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Sri Manikanta Palakollu

Practical System Programming with C

Pragmatic Example Applications in Linux and Unix-
Based Operating Systems
1st ed.
Sri Manikanta Palakollu
freelance, Hanuman Junction, Hanuman Junction, 521105, Andhra
Pradesh, India

Any source code or other supplementary material referenced by the

author in this book is available to readers on GitHub via the book’s
product page, located at www.​apress.​com/​9781484263204. For more
detailed information, please visit http://​www.​apress.​com/​source-code.

ISBN 978-1-4842-6320-4 e-ISBN 978-1-4842-6321-1

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-6321-1

© Sri Manikanta Palakollu 2021

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the

Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned,
specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations,
recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other
physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval,
electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar
methodology now known or hereafter developed.

The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks,

service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the
absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the
relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general
use.

The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the
advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate
at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the
editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the
material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have
been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Distributed to the book trade worldwide by Apress Media, LLC, 1 New

York Plaza, New York, NY 10004, U.S.A. Phone 1-800-SPRINGER, fax
(201) 348-4505, e-mail orders-ny@springer-sbm.com, or visit
www.springeronline.com. Apress Media, LLC is a California LLC and the
sole member (owner) is Springer Science + Business Media Finance Inc
(SSBM Finance Inc). SSBM Finance Inc is a Delaware corporation.
Introduction
The main goal of this book is to introduce system programming using
the C language. The topics covered in this book teach you how to
programmatically manipulate Linux and POSIX-based operating
systems. The wide variety of topics include
The basics of the Linux operating system
Multithreaded programming in C
Deadlocks
An introduction to POSIX standards
The need for processes and signals
Various IPC techniques
Developing client-server architecture using TCP and UDP protocols
The prerequisites for learning the concepts discussed in this book
are
A basic knowledge of the C programming language
A basic knowledge of operating systems
Acknowledgments
I would like to thank my savior, the Lord Jesus Christ, for giving me the
strength, knowledge, wisdom, and ability to write this book. I would
like to express my deepest gratitude to the Apress team: Steve Anglin
(Acquisition Editor), Mark Powers (Coordinating Editor), and Matthew
Moodie (Development Editor) for giving me this opportunity and
providing constant support during the entire development process.
Thanks to my technical reviewer for his efforts in reviewing this book.
Special thanks to my friends Sai Vardhan Poloju, Aravind Medamoni,
Vamsi Thanjagari, and PTS Vaishnavi for helping me during this journey.
Thanks to my spiritual parents, Rev. Amos Varma and Amrutha, for
their constant prayer support and love. I would like to thank my
parents, Basaveswara Rao and Vijaya Lakshmi, for their love and
support. I thank my brother Santhosh and my sister Sri Lakshmi for
helping me design the diagrams in this book.
—Sri Manikanta Palakollu
Table of Contents
Chapter 1:​Introduction to the Linux Environment
Getting Familiar with the Linux Architecture
Hardware Layer
Kernel
Shell
System Library
Linux Kernels vs.​Other OS Kernels
Introduction to Files
Text File
Program File
Binary File
Special File
Regular File
File Handling Utilities
mkdir
cd
rmdir
rm
touch
ls
cat
head
tail
nl
wc
 copy
ulimit
File Permission Commands
chmod
Process Utilities
Process
Process Commands
Network Utilities
ifconfig
hostname
netstat
nslookup
traceroute
host
ping
dig
Summary
Chapter 2:​Multithreading in C
Introduction to Threads
Thread Classification
User-Level Threads
Kernel-Level Threads
Threads vs.​Processes
New State
Ready State
Wait State
 Running State
Terminated
Introduction to Multithreading
Multitasking Architecture
Multithreading Architecture
Importance of Multithreading
Concurrency
Parallelism
Support of Multithreading in C
pthread_​create
pthread_​join
pthread_​self
pthread_​equal
pthread_​exit
pthread_​cancel
pthread_​detach
Creating Threads
Practical Examples of Multithreading
Thread Termination
Thread Equal Property
Passing a Single Argument to a Thread Function
Passing Multiple Arguments as Parameters
The Relationship Between Threads and the CPU
Multithreading Use Cases
Summary
Chapter 3:​Introduction to POSIX Standards and System-Level APIs
 Understanding POSIX Standards
POSIX.​1 Standards
POSIX.​1b Standards
POSIX.​1c Standards
POSIX.​2 Standards
POSIX Support
Introduction to APIs
User Mode
Supervisor Mode
The Importance of System-Level APIs
Built-in APIs in C
Summary
Chapter 4:​Files and Directories
File Systems
File Metadata and Inodes
System Calls and I/​O Operations for Files
creat
open
close
read
write
Append Operations in Files Using System Calls
File Permissions
chmod Function to Change Permissions
File Permissions Check
Soft and Hard Links
 Soft Links
Hard Links
System Calls for Directories
Creating a Directory
Deleting a Directory
Getting the Current Working Directory
Changing Directory
Reading a Directory
Closing a Directory
Summary
Chapter 5:​Process and Signals
Introduction to the Process Environment
Environment List
Memory Layout of a C Program
Command-Line Arguments
Process Termination Methodologies
Environment Variables
User-Level Environment Variables
System-Level Environment Variable
Environment Variable Examples
Accessing an Environment Variable
Setting a New Environment Variable
Deleting Environment Variables
Accessing Environment Variables in C
Setting a New Environment Variable Using C
Deleting an Environment Variable
 Kernel Support for Processes
Process Scheduler
Memory Manager
Virtual File System
Process Creation
Zombie Process
Orphan Process
System Calls for Process Management
Introduction to Signals
Catch the Signal
Ignore the Signal
Default Action
Types of Signals
System Calls for Signals
Summary
Chapter 6:​Interprocess Communication
Introduction to IPC
Independent Processes
Cooperating Processes
The Benefits of IPC
Modes of Communication
Simplex
Half Duplex
Full Duplex
Types of IPC
Pipes
 FIFO (Named Pipe)
Message Queues
Semaphores
Shared Memory
Sockets
Anonymous Pipes
APIs for Anonymous Pipes
Creating Anonymous Pipes
Implementation of Pipes Using Child and Parent Processes
Working with Named Pipes
mknod() System Call
mkfifo() System Call
mknod vs.​mkfifo
Creating FIFO
Using Message Queues
APIs for Message Queues
Message Queue Implementation
Introduction to Semaphores
Binary Semaphores
Counting Semaphores
Characteristics of Semaphores
The Advantages of Using a Semaphore
The Disadvantages of Using a Semaphore
Semaphore vs.​Mutex
APIs for a Semaphore
Accessing Global Data Without Semaphores
 Implementing the Data Consistent Model Using a Semaphore
and a Mutex
Summary
Chapter 7:​Shared Memory
Introduction to Shared Memory
API for Shared Memory
shmget()
shmat()
shmdt()
shmctl()
Kernel Support for Shared Memory
Implementation of Shared Memory
Shared Memory Writers Program
Shared Memory Reader Program
Summary
Chapter 8:​Socket Programming
Introduction to Sockets
Stream Sockets
Datagram Sockets
Raw Sockets
Domain Sockets
Internet Domain Sockets
IPC Over Network
Communication Style
Namespaces
Protocol
API for Socket Programming
OSI Architecture Model
Physical Layer
Data Link Layer
Network Layer
Transport Layer
Session Layer
Presentation Layer
Application Layer
Advantages of the OSI Model
Disadvantages of the OSI Model
TCP/​IP Architecture Model
Network Access Layer
Internet Layer
Transport Layer
Application Layer
Advantages of TCP/​IP
Disadvantages of TCP/​IP
Client-Server Architecture
Client
Server
Examining the Client-Server Architecture
Advantages of the Client-Server Model
Disadvantages of the Client-Server Model
System Calls for Socket Programming
socket()
 bind()
listen()
accept()
send()
recv()
sendto()
recvfrom()
close()
Implementation of Client Server Architecture
TCP Client-Server Architecture
TCP Client-Server Code
UDP Client Server Architecture
UDP Client-Server Code
Summary
Index
About the Author
Sri Manikanta Palakollu
is a programmer and software developer with experience in C, C++,
Java, and Python as well as Linux and POSIX-based systems-level
programming. He is a tech reviewer for various tech book publishers.
He has written many technical articles on data science, programming,
and cybersecurity. Sri Manikanta has won a national-level hackathon
and contributes to various open source projects.
© Sri Manikanta Palakollu 2021
S. M. Palakollu, Practical System Programming with C
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-6321-1_1

