organizational responses to an ever-changing internal workforce
and often volatile external pressures, HR plays an active role in the establish-
ment and execution of overall strategy.
strategy The company’s plan for Traditionally, strategy—the company’s plan for how it will balance its inter-
how it will balance its internal nal strengths and weaknesses with external opportunities and threats to main-
strengths and weaknesses with tain a competitive advantage—was formulated without HR input. But today,
external opportunities and threats
to maintain a competitive
HR professionals are increasingly involved in both formulating and implement-
advantage. ing organizational strategy. A recent survey of over 1 100 corporate managers in
Canada found that three-quarters of them strongly believe that the HR function
contributes significantly to the overall success of their company and view having
an HR professional on staff as a strategic advantage.19

1.2.1.5 Operational Executor

Leading HR researcher Brian Becker says, “It isn’t the content of the strategy
that differentiates the winners and losers, it is the ability to execute.”20 HR spe-
change agents Specialists who cialists are expected to be change agents who lead the organization and its
lead the organization and its employees through organizational change. Making the enterprise more respon-
employees through organizational
sive to product or service innovations and technological change is the objective
change.
of many management strategies. Flattening the pyramid, empowering employ-
ees, and organizing around teams are ways in which HRM can help an organi-
zation respond quickly to its customers’ needs and competitors’ challenges.
Drafting, adapting, and implementing policies, as
well as dealing with employees’ administrative needs,
were traditional roles that HR fulfilled. In recent years,
the efficiency in dealing with operational issues has
significantly improved through the use of technology,
© Cartoonresource/Fotolia

shared services, or outsourcing. However, much of the

expertise in operational aspects of employee-related
policies remains largely within the HR professional’s
realm of responsibility.

1.2.1.6 Business Ally

Organizational goal setting and development of busi-
ness objectives is highly dependent on external oppor-
tunities or threats. HR professionals, together with
other organizational managers, play a role in what strategic planners call
environmental ­environmental scanning, which involves identifying and analyzing external
scanning Identifying and opportunities and threats that may be crucial to the organization’s success.
analyzing external opportunities These managers can also supply competitive intelligence that may be useful as
and threats that may be crucial to
the organization’s success.
the company formulates its strategic plans. Details regarding a successful incen-
tive plan being used by a competitor, impending labour shortages, and informa-
tion about pending legislative changes are examples.
 Chapter 1 The Strategic Role of Human Resources Management 7

HR professionals can also add value to the strategy-formulation process by

supplying information regarding the company’s internal strengths and weak-
nesses, particularly as they relate to the organization’s workforce. HR profes-
sionals not only understand the value and social context of the business, but
they are also increasingly relied on to determine how an organization should be
structured and how work can be integrated to ensure financial success.
As highlighted in the Strategic HR box, the evolution of HR is far from
done. HR’s transformation has been underway for several years, but progress
has been somewhat inconsistent because of lack of senior management support
and the fact that many non-HR managers still view HR as a cost centre. Many
HR professionals need to acquire more broad-based business knowledge and
skill sets to be considered and respected as equal business partners by other
executives in the company.21 In some organizations, HR remains locked in an
operational mode, processing forms and requests, administering compensation
and benefits, managing policies and programs, and overseeing hiring and
training.22
Table 1.1 illustrates the differences in the focus of operational versus strate-
gic HR activities.

STRATEGIC HR
The HR Role Continues to Evolve tasks to think critically about the complexities, time,
and contingencies that must be considered in suc-
The current shift in human resources management as a cession planning. Thus, HR executives are critical to
department and as a profession will continue to undergo organizational success through development and
evolution well into the 2020s. There are five major management of a comprehensive succession plan-
forces driving this change: ning process.
1. Changing Technology: Technology has helped 4. Identifying Top Talent: While some companies
automate basic HR functions, including managing argue that all employees must be motivated, edu-
day-to-day transactions and employee self-service cated, rewarded, and evaluated, others argue that a
systems. Rather than maintain HR technology better return on investment can be secured by focus-
experts in-house, nearly half of companies outsource ing on a smaller portion of workers (for example, the
operational functions of HR (payroll, benefits admin- top 3 percent of all employees). HR is continually
istration, employee education, recruitment pro- asked to establish a commitment to talent develop-
cesses, and workforce analytics). ment that is fair, realistic, aware of limitations, and
2. New Rules: Corporate accounting scandals that sustainable.
plagued the early 2000s resulted in a more focused 5. A New Breed of HR Leaders: The rise of the CHRO
alignment of organizational activities with new laws (Chief HR Officer) or CTO (Chief Talent Officer) con-
and compliance expectations. The financial crisis firms the seriousness and intent of many boards of
that started in 2008 included a series of additional directors in elevating and recognizing the role and
regulations and expectations of organizational capabilities of HR in an organization’s leadership.
accountability. In this highly volatile environment HR’s participation at the highest level of organiza-
with high accountability expectations, HR’s role is tional decision making marks the transformation of
increasingly strategic, including helping the organi- the role of HR from operational expert to strategic
zation recover from changes and comply with new expert in a concrete way.
regulations.
3. Succession Planning: Fifty percent of companies
do not have a succession plan in place for their CEO. Source: Reprinted from Human Resource Executive. Copyright
HR’s role extends significantly beyond operational 2012. All rights reserved.
8 Part 1 Human Resources Management in Perspective

TABLE 1.1 Operational versus Strategic HR

Operational Strategic
Skills Concepts
Administrative tasks Planning
Reactive Proactive
Collecting metrics/measurements Analyzing metrics/measurements
Working to achieve goals and objectives Setting the goals and objectives
Following the laws, policies, and Interpreting, establishing, and revising the laws,
procedures policies, and procedures
Employee focus Organizational focus
Explaining benefits to employees Designing benefit plans that help the
organization achieve its mission and goals
Setting up training sessions for employees Assessing training needs for the entire
organization
Recruiting and selecting employees Workforce planning and building relationships
with external resources
Administering the salary/wage plan Creating a pay plan that maximizes employees’
productivity, morale, and retention
Always doing things the same way Recognizing that there may be better ways of
doing things; recognizing how changes affect the
entire organization—not just HR
Works within the organizational culture Attempts to improve the organizational culture

Source: D.M. Cox and C.H. Cox, “At the Table: Transitioning to Strategic Business Partner,” Workspan
(November 2003), p. 22. Used with Permssion.