1. Introduction to the Linux

Environment
Sri Manikanta Palakollu1
(1) freelance, Hanuman Junction, Hanuman Junction, 521105, Andhra
Pradesh, India

Linux is an open source, Unix-like operating system based on the Linux

kernel. It was developed by Linus Torvalds in 1991. It is used in
personal computers, mainframe computers, supercomputers, Android
mobile devices, routers, and embedded systems. Linux is a very
lightweight and powerful kernel that effectively communicates with
software programs through any kind of hardware.
The growth of Linux is increasing with the relative growth of
technology. IoT devices like Raspberry PI use the Linux kernel with a
variety of Linux distributions. Since Linux is open source, you can
modify the source code as you require. There are more than 500 active
Linux distributions (a.k.a. distros) available on the market; most of
them are free. Some distributions require payment for advanced
features. The best examples of Linux kernel-based distros are Ubuntu,
Linux Mint, Fedora, Debian, and Arch Linux.
This chapter discusses the following topics.
The Linux architecture
Kernel types
Linux kernel vs. other OS kernels
File handling utilities
Process utilities
Backup utilities
Getting Familiar with the Linux Architecture
The Linux architecture consists of four layers (see Figure 1-1).
Hardware layer
Kernel
Shell
System library

Figure 1-1 Linux architecture

Table 1-1 File Permission Modes

Octal Binary File Mode
0 000 ---
1 001 --x
2 010 -w-
3 011 -wx
4 100 r--
5 101 r-x
6 110 rw-
7 111 rwx

Hardware Layer
This layer consists of drivers that are required to handle peripheral
devices like the mouse, keyboards, hard disks, SSD, printers, and so
forth.

Kernel
The kernel is the heart of the operating system; without kernels, you
are not able to communicate with application programs and the
operating system on hardware devices. The kernel acts as an interface
between hardware components and application programs. A kernel has
the following functionalities.
I/O management
Process management
Resource management
Device management

I/O Management
A kernel has several I/O management advantages that make a system
more intelligent.
It provides I/O scheduling with standard scheduling algorithms.
It effectively buffers the data transfer between two devices.
It caches data, which improves the performance of the system.
 It handles errors and issues when a user performs an illegal
operation.

Process Management
On an operating system, process management is important in
performing a certain task or activity requested by the user; for example,
executing a program, playing music, or editing a video or photo using a
software application. These activities are represented by tasks that
need to be executed by the CPU with the help of the processor. The
kernel properly manages the threads without any conflicts.

Resource Management
When a task is performed in an operating system, it requires system
resources. The CPU allocates the required resources to perform the
task. The kernel optimizes the resources during process
synchronization.

Device Management
A peripheral device requires a specific driver to connect to the
operating system. The kernel maintains the device drivers so that they
properly connect when needed.

Types of Kernels
There are five types of kernels. Each type has advantages and
disadvantages.
Monolithic kernel
Microkernel
Hybrid kernel
Nanokernel
Exokernel
Monolithic Kernels
In a monolithic kernel , the memory space between the user and the
kernel services is not shared. The advantage of this kernel is that
memory management, CPU scheduling, and file management is done
through system calls only. A monolithic kernel works faster because it
acts under a single memory space. The disadvantage is that creating
new services is a difficult task.

Figure 1-2 Monolithic kernel architecture

Microkernels
Before discussing microkernels, let’s talk about kernel space and user
space.
Kernel Space
The space that is allocated to run the core part of an operating system is
called kernel space . This space has access to the system hardware and
provides all the core functionalities to the system applications. A user
can access this space only with the help of system calls. Kernel space
contains the kernel code, which are data structures that are identical to
all the processes that are running on the system. In kernel space,
memory is directly mapped to the physical memory.
User Space
The space that is allocated to the running applications is called user
space . User space consists of data, process data, and memory-mapped
files. In user space, memory mapping differs from one address space to
another address space. The kernel supervises the activities that a
process needs to perform on the user space.
A kernel which has a different memory space for user services and
kernel services is called a microkernel . In microkernels, users use the
user space while the kernel uses the kernel space to perform system
activities. The advantage of a microkernel is that a new service is easily
created. The disadvantage is that it increases the execution time of the
activity due to different address spaces.
Figure 1-3 Microkernel architecture

Hybrid Kernels
A hybrid kernel is the combination of a monolithic kernel and a
microkernel to improve the performance of the operating system. It
takes the advantages of both kernels to improve the performance of the
operating system.
Nanokernels
A nanokernel works on a nanosecond clock resolution. It is a very small
and minimalistic kernel that performs an activity. It provides good
hardware abstraction, but there is a lack of system services. The
functionality of the kernel does not depend on IPC (interprocess
communication).
Exokernels
An exokernel provides direct application-level management of the
hardware resources. This kernel has limited functionality because of its
small size. It allows you to perform application-level customization
very easily. It is very interactive and efficient, but the disadvantage is its
complex architecture and design.
Figure 1-4 Exokernel architecture

Shell
A shell is a software program that executes other commands in a Unix-
based operating system. The task of the shell is that it takes input from
the user and performs the action based on the given input. By default,
all Unix/Linux-based operating systems contain a bash shell. This shell
hides the complexity of the kernel functionality from the users.

Figure 1-5 Different types of shell paths in the system

There are six types of shells.
Z shell (zsh)
POSIX shell (sh)
Bash shell (bash)
Korn shell (ksh)
CShell (csh)
TENEX C shell (tcsh)

System Library
The system library contains special functions that effectively access the
kernel’s features. It contains all the utilities and applications that are
available in a common operating system.

Linux Kernels vs. Other OS Kernels

Linux uses the monolithic kernel, whereas operating systems like
Windows and macOS use the hybrid kernel. The performance of the
Linux operating system is faster because it does not have the same
address space for the applications and kernel. Since Linux uses the
monolithic kernel, which is a core kernel that does not have any hybrid
features, it makes Linux more advantageous than other operating
systems. These monolithic kernel activities allow Linux to perform out-
of-the-box system activities that other operating systems cannot.
Linux has a good package manager that downloads and sets up
software very easily. This is not available on other operating systems.
Homebrew is the “missing” package manager available for macOS that
resolves this issue to some extent. There is no such kind of package
manager to install software and set up easily on Windows.
In Linux, you can set up device drivers more easily other than on
other operating systems. In Linux, the system calls are very fast and
interactive.
The following are some simple reasons why using Linux is
preferable to using Windows or macOS.
Open source
Flexibility
Reliability
Customization
Security
Good hardware support
Linux is open source so that developers can perform reverse
engineering on the operating system’s code, which helps developers
build custom modules and modify the operating system. Operating
systems like macOS X and Windows don’t have an open source feature,
which is why Linux is so popular among developers.

Introduction to Files
Files are commonly used to store data. The data in a file determines the
file type. In general, there are five types of files available on any
operating system.
Text files
Program files
Binary files
Special files
General files
A file type is revealed by its extension. An image is a file that
contains the most common extensions (.png, .jpg, .jpeg, .tiff, .gif, etc.).
Files are maintained and managed by the file system, which is a
hierarchical structure that stores the content in a structured format.
These file structures are discussed in upcoming chapters. For now, let’s
discuss each file type.

Text File
A text file contains data that the reader can easily read. These files are
created by the user or system-generated log files. There are many types
of text files. Log files usually have the .log extension. The README.md
file is a normal text file that uses markup language.