1.2.2 Measuring the Value of HR: Metrics

Today’s HR professionals need to be able to measure the value and impact of
their organization’s human capital and HRM practices. The use of various
metrics Statistics used to ­metrics, or statistics to measure the activities and results of HR, is now quite
measure activities and results. common. Traditional operational measures focused on the amount of activity
and the costs of the HR function (such as number of job candidates interviewed
per month, cost per hire, and so on), but today’s measures need to reflect the
quality of people and the effectiveness of HRM initiatives that build workforce
capability. These new measures provide critical information that can be linked
to organizational outcomes such as productivity, product or service quality,
sales, market share, and profits. For example, the percentage of first-choice job
candidates accepting an offer to hire indicates the strength of the organization’s
employment brand in the marketplace and directly affects the quality of the
workforce.23
balanced scorecard A Many organizations are using the balanced scorecard system that includes
measurement system that measures of the impact of HRM on organizational outcomes. The balanced
translates an organization’s scorecard approach translates an organization’s strategy into a comprehensive
strategy into a comprehensive set of
performance measures.
set of performance measures. It includes financial measures that tell the results
of actions already taken. It complements the financial measures with opera-
tional measures of organizational, business unit, or department success that will
drive future performance. It balances long-term and short-term actions and
measures of success relating to financial results, customers, internal business
processes, and human capital management.24
Other documents randomly have
different content
phenomena have been stated to occur in the great plateau of
Central Asia, but the existence of some at least of these appears to
rest on very doubtful evidence. The only accounts which we have of
the eruptions of these Thian Shan volcanoes are contained in
Chinese histories and treatises on geography; and a great service
would be rendered to science could they be visited by some
competent explorer.
The second exceptionally-situated volcanic group is
EXCEPTIONALLY
that of the Sandwich Islands. While the Thian Shan -SITUATED
volcanoes rise in the centre of the largest unbroken VOLCANOES.
land-mass, and stand on the edge of the loftiest and
greatest plateau in the world, the volcanoes of the Sandwich Islands
rise almost in the centre of the largest ocean and from almost the
greatest depths in that ocean. All round the Sandwich Islands the
sea has a depth of from 2,000 to 3,000 fathoms, and the island-
group culminates in several volcanic cones which rise to the height
of nearly 14,000 feet above the sea-level. The volcanoes of the
Sandwich Islands are unsurpassed in height and bulk by those of
any other part of the globe.
With the exception of the two isolated groups of the Thian Shan
and the Sandwich Islands, nearly all the active volcanoes of the
globe are situated near the limits which separate the great land- and
water-masses of the globe—that is to say, they occur either on the
parts of continents not far removed from their coast-lines, or on
islands in the ocean not very distant from the shores.
The fact of the general proximity of volcanoes to the sea, is one
which has frequently been pointed out by geographers, and may
now be regarded as being thoroughly established. Even the
apparently anomalous case of the Thian Shan volcanoes is
susceptible of explanation if we remember the fact, now well
ascertained by geological researches, that as late certainly as
Pliocene times, a great inland sea spread over the districts where the
Caspian, the Sea of Aral, and many other isolated lakes are now
found. Upon the southern shore of this sea rose the volcanoes of the
Thian Shan, some of which have not yet fallen into a state of
complete extinction.
But although the facts concerning the general proximity of
volcanoes to the ocean may be admitted to be thoroughly
established, yet inferences are sometimes hastily drawn from these
facts which the latter, if fairly considered, will not be found to
warrant. It is frequently assumed that we may refer all the
remarkable phenomena of volcanic action to the penetration of sea-
water to a mass of incandescent lava in the earth's crust, and to the
chemical or mechanical action which would result from this meeting
of sea-water and molten rock. And this conclusion is supposed to
find support in the circumstance that many of the gases and volatile
substances emitted from volcanic vents are such as would be
produced by the decomposition of the various salts contained in sea-
water.
This argument in favour of the production of volcanic outbursts
by the irruption of sea-water into subterranean reservoirs, involves,
as Mr. Scrope long ago pointed out, a curious example of reasoning
in a circle. It is assumed, on the one hand, that the heaving
subterranean movements, which give rise to the fissures by which
steam and other gases escape to the surface, are the result of the
passage of water to heated masses in the earth's crust. But, on the
other hand, it is supposed that it is the production of these fissures
which leads to the influx of water to the heated materials. If it is the
passage of water through these fissures which produces the
eruptions, it may be fairly asked, what is it that gives rise to the
fissures? And if, on the other hand, there exist subterranean forces
competent to produce the fissures, may they not also give rise to the
eruptions through the openings which they have originated? Nor
does the chemical argument appear to rest upon any surer ground.
It is true that many of the volatile substances emitted from volcanic
vents are such as might be produced by the decomposition of sea-
water, but, upon the other hand, there are not a few substances
which cannot possibly be regarded as so produced, and, all the
materials may equally well be supposed to have been originally
imprisoned in the masses of subterranean lava.
The problem before us is this. Granting that it is
CAUSE OF
proved that active volcanoes are always in close PROXIMITY OF
proximity to the ocean, are we to explain the fact by VOLCANOES TO
SEA.
supposing that the agency of sea-water is necessary to
volcanic outbursts, or by regarding the position of the coast-lines as
to some extent determined by the distribution of volcanic action
upon the surface of the globe? The first supposition is the one which
perhaps most readily suggests itself, but the latter, as we shall
hereafter show, is one in favour of which not a few weighty
arguments may be advanced.
Another problem which suggests itself in connection with the
distribution of volcanoes is the following. Are the great depressed
tracts which form the bottom of the oceans, like the elevated tracts
which constitute the continents, equally free from exhibitions of
volcanic energy?
When we remember the fact that the area of the ocean beds is
two and three-quarter times as great as that of the continents, it will
be seen how important this question of the existence of volcanoes at
the bottom of the ocean really is.
The fact that recent deep-sea soundings have shown the deepest
parts of the ocean to be everywhere covered with volcanic débris is
by no means conclusive upon this question; for, as we have seen,
the ejections of sub-aerial volcanoes are by the wind and waves
distributed over every part of the earth's surface.
Submarine volcanic outbursts have occurred in
SUBMARINE
many parts of the globe, but it may well be doubted ERUPTIONS.
whether any such outburst has ever commenced at the
bottom of a deep ocean, and has succeeded in building up a volcanic
cone reaching to the surface. Most, if not all, of the recorded
submarine outbursts have occurred in the midst of volcanic districts,
and the volcanic cones have been built up in water of no great
depth. Indeed, when it is remembered that the pressure of each
1,000 fathoms of water is equivalent to a weight of more than one
ton on every square inch of the ocean-bottom, it is difficult to
imagine the ordinary explosive action of volcanic vents taking place
at abysmal depths. If, however, fissures were opened in the beds of
the ocean, quiet outwellings of lava might possibly occur.
The solution of this problem of the probable existence of volcanic
outbursts on the floor of the ocean can only be hoped for from the
researches of the geologist. The small specimens of the ocean-beds
brought up by deep-sea sounding-lines, taken at wide distances
apart, and including but a few inches from the surface, can certainly
afford but little information upon the question. But the geologist has
the opportunity of studying the sea-bottoms of various geological
periods which have been upheaved and are now exposed to his
view. It was at one time supposed by geologists that in the so-called
'trap-rocks' we have great lava-sheets which must have been piled
upon one another, without explosive action. But the more accurate
researches of recent years have shown that between the layers of
'trap-rock,' in every part of the globe, traces of terrestrial surfaces
and freshwater deposits are found; and the supposed proofs of the
absence of explosive action break down no less signally upon re-
examination; for the loose, scoriaceous materials would either be
removed by denudation, or converted into hard and solid rocks by
the infilling of their vesicles and air-cavities with crystalline minerals.
It is not possible, among the representatives of former geological
periods, to point to any rocks that can be fairly regarded as having
issued from great submarine fissures, and it is therefore fair to
conclude that no such great outbursts of the volcanic forces take
plane at the present day on the deep ocean-floors.
In connection with the question of the relation between the
position of the volcanic bands of the globe and the areas covered by
the ocean, we may mention a fact which deep-sea soundings appear
to indicate, namely, that the deepest holes in the ocean-floor are
situated in volcanic areas. Near Japan, the soundings of the U.S.
ship 'Tuscarora' showed that at two points the depth exceeded 4,000
fathoms; and the deepest sounding obtained by H.M.S. 'Challenger,'
amounting to 4,575 fathoms, was taken in the voyage from New
Gruinea to Japan, in the neighbourhood of the Ladrone Islands.
Depths nearly as great were found in the soundings carried on in the
neighbourhood of the volcanic group of the West Indian Islands. It
must be remembered, however, that at present our knowledge of
the depths of the abysmal portions of the ocean is very limited. A
few lines of soundings, often taken at great distances apart, are all
we have to guide us to any conclusions concerning the floors of the
great oceans, and between these lines are enormous areas which
still remain altogether unexplored. It may be wise, therefore, to
suspend our judgment upon such questions till more numerous facts
have been obtained.
Another fact concerning the distribution of
RELATIONS TO
volcanoes which is worthy of remark is their relation to MOUNTAIN-
the great mountain-ranges of the globe. CHAINS.