Program File
A program file contains a set of instructions written by the software
developer to produce the software or application. There is no common
extension for program files because there are multiple programming
languages. The program file extension is based on the programming
language in which the file content is written. The rules and syntax differ
by programming language. The most common extensions are .c, .cpp,
.java, .sh, and .bat. These program files become executable based on the
requirements and usage. You can use any type of extension to perform
the same task, but it is recommended to use the standard extension
given by the ISO.

Binary File
A binary file contains information that is a combination of 0s and 1s.
The information in a binary file is not human-readable or
understandable. It is only understood by computers. Binary files are
generally executable files. These files are generated by compiling a
program file. You can convert a program file into an executable file; for
example, when you compile a C program, it will generate an executable
file.

Special File
A special file is implicitly created by a system process, or it is explicitly
created by a programmer for a specific purpose. Examples of a special
file include pipes and message queue files. Special files are explained in
upcoming chapters.
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
 CHAPTER XVIII.

OF THE EQUATION OF STRAIT LINES WITH THE

CROOKED LINES OF PARABOLAS AND OTHER
FIGURES MADE IN IMITATION OF PARABOLAS.
1. To find the strait line equal to the crooked line of a semiparabola.—2. To find a
strait line equal to the crooked line of the first semiparabolaster, or to the
crooked line of any other of the deficient figures of the table of the 3d article
of the precedent chapter.

To find a 1. A parabola being given, to find a strait line

strait line equal to the crooked line of the semiparabola.
equal to the Let the parabolical line given be A B C (in figure
crooked line
of a 1), and the diameter found be A D, and the base
semiparabola drawn D C; and the parallelogram A D C E being
. completed, draw the strait line A C. Then dividing A
D into two equal parts in F, draw F H equal and
parallel to D C, cutting A C in K, and the parabolical line in O; and
between F H and F O take a mean proportional F P, and draw A O, A
P and P C. I say that the two lines A P and P C, taken together as
one line, are equal to the parabolical line A B O C.
For the line A B O C being a parabolical line, is generated by the
concourse of two motions, one uniform from A to E, the other in the
same time uniformly accelerated from rest in A to D. And because
the motion from A to E is uniform, A E may represent the times of
both those motions from the beginning to the end. Let therefore A E
be the time; and consequently the lines ordinately applied in the
semiparabola will design the parts of time wherein the body, that
describeth the line A B O C, is in every point of the same; so that as
at the end of the time A E or D C it is in C, so at the end of the time
F O it will be in O. And because the velocity in A D is increased
uniformly, that is, in the same proportion with the time, the same
lines ordinately applied in the semiparabola will design also the
continual augmentation of the impetus, till it be at the greatest,
designed by the base D C. Therefore supposing uniform motion in
the line A F, in the time F K the body in A by the concourse of the
two uniform motions in A F and F K will be moved uniformly in the
line A K; and K O will be the increase of the impetus or swiftness
gained in the time F K; and the line A O will be uniformly described
by the concourse of the two uniform motions in A F and F O in the
time F O. From O draw O L parallel to E C, cutting A C in L; and
draw L N parallel to D C, cutting E C in N, and the parabolical line in
M; and produce it on the other side to A D in I; and I N, I M and I L
will be, by the construction of a parabola, in continual proportion,
and equal to the three lines F H, F P and F O; and a strait line
parallel to E C passing through M will fall on P; and therefore O P will
be the increase of impetus gained in the time F O or I L. Lastly,
produce P M to C D in Q; and Q C or M N or P H will be the increase
of impetus proportional to the time F P or I M or D Q. Suppose now
uniform motion from H to C in the time P H. Seeing therefore in the
time F P with uniform motion and the impetus increased in
proportion to the times, is described the straight line A P; and in the
rest of the time and impetus, namely, P H, is described the line C P
uniformly; it followeth that the whole line A P C is described with the
whole impetus, and in the same time wherewith is described the
parabolical line A B C; and therefore the line A P C, made of the two
strait lines A P and P C, is equal to the parabolical line A B C; which
was to be proved.
To find a 2. To find a strait line equal to the crooked line of
strait line the first semiparabolaster.
equal to the [Discussion Let A B C be the crooked line of
crooked line of Figure
of the first the first semiparabolaster; A D the
18.2] diameter; D C the base; and let the
semiparabola
ster or to the parallelogram completed be A D C E, whose
crooked line diagonal is A C. Divide the diameter into two equal
of any other parts in F, and draw F H equal and parallel to D C,
of the
cutting A C in K, the crooked line in O, and E C in H.
 deficient Then draw O L parallel to E C, cutting A C in L; and
figures of the draw L N parallel to the base D C, cutting the
table of art. 3
of the
crooked line in M, and the strait line E C in N; and
preceding produce it on the other side to A D in I. Lastly,
chapter. through the point M draw P M Q parallel and equal
to H C, cutting F H in P; and join C P, A P and A O. I
say, the two strait lines A P and P C are equal to the crooked line A B
O C.
For the line A B O C, being the crooked line of the first
semiparabolaster, is generated by the concourse of two motions, one
uniform from A to E, the other in the same time accelerated from
rest in A to D, so as that the impetus increaseth in proportion
perpetually triplicate to that of the increase of the time, or which is
all one, the lengths transmitted are in proportion triplicate to that of
the times of their transmission; for as the impetus or quicknesses
increase, so the lengths transmitted increase also. And because the
motion from A to E is uniform, the line A E may serve to represent
the time, and consequently the lines, ordinately drawn in the
semiparabolaster, will design the parts of time wherein the body,
beginning from rest in A, describeth by its motion the crooked line A
B O C. And because D C, which represents the greatest acquired
impetus, is equal to A E, the same ordinate lines will represent the
several augmentations of the impetus increasing from rest in A.
Therefore, supposing uniform motion from A to F, in the time F K
there will be described, by the concourse of the two uniform motions
A F and F K, the line A K uniformly, and K O will be the increase of
impetus in the time F K; and by the concourse of the two uniform
motions in A F and F O will be described the line A O uniformly.
Through the point L draw the strait line L M N parallel to D C, cutting
the strait line A D in I, the crooked line A B C in M, and the strait line
E C in N; and through the point M the strait line P M Q parallel and
equal to H C, cutting D C in Q and F H in P. By the concourse
therefore of the two uniform motions in A F and F P in the time F P
will be uniformly described the strait line A P; and L M or O P will be
the increase of impetus to be added for the time F O. And because
the proportion of I N to I L is triplicate to the proportion of I N to I
M, the proportion of F H to F O will also be triplicate to the
proportion of F H to F P; and the proportional impetus gained in the
time F P is P H. So that F H being equal to D C, which designed the
whole impetus acquired by the acceleration, there is no more
increase of impetus to be computed. Now in the time P H suppose
an uniform motion from H to C; and by the two uniform motions in C
H and H P will be described uniformly the strait line P C. Seeing
therefore the two strait lines A P and P C are described in the time A
E with the same increase of impetus, wherewith the crooked line A B
O C is described in the same time A E, that is, seeing the line A P C
and the line A B O C are transmitted by the same body in the same
time and with equal velocities, the lines themselves are equal; which
was to be demonstrated.
By the same method (if any of the semiparabolasters in the table
of art. 3 of the precedent chapter be exhibited) may be found a
strait line equal to the crooked line thereof, namely, by dividing the
diameter into two equal parts, and proceeding as before. Yet no man
hitherto hath compared any crooked with any strait line, though
many geometricians of every age have endeavoured it. But the
cause, why they have not done it, may be this, that there being in
Euclid no definition of equality, nor any mark by which to judge of it
besides congruity (which is the 8th axiom of the first Book of his
Elements) a thing of no use at all in the comparing of strait and
crooked; and others after Euclid (except Archimedes and Apollonius,
and in our time Bonaventura) thinking the industry of the ancients
had reached to all that was to be done in geometry, thought also,
that all that could be propounded was either to be deduced from
what they had written, or else that it was not at all to be done: it
was therefore disputed by some of those ancients themselves,
whether there might be any equality at all between crooked and
strait lines; which question Archimedes, who assumed that some
strait line was equal to the circumference of a circle, seems to have
despised, as he had reason. And there is a late writer that granteth
that between a strait and a crooked line there is equality; but now,
says he, since the fall of Adam, without the special assistance of
Divine Grace it is not to be found.
Vol. 1. Lat. & Eng.
C. XVIII.
Fig. 1-2

Fig Fig
1. 2.
 CHAPTER XIX.

OF ANGLES OF INCIDENCE AND REFLECTION,

EQUAL BY SUPPOSITION.
1. If two strait lines falling upon another strait line be parallel, the lines reflected
from them shall also be parallel.—2. If two strait lines drawn from one point
fall upon another strait line, the lines reflected from them, if they be drawn
out the other way, will meet in an angle equal to the angle made by the lines
of incidence.—3. If two strait parallel lines, drawn not oppositely, but from the
same parts, fall upon the circumference of a circle, the lines reflected from
them, if produced they meet within the circle, will make an angle double to
that which is made by two strait lines drawn from the centre to the points of
incidence.—4. If two strait lines drawn from the same point without a circle
fall upon the circumference, and the lines reflected from them being produced
meet within the circle, they will make an angle equal to twice that angle,
which is made by two strait lines drawn from the centre to the points of
incidence, together with the angle which the incident lines themselves make.
—5. If two strait lines drawn from one point fall upon the concave
circumference of a circle, and the angle they make be less than twice the
angle at the centre, the lines reflected from them and meeting within the
circle will make an angle, which being added to the angle of the incident lines
will be equal to twice the angle at the centre.—6. If through any one point
two unequal chords be drawn cutting one another, and the centre of the circle
be not placed between them, and the lines reflected from them concur
wheresoever, there cannot through the point, through which the two former
lines were drawn, be drawn any other strait line whose reflected line shall
pass through the common point of the two former lines reflected.—7. In equal
chords the same is not true.—8. Two points being given in the circumference
of a circle, to draw two strait lines to them, so that their reflected lines may
contain any angle given.—9. If a strait line falling upon the circumference of a
circle be produced till it reach the semidiameter, and that part of it, which is
intercepted between the circumference and the semidiameter, be equal to
that part of the semidiameter which is between the point of concourse and
the centre, the reflected line will be parallel to the semidiameter.—10. If from
a point within a circle, two strait lines be drawn to the circumference, and
their reflected lines meet in the circumference of the same circle, the angle
 made by the reflected lines will be a third part of the angle made by the
incident lines.