Many of the grandest mountain-chains have bands of volcanoes

lying parallel to them. This is stinkingly exhibited by the great
mountain-masses which lie on the western side of the American
continent. The Rocky Mountains and the Andes consist of folded and
crumpled masses of altered strata which, by the action of denuding
forces, have been carved into series of ridges and summits. At many
points, however, along the sides of these great chains, we find that
fissures have been opened and lines of volcanoes formed, from
which enormous quantities of lava have flowed and covered great
tracts of country. At some parts of the chain, however, the volcanoes
are of such height and dimensions as to overlook and dwarf the
mountain-ranges by the side of which they lie. Some of the
volcanoes lying parallel to the great American axis appear to be
quite extinct, while others are in full activity.
In the Eastern continent we find still more striking examples of
the parallelism between great mountain-chains and the lands along
which volcanic activity is exhibited. Stretching in a more or less
continuous chain from east to west, through Europe and Asia, we
find the mountain-masses known in different parts of their course as
the Pyrenees, the Alps, the Balkan, the Caucasus, which form the
axis of the Eastern continent. These chains consist of numerous
parallel ridges, and give off branches on either side of them. They
are continued to the eastward by the Hindoo Koosh and the
Himalaya, with the four parallel ranges that cross the great Central-
Asian plateau. Now, on either side of this grand axial system of
mountains, we find a great parallel band of volcanoes. The northern
volcanic band is constituted by the eruptive rocks of the Auvergne,
the Eifel, the Siebengebirge, Central Germany, Bohemia, Hungary,
and Transylvania, few, if any, of the vents along this northern band
being still active. The remarkable volcanoes of the Thian Shan range
and of Mantchouria may not improbably be regarded as a
continuation of the same great series.
The southern band of volcanoes, lying parallel to the great
mountain axis of the Old World, also consists for the most part of
extinct volcanoes, but includes not a few vents which are still active.
In this band we include the extinct volcanoes of Spain and Sardinia,
the numerous extinct and active vents of the Italian peninsula and
islands, and those of the Ægean Sea and Asia Minor. We may,
perhaps, consider the scattered volcanoes of Arabia and the
northern part of the Indian Ocean as a continuation of the same
series. Both of these bands may be regarded as offshoots from the
great mid-Atlantic volcanic chain, and the condition of the vents,
both in the principal band and its offshoots, is such as to indicate
that they form parts of a system which is gradually sinking into a
state of complete extinction.
There are some other volcanic bands which exhibit a similar
parallelism with mountain chains; but, on the other hand, there are
some volcanoes between which and the nearest mountain axes no
such connection can be traced.
There is yet one other fact concerning the mode of
RELATION TO
distribution of volcanoes upon the surface of the globe, AREAS OF
to which we must allude. It was first established by Mr. UPHEAVAL.
Darwin as one of the conclusions derived from the valuable series of
observations made by him during the voyage of H.M.S. 'Beagle,' and
relates to the position of active volcanoes with respect to the
portions of the earth's crust which are undergoing upheaval or
subsidence.
From the relative position of the different kinds of coral-reefs,
and the fact that reef-forming corals cannot live at a depth of more
than twenty fathoms beneath the sea-level, or above tide-mark, we
are led to the conclusion that certain areas of the earth's surface are
undergoing slow elevation, while other parts are as gradually
subsiding. This conclusion is confirmed by the occurrence of raised
beaches, which are sometimes found at heights of hundreds, or
even thousands, of feet above the sea-level, and of submerged
forests, which are not unfrequently found beneath the waters of the
ocean.
By a study of the evidences presented by coral-reefs, raised
beaches, submerged forests, and other phenomena of a similar kind,
it can be shown that certain wide areas of the land and of the
ocean-floor are at the present time in a state of subsidence, while
other equally large areas are being upheaved. And the observations
of the geologist prove that similar upward and downward
movements of portions of the earth's crust have been going on
through all geological times. Now, as Mr. Darwin has so well shown
in his work on 'Coral-Reefs,' if we trace upon a map the areas of the
earth's surface which are undergoing upheaval and subsidence
respectively, we shall find that nearly all the active volcanoes of the
globe are situated upon rising areas, and that volcanic phenomena
are conspicuously absent from those parts of the earth's crust which
can be proved at the present day to be undergoing depression.
 CHAPTER IX.
VOLCANIC ACTION AT DIFFERENT PERIODS OF
THE EARTH'S HISTORY.