Angles of Whether a body falling upon the superficies of

incidence and another body and being reflected from it, do make
reflection. equal angles at that superficies, it belongs not to
this place to dispute, being a knowledge which depends upon the
natural causes of reflection; of which hitherto nothing has been said,
but shall be spoken of hereafter.
In this place, therefore, let it be supposed that the angle of
incidence is equal to the angle of reflection; that our present search
may be applied, not to the finding out of the causes, but some
consequences of the same.
I call an angle of incidence, that which is made between a strait
line and another line, strait or crooked, upon which it falls, and
which I call the line reflecting; and an angle of reflection equal to it,
that which is made at the same point between the strait line which is
reflected and the line reflecting.
If two strait 1. If two strait lines, which fall upon another strait
lines falling line, be parallel, their reflected lines shall be also
upon another parallel.
strait line be
parallel, the Let the two strait lines A B and C D (in fig. 1),
lines which fall upon the strait line E F, at the points B
reflected and D, be parallel; and let the lines reflected from
from them them be B G and D H. I say, B G and D H are also
shall also be parallel.
parallel.
For the angles A B E and C D E are equal by
reason of the parallelism of A B and C D; and the angles G B F and H
D F are equal to them by supposition; for the lines B G and D H are
reflected from the lines A B and C D. Wherefore B G and D H are
parallel.
If two strait 2. If two strait lines drawn from the same point
lines drawn fall upon another strait line, the lines reflected from
from one them, if they be drawn out the other way, will meet
point fall
upon another in an angle equal to the angle of the incident lines.
 strait line, From the point A (in fig. 2) let the two strait lines
the lines A B and A D be drawn; and let them fall upon the
reflected
from them, if
strait line E K at the points B and D; and let the
they be lines B I and D G be reflected from them. I say, I B
drawn out and G D do converge, and that if they be produced
the other on the other side of the line E K, they shall meet, as
way, will in F; and that the angle B F D shall be equal to the
meet in an
angle equal
angle B A D.
to the angle For the angle of reflection I B K is equal to the
made by the angle of incidence A B E; and to the angle I B K its
lines of vertical angle E B F is equal; and therefore the angle
incidence. A B E is equal to the angle E B F. Again, the angle A
D E is equal to the angle of reflection G D K, that is, to its vertical
angle E D F; and therefore the two angles A B D and A D B of the
triangle A B D are one by one equal to the two angles F B D and F D
B of the triangle F B D; wherefore also the third angle B A D is equal
to the third angle B F D; which was to be proved.
Coroll. I. If the strait line A F be drawn, it will be perpendicular to
the strait line E K. For both the angles at E will be equal, by reason
of the equality of the two angles A B E and F B E, and of the two
sides A B and F B.
Coroll. II. If upon any point between B and D there fall a strait line,
as A C, whose reflected line is C H, this also produced beyond C, will
fall upon F; which is evident by the demonstration above.
If two strait 3. If from two points taken without a circle, two
parallel lines, strait parallel lines, drawn not oppositely, but from
drawn not the same parts, fall upon the circumference; the
oppositely,
but from the lines reflected from them, if produced they meet
same parts, within the circle, will make an angle double to that
fall upon the which is made by two strait lines drawn from the
circumferenc centre to the points of incidence.
e of a circle, Let the two strait parallels A B and D C (in fig. 3)
the lines
reflected fall upon the circumference B C at the points B and
from them, if C; and let the centre of the circle be E; and let A B
produced reflected be B F, and D C reflected be C G; and let
they meet the lines F B and G C produced meet within the
 within the circle in H; and let E B and E C be connected. I say
circle, will the angle F H G is double to the angle B E C.
make an
angle double
For seeing A B and D C are parallels, and E B cuts
to that which A B in B, the same E B produced will cut D C
is made by somewhere; let it cut it in D; and let D C be
two strait produced howsoever to I, and let the intersection of
lines drawn D C and B F be at K. The angle therefore I C H,
from the
centre to the
being external to the triangle C K H, will be equal to
points of the two opposite angles C K H and C H K. Again, I C
incidence. E being external to the triangle C D E, is equal to
the two angles at D and E. Wherefore the angle I C
H, being double to the angle I C E, is equal to the angles at D and E
twice taken; and therefore the two angles C K H and C H K are equal
to the two angles at D and E twice taken. But the angle C K H is
equal to the angles D and A B D, that is, D twice taken; for A B and
D C being parallels, the altern angles D and A B D are equal.
Wherefore C H K, that is the angle F H G is also equal to the angle at
E twice taken; which was to be proved.
Coroll. If from two points taken within a circle two strait parallels
fall upon the circumference, the lines reflected from them shall meet
in an angle, double to that which is made by two strait lines drawn
from the centre to the points of incidence. For the parallels A B and I
C falling upon the points B and C, are reflected in the lines B H and
C H, and make the angle at H double to the angle at E, as was but
now demonstrated.
If two strait 4. If two strait lines drawn from the same point
lines drawn without a circle fall upon the circumference, and the
from the lines reflected from them being produced meet
same point
without a within the circle, they will make an angle equal to
circle fall twice that angle, which is made by two strait lines
upon the drawn from the centre to the points of incidence,
circumferenc together with the angle which the incident lines
e, and the themselves make.
lines
reflected Let the two strait lines A B and A C (in fig. 4) be
from them drawn from the point A to the circumference of the
being circle, whose centre is D; and let the lines reflected