It is only in comparatively recent times that the important doctrine of

geological continuity has come to be generally accepted, as furnishing
us with a complete and satisfactory explanation of the mode of origin
of the features of our globe. The great forces, which are ever at work
producing modifications in those features, operate so silently and
slowly, though withal so surely, that without the closest and most
attentive observation their effects may be easily overlooked; while, on
the other hand, there are so many phenomena upon our globe which
seem at first sight to bear testimony to the action of sudden and
catastrophic forces, very different to any which appear to be at
present at work, that the tendency to account for all past changes by
these violent actions is a very strong one. In spite of this tendency,
however, the real potency of the forces now at work upon the earth's
crust has gradually made its way to recognition, and the capability of
these forces, when their effects are accumulated through sufficiently
long periods of time, to bring about the grandest changes, is now
almost universally admitted. The modern science of geology is based
upon the principle that the history of the formation and development
of the earth's surface-features, and of the organisms upon it, has
been continuous during enormous periods of time, and that in the
study of the operations taking place upon the earth at the present
day, we may find the true key to the changes which have occurred
during former periods.
In no branch of geological science has the doctrine of continuity
had to encounter so much opposition and misconception as in that
which relates to the volcanic phenomena of the globe. For a long time
students of rocks utterly failed to recognise any relation between the
materials which have been ejected from active volcanic vents and
those which have been formed by similar agencies at earlier periods
of the earth's history. And what was far worse, the subject became
removed from the sphere of practical scientific inquiry to that of
theological controversy, those who maintained the volcanic origin of
some of the older rocks being branded as the worst of heretics.
With the theological aspects of the great controversy
CONTROVERSY
concerning the origin of basalt and similar rocks—a CONCERNING
controversy which was carried on with such violence ORIGIN OF
BASALT.
and acrimony during the latter half of the eighteenth
century—we have here nothing to do. But it may not be uninstructive
to notice the causes of the strange misconceptions which for so long
a period stood in the way of the acceptance of rational views upon
the subject.
At this period but little had been done in studying the chemical
characters of aqueous and igneous rock-masses respectively; and
while, on the one hand, the close similarity in chemical composition
between the ancient basalts and many modern lavas was not
recognised, the marked distinction between the composition of such
materials and most aqueous sediments remained, on the other hand,
equally unknown. Nor had anything been yet accomplished in the
direction of the study of rock-masses by the aid of the microscope.
Hence there could be no appeal to those numerous structural
peculiarities that at once enable us to distinguish the most crystalline
aqueous rocks from the materials of igneous origin.
On the other hand, there undoubtedly exist rocks of a black colour
and crystalline structure, sometimes presenting a striking similarity in
general appearance to the basalts, which contain fossils and are
undoubtedly of aqueous origin. Thus on the shore near Portrush, in
the North of Ireland, and in the skerries which lie off that coast, there
occur great rock-masses, some of which undoubtedly agree with
basalt in all their characters, while others are dark-coloured and
crystalline, and are frequently crowded with Ammonites and other
fossils. We now know that the explanation of these facts is as follows.
Near where the town of Portrush is now situated, a volcanic vent was
opened in Miocene times through rocks of Lias shale. From this
igneous centre, sheets and dykes of basaltic lava were given off, and
in consequence of their contact with these masses of lava, the Lias
shales were baked and altered, and assumed a crystalline character,
though the traces of the fossils contained in them were not altogether
obliterated. In the last century the methods which had been devised
for the discrimination of rocks were so imperfect that no distinction
was recognised between the true basalt and the altered shale, and
specimens of the latter containing Ammonites found their way to
almost every museum in Europe, and were used as illustrations of the
'origin of basalt by aqueous precipitation.'
Another source of the widely-spread error which prevailed
concerning the origin of basalt, was the failure to recognise the
nature of the alterations which take place in the character of rock-
masses in consequence of the passage through them, during
enormous periods of time, of water containing carbonic acid and
other active chemical agents. The casual observer does not recognise
the resemblance which exists between certain ornamental marbles
and the loose accumulations of shells and corals which form many
sea-beaches; but close examination shows that the former consist of
the same materials as the latter, bound together by a crystalline
infilling of carbonate of lime, which has been deposited in all the
cavities and interstices of the mass. In the same way, as we have
already seen, the vesicles and interstices of heaps of scoriæ may, by
the percolation of water through the mass, become so filled with
various crystalline substances, that its original characters are entirely
masked.
But the progress of chemical and microscopic research has
effectually removed these sources of error. Many rocks of aqueous
origin, formerly confounded with the basalts, have now been
relegated to their proper places among the different classes of rocks;
while, on the other hand, it has been shown that the chemical and
physical differences between the ancient basalts and the modern
basic lavas are slight and accidental, and their resemblances are of
the closest and most fundamental character.
 The notion of the aqueous origin of basalt, which
VOLCANIC
was so long maintained by the school of Werner, has ORIGIN OF
now been entirely abandoned, and the so-called 'trap- 'TRAP ROCKS.'
rocks' are at the present day recognised as being as
truly volcanic in their origin as the lavas of Etna and Vesuvius.
There is, however, a vestige of this doctrine of Werner, which still
maintains its ground with obstinate persistence. Many geologists in
Germany who admit that volcanic phenomena, similar to those which
are going on at the present day, must have occurred during the
Tertiary and the later Secondary periods, nevertheless insist that
among the earlier records of the world's history we find no evidence
whatever of such volcanic action having taken place. By the
geologists who hold these views it is asserted that while the granites
and other plutonic rocks were formed during the earlier periods of the
world's history, true volcanic products are only known in connection
with the sediment of the later geological periods.
Some geologists have gone farther even than this, and asserted
that each of the great geological periods is characterised by the
nature of the igneous ejections which have taken place in it. They
declare that granite was formed only during the earliest geological
periods, and that at later dates the gabbros, diabases, porphyries,
dolerites and basalts, successively made their appearance, and finally
that the modern lavas were poured out.
A little consideration will suffice to convince us that these
conclusions are not based upon any good evidence. The plutonic
rocks, as we have already seen, exhibit sufficient proofs in their highly
crystalline character, and in their cavities containing water, liquefied
carbonic acid, and other volatile substances, that they must have
been formed by the very slow consolidation of igneous materials
under enormous pressure. Such pressures, it is evident, could only
exist at great depths beneath the earth's surface. Mr. Sorby and
others have endeavoured to calculate what was the actual thickness
of rock under which certain granites must have been formed, by
measuring the amount of contraction in the liquids which have been
imprisoned in the crystals of these rocks. The conclusions arrived at
are of a sufficiently startling character. It is inferred that the granites
which have been thus examined must have consolidated at depths
varying from 30,000 to 80,000 feet beneath the earth's surface. It is
true that in arriving at these results certain assumptions have to be
made, and to these exception may be taken, but the general
conclusion that granitic rocks could only have been formed under
such high pressures as exist at great depths beneath the surface,