 produced from them be B E and C G, and, being produced,
meet within make within the circle the angle H; also let the two
the circle,
they will
strait lines D B and D C be drawn from the centre D
make an to the points of incidence B and C. I say, the angle
angle equal H is equal to twice the angle at D together with the
to twice that angle at A.
angle, which For let A C be produced howsoever to I. Therefore
is made by
two strait
the angle I C H, which is external to the triangle C K
lines drawn H, will be equal to the two angles C K H and C H K.
from the Again, the angle I C D, which is external to the
centre to the triangle C L D, will be equal to the two angles C L D
points of and C D L. But the angle I C H is double to the
incidence,
together with
angle I C D, and is therefore equal to the angles C L
the angle D and C D L twice taken. Wherefore the angles C K
which the H and C H K are equal to the angles C L D and C D
incident lines L twice taken. But the angle C L D, being external to
themselves the triangle A L B, is equal to the two angles L A B
make.
and L B A; and consequently C L D twice taken is
equal to L A B and L B A twice taken. Wherefore C K H and C H K
are equal to the angle C D L together with L A B and L B A twice
taken. Also the angle C K H is equal to the angle L A B once and A B
K, that is, L B A twice taken. Wherefore the angle C H K is equal to
the remaining angle C D L, that is, to the angle at D, twice taken,
and the angle L A B, that is, the angle at A, once taken; which was
to be proved.
Coroll. If two strait converging lines, as I C and M B, fall upon the
concave circumference of a circle, their reflected lines, as C H and B
H, will meet in the angle H, equal to twice the angle D, together with
the angle at A made by the incident lines produced. Or, if the
incident lines be H B and I C, whose reflected lines C H and B M
meet in the point N, the angle C N B will be equal to twice the angle
D, together with the angle C K H made by the lines of incidence. For
the angle C N B is equal to the angle H, that is, to twice the angle D,
together with the two angles A, and N B H, that is, K B A. But the
angles K B A and A are equal to the angle C K H. Wherefore the
angle C N B is equal to twice the angle D, together with the angle C
K H made by the lines of incidence I C and H B produced to K.
If two strait 5. If two strait lines drawn from one point fall
lines drawn upon the concave circumference of a circle, and the
from one angle they make be less than twice the angle at the
point fall
upon the centre, the lines reflected from them and meeting
concave within the circle will make an angle, which being
circumferenc added to the angle of the incident lines, will be
e of a circle, equal to twice the angle at the centre.
and the angle Let the two lines A B and A C (in fig. 5), drawn
they make be
less than from the point A, fall upon the concave
twice the circumference of the circle whose centre is D; and
angle at the let their reflected lines B E and C E meet in the point
centre, the E; also let the angle A be less than twice the angle
lines D. I say, the angles A and E together taken are
reflected
from them equal to twice the angle D.
and meeting For let the strait lines A B and E C cut the strait
within the lines D C and D B in the points G and H; and the
circle will angle B H C will be equal to the two angles E B H
make an and E; also the same angle B H C will be equal to
angle, which
being added the two angles D and D C H; and in like manner the
to the angle angle B G C will be equal to the two angles A C D
of the and A, and the same angle B G C will be also equal
incident lines to the two angles D B G and D. Wherefore the four
will be equal angles E B H, E, A C D and A, are equal to the four
to twice the
angle at the angles D, D C H, D B G and D. If, therefore, equals
centre. be taken away on both sides, namely, on one side A
C D and E B H, and on the other side D C H and D B
G, (for the angle E B H is equal to the angle D B G, and the angle A
C D equal to the angle D C H), the remainders on both sides will be
equal, namely, on one side the angles A and E, and on the other the
angle D twice taken. Wherefore the angles A and E are equal to
twice the angle D.
Coroll. If the angle A be greater than twice the angle D, their
reflected lines will diverge. For, by the corollary of the third
proposition, if the angle A be equal to twice the angle D, the
reflected lines B E and C E will be parallel; and if it be less, they will
concur, as has now been demonstrated. And therefore, if it be
greater, the reflected lines B E and C E will diverge, and
consequently, if they be produced the other way, they will concur
and make an angle equal to the excess of the angle A above twice
the angle D; as is evident by art. 4.
If through 6. If through any one point two unequal chords
any one point be drawn cutting one another, either within the
two unequal circle, or, if they be produced, without it, and the
chords be
drawn centre of the circle be not placed between them,
cutting one and the lines reflected from them concur
another, and wheresoever; there cannot, through the point
the centre of through which the former lines were drawn, be
the circle be drawn another strait line, whose reflected line shall
not placed
between pass through the point where the two former
them, and reflected lines concur.
the lines Let any two unequal chords, as B K and C H (in
reflected fig. 6), be drawn through the point A in the circle B
from them C; and let their reflected lines B D and C E meet in
concur
wheresoever, F; and let the centre not be between A B and A C;
there cannot and from the point A let any other strait line, as A G,
through the be drawn to the circumference between B and C. I
point, say, G N, which passes through the point F, where
through the reflected lines B D and C E meet, will not be the
which the
two former reflected line of A G.
lines were For let the arch B L be taken equal to the arch B
drawn, be G, and the strait line B M equal to the strait line B A;
drawn any and L M being drawn, let it be produced to the
other strait circumference in O. Seeing therefore B A and B M
line whose
reflected line are equal, and the arch B L equal to the arch B G,
shall pass and the angle M B L equal to the angle A B G, A G