appears to be one which is not open to reasonable doubt.
If, then, granites and similar rocks were formed at the depth of
some miles, it is evident that they can only have made their
appearance at the surface by the removal of the vast thickness of
overlying rocks; and the sole agency which we know of that is
capable of effecting the removal of such enormous quantities of rock-
materials, is denudation. But the agents of denudation—rain and
frost, rivers and glaciers, and sea-waves—though producing grand
results, yet work exceeding slowly; and almost inconceivably long
periods of time must have elapsed before masses of rock several
miles in thickness could have been removed, and the subjacent
granites and other highly crystalline rocks have been exposed at the
surface.
It is an admitted fact that among the older
ANCIENT AND
geological formations, we much more frequently find MODERN
intrusions of granitic rocks than in the case of younger VOLCANIC
ROCKS.
ones. It is equally true that among the sediments
formed during the most recent geological periods, no true granitic
rocks have been detected. But if, as we insist is the case, granitic
rocks can only be formed at a great depth from the surface, the £acts
we have described are only just what we might expect to present
themselves under the circumstances. The older a mass of granitic
rock, the greater chance there is that the denuding forces operating
upon the overlying masses, will have had an opportunity of so far
removing the latter as to expose the underlying crystalline rocks at
the surface. And, on the other hand, the younger crystalline rocks are
still, for the most part, buried under such enormous thicknesses of
superincumbent materials that it is hopeless for us to search for
them. Nevertheless, it does occasionally happen that, where the work
of denudation has been exceptionally rapid in its action, such
crystalline rocks formed during a comparatively recent geological
period, are exposed at the surface. This is the case in the Western
Isles of Scotland and in the Pyrenees, where masses of granite and
other highly crystalline rocks are found which were evidently formed
during the Tertiary period.
The granites which were formed in Tertiary times present no
essential points of difference from those which had their origin during
the earlier periods of the earth's history. The former, like the latter,
consist of a mass of crystals with no imperfectly crystalline base or
groundmass between them; and these crystals include numerous
cavities containing liquids.
Between the granites and the quartz-felsites every possible
gradation may be found, so that it is impossible to say where the one
group ends and the other begins; indeed, many of the rocks called
'granite-porphyries' have about equal claims to be placed in either
class. Nor is the distinction between the quartz-felsites and rhyolites
any more strongly marked than that between the former class of
rocks and the granites; some of the more crystalline rhyolites of
Hungary being quite undistinguishable, in their chemical composition,
their mineralogical constitution, and their microscopic characters,
from the quartz-felsites. The more crystalline rhyolites are in turn
found passing by insensible gradations into the glassy varieties and
finally into obsidian.
A piece of granite and a piece of pumice may at first
RELATIONS
sight appear to present so many points of difference, BETWEEN
that it would seem quite futile to attempt to discover GRANITE AND
PUMICE.
any connection between them. Yet, if we analyse the
two substances, we may find that in ultimate chemical composition
they are absolutely identical. There is nothing irrational, therefore, in
the conclusion that the same materials under different conditions may
assume either the characters of granite on the one hand, or of
pumice on the other; the former being consolidated under
circumstances in which the chemical and crystalline forces have had
the freest play and have used up the whole of the materials to form
crystallised minerals, while the latter has cooled down and solidified
rapidly at the surface, in such a way that only incipient crystallisation
has occurred, and the glassy mass has been reduced to a frothy
condition by the escape of steam-bubbles from its midst This
conclusion receives the strongest support from the fact that examples
of every stage of the change, between the glassy condition of pumice
and the crystalline condition of granite, may be detected among the
materials of which the globe is built up.
There is still another class of facts which may be adduced in
support of the same conclusion. Many lavas, as we have seen, contain
crystals of much larger dimensions than those constituting the mass
of the rock, which is then said to be 'porphyritic' in structure. The
porphyritically embedded crystals, when carefully examined, are often
seen to be broken and injured, and to exhibit rounded edges, with
other indications of having undergone transport. When examined
microscopically, too, they often present the cavities containing liquids
which distinguish the crystals of plutonic rocks. All the facts
connected with these porphyritic lavas point to the conclusion that
while the crystals in their groundmass have separated from the
liquefied materials near the surface, the large embedded crystal, have
been floated up from great depths within the earth's crust, where
they had been originally formed.
The careful consideration of all the facts of the case
GRANITIC
leads to the conclusion that where pumice, obsidian, REPRESENTATIV
and rhyolite are now being ejected at the surface, the ES OF OTHER
LAVAS.
materials which form these substances are, at various
depths in the earth's interior, slowly consolidating in the form of
quartz-felsite, granite-porphyry and granite. It may be that we can
nowhere point to the example of a mass of rock which can be traced
from subterranean regions to the surface, and is, under such
conditions, actually seen to pass from the dense and crystalline
condition of granite to the vesicular and glassy form of pumice; but
great granitic masses often exhibit a more coarsely crystalline
condition in their interior, and the offshoots and dykes which they
give off not infrequently assume the form of quartz-felsite; while, on
the other hand, the more slowly consolidated rocks found in the
interior of some rhyolite masses are not distinguishable in any way
from some of the true quartz-felsites.
That which is true of the lavas of acid composition is equally true
of the lavas of intermediate and basic character. The andesites, the
trachytes, the phonolites, and the basalts have all their exact
representatives among the plutonic rocks, and these have a perfectly
crystalline or granitic structure. The plutonic and the volcanic
representatives of each of these groups are identical in their chemical
composition, and numerous intermediate gradations can be found
between the most completely granitic and the most perfectly vitreous
or glassy types. In illustration of this fact, we may again refer to the
series of microscopic sections of rocks given in the frontispiece.
Another objection to the conclusion that the volcanic products of
earlier periods of the earth's history were identical in character with
those which are being ejected at the present day is based on the fact
of the supposed non-existence of the scoriaceous and glassy
materials which abound in the neighbourhood of the active volcanic
vents. Where, it is asked, do we find among the older rocks of the
globe the heaps of lapilli, dust, and scoriæ, with the glassy and
pumiceous rocks that now occur so abundantly in all volcanic
districts?
In reply to this objection, we may point out that these
accumulations of loose materials are of such a nature as to be
capable of easy removal by denuding agents, and that as they are
formed upon the land they will, if not already washed away by the
action of rain, floods, rivers, &c., run great risk of having their
materials distributed, when the land sinks beneath the waters of the
ocean and the surface is covered by new deposits. With respect to
the glassy rocks it must be remembered that the action of water,
containing carbonic acid and other substances, in percolating through
such masses has a tendency to set up crystalline action, and these
glassy rocks easily undergo 'devitrification'; it would therefore be
illogical for us to expect glassy rock-masses to retain their vitreous
character through long geological periods, during which they have
been subjected to the action of water and acid gases.
But careful observation has shown that the scoriaceous and
vitreous rocks are by no means absent among the igneous materials
ejected during earlier periods of the earth's history. Their comparative
infrequency is easily accounted for when we remember, in the first
place, the ease with which such materials would be removed by
denuding forces, and in the second place, the tendency of the action
of percolating water to destroy their characteristic features, by filling
up their vesicles with crystalline products and by effecting
devitrification in their mass.
If we go back to the very oldest known rock-masses
SIMILARITY OF
of the globe, those which are found underlying the ANCIENT AND
fossiliferous Cambrian strata, we find abundant evidence RECENT LAVAS.
that volcanic action took place during the period in
which these materials were being accumulated. Thus, in the Wrekin,
as Mr. Allport has so well shown, we find clear proofs that before the
long-distant period of the Cambrian, there existed volcanoes which
ejected scoriæ, lapilli, and volcanic dust, and also gave rise to
streams of lava exhibiting the characteristic structures found in glassy
rocks. In these rocks, which have undergone a curious alteration or
devitrification, we still find all those peculiar structures—the
sphærulitic, the perlitic, and the banded—so common in the rhyolites
of Hungary, with which rocks the Wrekin lavas, in their chemical
composition, precisely agree. Prof. Bonney, too, has shown that the
rocks of Charnwood Forest, which are also probably of pre-Cambrian
age, contain great quantities of altered volcanic agglomerates, tuffs,
and ashes. I have found the sphærulitic, perlitic, and banded
structures exhibited by British lavas of the Cambrian, Silurian,
Devonian and Carboniferous periods, as well as in those of Tertiary
age; and in connection with these different lavas we find vast
accumulations, sometimes thousands of feet in thickness, of volcanic
agglomerates and tuffs which have undergone great alteration.
All these facts point to one conclusion—namely, that during all
past geological periods, materials similar to those which are now
being extruded from volcanic vents were poured out on the earth's
surface by analogous agencies. If we could trace the lava-streams of
the present day down to the great subterranean reservoirs from
which their materials have been derived, we should doubtless find
that at gradually increasing depths, where the pressure would be
greater and the escape of heat from the mass slower, the rocky
materials would by degrees assume more and more crystalline
characters. We should thus find obsidian or rhyolite insensibly passing
into quartz-felsite and finally into granite; trachyte passing into
orthoclase-porphyry and syenite; and basalt passing into dolerite,
augite-porphyry, and gabbro.
On the other hand, if we could replace the great masses of
stratified rocks which must once have overlain the granites, syenites,
diorites, and gabbros, we should find that, as we approached the
original surface, these igneous materials would gradually lose their
crystalline characters, and when they were poured out at the surface
would take the forms of rhyolite, trachyte, andesite, and basalt—all of
which might occasionally assume the glassy forms known as obsidian
or tachylyte.
But while we insist on the essential points of
ALTERED
similarity between the lavas poured out upon the FORMS OF
surface of the earth during earlier geological periods ANCIENT LAVAS.
and those which are being extruded at the present day,
we must not forget that by the action of percolating water and acid
gases, the mineral constitution, the structure, and sometimes even
the chemical composition of these ancient lavas may undergo a vast
amount of change. In not a few cases these changes in the
characters of a lava may be carried so far that the altered rock bears
but little resemblance to the lava from which it was formed, and it
may be found desirable to give it a new name. Among the rocks of
aqueous origin we find similar differences in the materials deposited
at different geological periods. Clay, shale and clay-slate have the
same composition, and the two latter are evidently only altered forms
of the first mentioned, yet so great is the difference in their
characters that it is not only allowable, but desirable, to give them
distinctive names.
In the same way, among the deposits of the earlier geological
periods we find rocks which were doubtless originally basalts, but in
which great alterations have been produced by the percolation of
water through the mass. The original rock has consisted of crystals of
felspar, augite, olivine, and magnetite distributed through a glassy
base. But the chemical action of water and carbonic acid may have
affected all the ingredients of the rock. The outward form of the
felspar crystals may be retained while their substance is changed to
kaolinite, various zeolites, and other minerals; the olivine maybe
altered to serpentine and other analogous minerals; the magnetite
changed to hydrous peroxide of iron; the augite may be changed to
uralite or hornblende; and the surrounding glassy mass more or less
devitrified and decomposed. The hard, dense, and black rock known
as basalt has under these circumstances become a much softer,
earthy-looking mass of a reddish-brown tint, and its difference from
basalt is so marked that geologists have agreed to call it by another
name, that of 'melaphyre.' Even in their ultimate chemical
compositions the 'melaphyres' differ to some extent from the basalts,
for some of the materials of the latter may have been removed in
solution, and water, oxygen, and carbonic acid have been introduced
to combine with the remaining ingredients.
But if we carefully study, by the aid of the microscope, a large
series of basalts and melaphyres, we shall find that many rocks of the
former class show the first incipient traces of those changes which
would reduce them to the latter class. Indeed, it is quite easy to form
a perfect series from quite unaltered basalts to the most completely
changed melaphyres. Hence we are justified in concluding that all the
melaphyres were originally basalts, just as we infer that all oaks were
once acorns.
Now changes, similar to those which we have seen to take place
in the case of basaltic lavas, are exhibited by the lavas of every other
class, which have been exposed to the influence of the same
agencies,—namely, the passage of water and acid gases. But
inasmuch as the minerals composing the basic lavas are for the most
part much more easily affected by such agencies than are the
minerals of acid lavas, the ancient basic rocks are usually found in a
much more highly altered condition than are the acid rocks of
equivalent age.
We thus see that each of the classes of modern
NAMES GIVEN
lavas has its representative in earlier geological periods, TO ALTERED
in the form of rocks which have evidently been derived LAVAS.
from these lavas, through alterations effected by the
agency of water and acid-gases that have permeated their mass.
Thus, while the basalts are represented among the ancient geological
formation by the melaphyres, the andesites are represented by the
porphyrites, and the trachytes and rhyolites by different varieties of
felstones. And, as we can form perfect series illustrating the gradual
change from basalt to melaphyre, so we can arrange other series
demonstrating the passage of andesites into porphyrites, and of
trachytes and rhyolites into felsites.
It must be remembered, however, that these changes do not take
place in anything like determinate periods of time. Occasionally we
may find lavas of ancient date which have undergone surprisingly
little alteration, and in other cases there occur lavas belonging to a
comparatively recent period which exhibit very marked signs of
change.
The alteration of the lavas and other igneous rocks does not,
however, stop with the production of the melaphyres, porphyrites,
and felstones. By the further action of the water and carbonic acid of
the atmosphere, the basic lavas are reduced to the soft earthy mass
known as 'wacke,' and the intermediate and acid lavas to the similar
material known as 'claystone.' As the passage of water and carbonic
acid gas through these rock-masses goes on, they are eventually
resolved into two portions, one of which is insoluble in water and the
other is soluble. The insoluble portion consists principally of quartz,
the crystals of which are almost unattacked by water and carbonic
acid, and the hydrated silicate of alumina. All the sands and clays,
which together make up more than nine-tenths of the stratified rocks
of the globe, are doubtless derived, either directly or indirectly, from
these insoluble materials separated during the decomposition of
volcanic and plutonic rocks. The soluble materials, which consist of
the carbonates, sulphates and chlorides of lime, magnesia, soda,
potash, and iron, give rise to the formation of the limestones,
gypsum, rock-salt, ironstones, and other stratified masses of the
earth's crust. We thus see how the igneous materials of the globe, by
their decomposition, famish the materials for the stratified rock-
masses. The relations of the different plutonic and volcanic rocks to
one another and to the materials which are derived from them are
illustrated in the following table.

RELATIONS OF
ALTERED TO
UNALTERED
LAVAS.

Unaltered Decomposed
Plutonic Rocks Altered lavas
lavas Rocks

{ ('quartz-porphyry') } Obsidian
Quartz-felsite Rhyolite and
Granite
Felstone
Syenite { Orthoclase-porphyry } Trachyte Claystones

Diorite { Hornblende-porphyry } Andesite Porphyrite

Miascite { Liebnerite porphyry } Phonolite ? —

Gabbro {
Augite-porphyry and
Dolerite } Basalt Melaphyre Wacke

Some petrographers, indeed, have maintained the principle that

rocks belonging to widely separated geological periods, even when
they exhibit no essential points of difference, should nevertheless be
called by distinct names. But such a system of classification is
calculated rather to hinder than to advance the cause of science. If
the palæontologist were to adopt the same principle and give distinct
names to the same fossil, when it was found to occur in two different
geological formations, we can easily understand what confusion
would be occasioned, and how the comparison of the fauna and flora
of the different formations would be thereby rendered impossible. But
the naturalist, in his diagnosis of a species, wisely confines himself to
the structure and affinities of the organism before him; and in the
same way the petrographer, in giving a name to a rock, ought to be
guided only by his studies of its chemical composition, its
mineralogical constitution, and its structure, putting altogether out of
view its geographical distribution and geological age. Only by strict
attention to this principle can we hope to arrive at such comparisons
of the rocks of different areas and different periods, as may serve as
the basis for safe inductions.
Before leaving this question of the relation which exists between
the igneous rocks of different ages, it may be well to notice several
facts that have been relied upon, as proving that the several
geological periods are distinguished by characteristic igneous
products.
It has frequently been asserted that the acid igneous rocks are
present in much greater quantities in connection with the older
geological formations than axe the basic; while, on the other hand,
the basic igneous rocks are said to have been extruded in greater
abundance in the more recent geological periods. But in considering
this question it must not be forgotten that, as a general rule, the
basic rocks undergo decomposition and disintegration far more rapidly
than do the acid rocks. In consequence of this circumstance the
chance of our finding their recognisable representatives among the
older formations, is much less in the case of the former class of rocks
than in the latter. As a matter of fact, however, we do find great
masses of gabbro, diabase, and melaphyre associated even with the
oldest geological formations, while trachytes and rhyolites abound in
many volcanic districts where active vents exist at the present day.
Upon a general review of the subject, it may well be doubted whether
the supposed preponderance of acid igneous materials in the earlier
periods of the earth's history, and of basic igneous materials during
the later periods, rests on any substantial basis of observation.
 Another difference which has frequently been relied
AUGITIC AND
upon, as distinguishing the older igneous rocks from HORNBLENDIC
those of more recent date, is the supposed fact that the ROCKS.
former are characterised by the presence of hornblende,
the latter by the presence of augite. It may be admitted that this
distinction is a real one, but its significance and value are greatly
diminished when we remember the relations which exist between the
two minerals in question. Hornblende and augite are interesting
examples of a dimorphous substance; in chemical composition they
are identical, or rather they are liable to variation between the same
limits, but in their crystalline forms and optical characters they differ
from one another. It has been proved that hornblende is the stable,
and augite the unstable condition of the substance in question. If
hornblende be fused and allowed to cool, it crystallises in the form of
augite. On the other hand, augite-crystals in rocks of ancient date are
found undergoing gradual change and passing into hornblende. The
mineral uralite has the outward form of augite, but the cleavage and
optical properties of hornblende; and there are not wanting many
facts pointing to the conclusion that rocks which now contain
hornblende were originally augitic masses, in which the unstable
mineral in their midst has been gradually converted into the stable
one.
There are, however, two minerals which up to the present time
have been found in association only with the older and newer rock-
masses respectively. These are muscovite, or the white form of mica,
which occurs in so many granites, but has not yet been discovered in
any modern representative of that rock; and leucite, which is not yet
known in rocks of older date than the Tertiary.
When we remember that muscovite would appear to be a product
of deep-seated igneous action, and is only found in rock-masses that
have been formed under such conditions, we shall be the less
surprised at its non-occurrence in rocks of recent date, especially if
we bear in mind the fact that very few of the younger granitic rocks
have as yet been exposed at the surface by denudation.
 With respect to leucite, on the other hand, it must be remembered
that it is a very unstable mineral which appears to be easily changed
into felspar. It is by no means improbable, therefore, that some
ancient igneous rocks which now contain felspar were originally
leucitic rocks.
To the view that the action of volcanic forces upon the globe
during past geological times was similar in kind to that which we now
observe going on around us, still another objection has been raised.
It has been asserted that some of the deposits of igneous rock
associated with the older geological formations are of such a nature
that they could not possibly have been accumulated around volcanic
vents of the kind which we see in operation around us.
Mr. Mallet has declared that the igneous products of
VOLCANIC
the Palæozoic period differ fundamentally in character ORIGIN OF
from those materials formed by volcanic action during ANCIENT
IGNEOUS
the later Secondary and the Tertiary periods. Upon what ROCKS.
observations these generalisations are based he has
given us no information, and the enormous mass of facts which have
been collected in recent years concerning the structure of the lavas
and fragmental volcanic deposits of the pre-Cambrian, Cambrian,
Silurian, Devonian and Carboniferous periods, all point to a directly
opposite conclusion. The more carefully we carry on our
investigations concerning these ancient lavas, by the aid of chemical
analysis and microscopic study, the more are we convinced of the
essential identity of the ancient and modern volcanic rocks, both in
their composition and their minute structure. Of great masses of dust
produced by crushing, such as Mr. Mallet has supposed to have been
formed during the earlier geological periods, there is not the smallest
evidence; but we everywhere find proofs, when the rocks are
minutely examined, of the vesicular structure so characteristic of
materials produced by explosive volcanic action.
It has frequently been asserted that in the great districts covered
by basaltic lavas which we find in the Rocky Mountains of North
America, in the Deccan of India, in Abyssinia, and even in the
Western Isles of Scotland, we have proofs of the occurrence, during
earlier geological periods, of volcanic action very different in character
from that which at present takes place on our globe. It has been
asserted that the phenomena observed in these districts can only be
accounted for by supposing that great fissures have opened in their
midst, from which lavas have issued in enormous floods
unaccompanied by the ordinary explosive phenomena of volcanoes.
It must be remembered, however, that none of the districts in
question have been subjected to careful and systematic examination
with a view to the discovery of the vents from which these masses of
lava have issued, with the exception of that which occurs in our own
islands. In this case, in which superficial observers have spoken of the
district as being covered with horizontal lava-sheets piled upon one
another to the depth of 3,000 feet, careful study of the rock-masses
has shown that the accumulations of basalt really consist of a great
number of lava-currents which have issued at successive epochs
covering enormous periods of time. During the intervals between the
emission of these successive lava-currents the surfaces of the older
ones have been decomposed, and formed soils upon which forests
have grown up; they have been eroded by streams, the valleys so
formed being filled with gravels; and lakes have been originated on
their surfaces in which various accumulations have taken place.
It has been demonstrated, moreover, that the basal-
TRULY-
wrecks of no less than five volcanic mountains, each of VOLCANIC
which must have rivalled Etna in its proportions, existed ORIGIN OF
LAVA PLATEAUX.
within this area, and the connection of the lava-
currents, which have deluged the surrounding tracts, with these great
volcanoes has been clearly proved. It is probable that when more
careful and systematic researches are carried on in the other districts,
in which widely-spread sheets of basaltic rocks exist, similar volcanic
vents will be discovered. It must also be remembered that if such a
country as Iceland were subjected to long-continued denudation, the
mountain peaks and cones of loose materials would be worn away,
the whole island being thus reduced to a series of plateaux composed
of lava-sheets, the connection of which with the crystalline materials
filling the great volcanic vents, a superficial observer might altogether
fail to recognise.
But even where we cannot trace the former existence of great
volcanic mountains, like those which once rose in the Hebrides, it
would nevertheless be very rash to conclude that the vast plateaux of
lava-rock must have been formed as gigantic floods unaccompanied
by ordinary volcanic action. Mr. Darwin has pointed out that in
crossing districts covered by lava, he was frequently only able to
determine the limits of the different currents of which it was made up,
by an examination of the age of the trees and the nature of the
vegetation which had sprung up on them. And everyone who has
travelled much in volcanic districts can confirm this observation; what
appears at first sight to be a great continuous sheet of lava proves
upon more careful observation to be composed of a great number of
distinctly different lava-currents, which have succeeded one another
at longer or shorter intervals.
We must remember, too, how various in kind are the volcanic
manifestations which present themselves under different
circumstances. Sometimes the amount of explosive action at a
volcanic vent is very great, and only fragmental ejections take place,
composed of the frothy scum of the lava produced by the escape of
gases and vapours from its midst. But in other cases the amount of
explosive action may be small, and great volumes of igneous
materials may issue as lava-streams. In such cases, only small
scoriæ-cones would be formed around the vents, and one half of such
cones is commonly swept away by the efflux of the lava-currents,
while the remainder may be easily removed by denuding action or be
buried under the lava-currents issuing from other vents in the
neighbourhood. Thus it may easily come to pass that what a
superficial observer takes for an enormous mass of basaltic lava
poured out from a great fissure at a single effort, may prove upon
careful observation to be made up of innumerable lava-currents, each
of which is of moderate dimensions; and it may further be found that
these lava-currents, instead of being the product of a single
paroxysmal effort from one great fissure, have been accumulated by
numerous small outbursts taking place at wide intervals, from a great
number of minor orifices.
Having then considered the arguments which have
SHIFTING OF
been adduced in support of the view that the volcanic VOLCANIC
phenomena of former geological periods differ from ACTION IN
DIFFERENT
those which are still occurring upon the globe, we may AREAS.
proceed to state the general conclusions which have
been drawn from the study of the volcanic rocks of the different
geological periods.
From a survey of the volcanic rocks of different ages, we are led
to the interesting and important conclusion that the scene of volcanic
action has been continually shifting to fresh areas at different periods
of the earth's history. We find repeated proofs that the volcanic
energy has made its appearance at a certain part of the earth's crust,
has gradually increased in intensity to a maximum, and then as slowly
declined. But as these manifestations have died away at one part of
the earth's surface, they have gradually made their appearance at
another. In every district which has been examined, we find abundant
proofs that volcanic energy has been developed at certain periods,
has disappeared during longer or shorter periods, and then
reappeared in the same area. And on the other hand, we find that
there is no past geological period in which we have not abundant
evidence that volcanic outbursts took place at some portion of the
earth's surface.
To take the case of our own islands for example. We know that
during the pre-Cambrian periods volcanic outbursts occurred, traces
of which are found both in North and South Wales, in the Wrekin
Chain in Shropshire, in Charnwood Forest, and in parts of Scotland
and Ireland.
In Cambro-Silurian times we have abundant proofs, both in North
Wales and the Lake district, that volcanic action on the very grandest
scale was taking place during the Arenig and the older portion of the
Llandeilo periods, and again during the deposition of the Bala or
Caradoc beds. The lavas, tuffs, and volcanic agglomerates ejected
during these two periods have built up masses of rock many
thousands of feet in thickness. Snowdon and Cader Idris among the
Welsh mountains, and some of the higher summits of the Lake
district, have been carved by denudation from the vast piles of
volcanic materials ejected during these periods.
In Devonian or Old-Red-Sandstone times, volcanic activity was
renewed with fresh violence upon that part of the earth's surface now
occupied by the British Islands. Along the line which now forms the
Grampians there rose a series of volcanoes of the very grandest
dimensions. Ben Nevis, and many others among the higher Scotch
mountains, have been carved by denudation from the hard masses of
granite, quartz-felsite, and other plutonic rocks which formed the
central cores of these ancient volcanic piles. The remains of the great
lava-sheets, and of the masses of volcanic agglomerate ejected from
these grand Devonian volcanoes, make up hill-ranges of no mean
altitude, like the Sidlaws, the Ochils, and the Pentlands.
The volcanic action of the Devonian period was
ANCIENT
prolonged into Carboniferous times, but was then BRITISH
evidently diminishing gradually in violence. Instead of VOLCANOES.
great central volcanoes, such as existed in the earlier
period, we find innumerable small vents which threw out tuffs,
agglomerates and lavas, and were scattered over the districts lying
around the bases of the now extinct Devonian volcanoes. In the
central valley of Scotland and in many parts of England, we find
abundant proofs of the existence of these small and scattered
volcanic vents during Carboniferous times. The well-known hill of
Arthur's Seat, which overlooks the city of Edinburgh, and many castle-
crowned crags of the Forth and Clyde valleys, are the worn and
denuded relics of these small volcanoes. There are some indications
which point to the conclusion that the volcanic action of the Newer
Palæozoic epoch had not entirely died out in Permian times, but the
evidence upon this point is not altogether clear and satisfactory.
During nearly the whole of the Secondary or Mesozoic periods the
volcanic forces remained dormant in the area of the British Isles.
Some small volcanic outbursts, however, appear to have occurred in
Triassic times in Devonshire. But in other areas, such as the Tyrol,
South-eastern Europe and Western America, the Triassic, Jurassic,
and Cretaceous periods were marked by grand manifestations of
volcanic activity.
The volcanic forces which had during the long Mesozoic periods
deserted our part of the earth's surface, appear to have returned to it
in full rigour in the Tertiary epoch. In the Newer-Palæozoic periods
the direction of the great volcanic band which traversed our islands
appears to have been from north-east to south-west; but in Tertiary
times a new set of fissures were opened running from north to south.
There is evidence that during the Eocene or Nummulitic period, the
first indications of the subterranean forces having gathered strength
below the district were afforded by the issue of calcareous and
siliceous springs, and soon fissures were opened which emitted
scoriæ, tuffs, and lavas. The intensity of the volcanic action gradually
increased till it attained its maximum in the Miocene period, when a
great chain of volcanic mountains stretched north and south along
the line of the Inner Hebrides, the north-east of Ireland, and the sea
which separates Great Britain from Ireland. The basal-wrecks of a
number of these volcanoes can be traced in the islands of Skye, Mull,
Rum, and parts of the adjoining mainland. We have already seen that
along this great band of volcanic action, which traverses the Atlantic
Ocean from north to south, a number of active vents still exist,
though their energy is now far less intense than was the case in
former times. The only vestiges of the action of these now declining
volcanic forces, at present found in our islands, are the hot springs of
Bath and a few other warm and mineral springs; but in connection
with this subject it must be remembered that our country occasionally
participates in great earthquake-vibrations, like that which destroyed
Lisbon in the year 1759.
If we were to study any other part of the earth's
ANCIENT
surface, we should arrive at precisely the same VOLCANOES IN
conclusion as those to which we have been conducted OTHER
DISTRICTS.
by our examination of the British Islands—namely, that
during past geological times the subterranean forces had made
themselves felt in the area, had gradually attained a maximum, and
then as gradually declined, passing through all those varied cycles
which we have described in a former chapter. And we should also find
that these periods of volcanic activity alternated with other periods of
complete quiescence which were of longer or shorter duration. But on
comparing two different districts, we should discover that what was a
period of volcanic activity in the one was a period of repose in the
other, and vice versâ.
From these facts geologists have been led to the conclusion which
we have already enunciated—namely, that the subterranean forces
are in a state of continual flux over the surface of the globe. At one
point of the earth's crust these forces gradually gather such energy as
to rend asunder the superincumbent rock-masses and make
themselves manifest at the surface in the series of phenomena
characteristic of volcanic action. But after a longer or shorter interval
of time—an interval which must probably be measured by millions of
years—the volcanic forces die out in that area to make their
appearance in another.
Hence, although we may not be able to prove the fact by any
mathematical demonstration, a strong presumption is raised in favour
of the view that the subterranean energy in the earth's crust is a
constant quantity, and that the only variations which take place are in
the locality of its manifestation.
Upon this question whether the amount of this subterranean
energy within the earth's crust is at the present time increasing,
stationary, or declining, we are not altogether destitute of evidence.
There are some considerations connected with certain astronomical
hypotheses, to which we shall hereafter have to refer, that might lead
us to entertain the view that the subterranean activity was once far
greater than it is at present, and that during the long periods of the
earth's past history it has been slowly and gradually declining. And
those who examine the vast masses of igneous materials which have
been poured out from volcanic vents during the earlier periods of the
earth's history may be inclined, at first sight, to point to them as
affording conclusive proof of this gradual decline.
 But a more careful study of the rocks in question will
SUPPOSED
probably cause a geologist to pause before jumping to DECLINE OF
such a conclusion. If we look at the vast masses of VOLCANIC
ACTION.
volcanic materials erupted in Miocene times in our own
island and in Ireland, for example, we might be led to imagine that
we have the indications of a veritable 'Reign of Fire,' and that the
evidence points to a condition of things very different indeed from
that which prevails at the present day. But in arriving at such a
conclusion we should be neglecting a most important consideration,
the disregard of which has been the fertile parent of many geological
errors. Many independent lines of evidence all point to the inference
that these volcanic ejections are not the result of one violent effort,
but are the product of numerous small outbreaks which have been
scattered over enormous periods of time.
When we examine with due care the lavas, tuffs, and other
volcanic ejections which constitute such mountain-masses as those of
the Hebrides, of the Auvergne, and of Hungary, we find clear proofs
that the ancient Miocene volcanoes of these districts were clothed
with luxuriant forests, through which wild animals roamed in the
greatest abundance. The intervals between the ejections of
successive lava-streams were often so great, that soils were formed
on the mountain-slope, and streams cut deep ravines and valleys in
them.
The island of Java is situated near the very heart of what is at the
present day the most active volcanic centre on the face of the globe,
yet vegetable and animal life flourish luxuriantly there, and the island
is one of the richest and most fertile spots upon the face of the globe.
Not all the terrors of occasional volcanic outbreaks will ever drive the
Neapolitan vine-dressers from the fertile slopes of Vesuvius, for its
periods of repose are long, and its eruptions are of short duration.
These considerations lead the geologist to conclude that the
evidence afforded by the ancient volcanic rocks is clear and positive in
support of the view that the manifestations of the subterranean
forces in the past agree precisely in their nature and in their products
with those taking place around us at the present time. On the
Welcome to our website – the ideal destination for book lovers and
knowledge seekers. With a mission to inspire endlessly, we offer a
vast collection of books, ranging from classic literary works to
specialized publications, self-development books, and children's
literature. Each book is a new journey of discovery, expanding
knowledge and enriching the soul of the reade

Our website is not just a platform for buying books, but a bridge
connecting readers to the timeless values of culture and wisdom. With
an elegant, user-friendly interface and an intelligent search system,
we are committed to providing a quick and convenient shopping
experience. Additionally, our special promotions and home delivery
services ensure that you save time and fully enjoy the joy of reading.

Let us accompany you on the journey of exploring knowledge and

personal growth!

ebookluna.com