through the and M L will also be equal, and, producing G A to
common the circumference in I, the whole lines L O and G I
point of the will in like manner be equal. But L O is greater than
two former
G F N, as shall presently be demonstrated; and
therefore also G I is greater than G N. Wherefore
 lines the angles N G C and I G B are not equal.
reflected. Wherefore the line G F N is not reflected from the
line of incidence A G, and consequently no other strait line, besides
A B and A C, which is drawn through the point A, and falls upon the
circumference B C, can be reflected to the point F; which was to be
demonstrated.
It remains that I prove L O to be greater than G N; which I shall
do in this manner. L O and G N cut one another in P; and P L is
greater than P G. Seeing now L P. P G :: P N. P O are proportionals,
therefore the two extremes L P and P O together taken, that is L O,
are greater than P G and P N together taken, that is, G N; which
remained to be proved.
In equal 7. But if two equal chords be drawn through one
chords the point within a circle, and the lines reflected from
same is not them meet in another point, then another strait line
true.
may be drawn between them through the former
point, whose reflected line shall pass through the latter point.
Let the two equal chords B C and E D (in the 7th figure) cut one
another in the point A within the circle B C D; and let their reflected
lines C H and D I meet in the point F. Then dividing the arch C D
equally in G, let the two chords G K and G L be drawn through the
points A and F. I say, G L will be the line reflected from the chord K
G. For the four chords B C, C H, E D and D I are by supposition all
equal to one another; and therefore the arch B C H is equal to the
arch E D I; as also the angle B C H to the angle E D I; and the angle
A M C to its verticle angle F M D; and the strait line D M to the strait
line G M; and, in like manner, the strait line A C to the strait line F D;
and the chords C G and G D being drawn, will also be equal; and
also the angles F D G and A C G, in the equal segments G D I and G
C B. Wherefore the strait lines F G and A G are equal; and,
therefore, the angle F G D is equal to the angle A G C, that is, the
angle of incidence equal to the angle of reflection. Wherefore the
line G L is reflected from the incident line C G; which was to be
proved.
Coroll. By the very sight of the figure it is manifest, that if G be
not the middle point between C and D, the reflected line G L will not
pass through the point F.
Two points 8. Two points in the circumference of a circle
being given being given to draw two strait lines to them, so as
in the that their reflected lines may be parallel, or contain
circumferenc
e of a circle, any angle given.
to draw two In the circumference of the circle, whose centre is
strait lines to A, (in the 8th figure) let the two points B and C be
them so as given; and let it be required to draw to them from
that their two points taken without the circle two incident
reflected
lines may lines, so that their reflected lines may, first, be
contain any parallel.
angle given. Let A B and A C be drawn; as also any incident
line D C, with its reflected line C F; and let the angle
E C D be made double to the angle A; and let H B be drawn parallel
to E C, and produced till it meet with D C produced in I. Lastly,
producing A B indefinitely to K, let G B be drawn so that the angle G
B K may be equal to the angle H B K, and then G B will be the
reflected line of the incident line H B. I say, D C and H B are two
incident lines, whose reflected lines C F and B G are parallel.
For seeing the angle E C D is double to the angle B A C, the angle
H I C is also, by reason of the parallels E C and H I, double to the
same B A C; therefore also F C and G B, namely, the lines reflected
from the incident lines D C and H B, are parallel. Wherefore the first
thing required is done.
Secondly, let it be required to draw to the points B and C two
strait lines of incidence, so that the lines reflected from them may
contain the given angle Z.
To the angle E C D made at the point C, let there be added on one
side the angle D C L equal to half Z, and on the other side the angle
E C M equal to the angle D C L; and let the strait line B N be drawn
parallel to the strait line C M; and let the angle K B O be made equal
to the angle N B K; which being done, B O will be the line of
reflection from the line of incidence N B. Lastly, from the incident
line L C, let the reflected line C O be drawn, cutting B O at O, and
making the angle C O B. I say, the angle C O B is equal to the angle
Z.
 Let N B be produced till it meet with the strait line L C produced in
P. Seeing, therefore, the angle L C M is, by construction, equal to
twice the angle B A C, together with the angle Z; the angle N P L,
which is equal to L C M by reason of the parallels N P and M C, will
also be equal to twice the same angle B A C, together with the angle
Z. And seeing the two strait lines O C and O B fall from the point O
upon the points C and B; and their reflected lines L C and N B meet
in the point P; the angle N P L will be equal to twice the angle B A C
together with the angle C O B. But I have already proved the angle
N P L to be equal to twice the angle B A C together with the angle Z.
Therefore the angle C O B is equal to the angle Z; wherefore, two
points in the circumference of a circle being given, I have drawn,
&c.; which was to be done.
But if it be required to draw the incident lines from a point within
the circle, so that the lines reflected from them may contain an
angle equal to the angle Z, the same method is to be used, saving
that in this case the angle Z is not to be added to twice the angle B
A C, but to be taken from it.
If a strait line 9. If a strait line, falling upon the circumference of
falling upon a circle, be produced till it reach the semidiameter,
the and that part of it which is intercepted between the
circumferenc
e of a circle circumference and the semidiameter be equal to
be produced that part of the semidiameter which is between the
till it reach point of concourse and the centre, the reflected line
the will be parallel to the semidiameter.
semidiameter Let any line A B (in the 9th figure) be the
, and that
part of it, semidiameter of the circle whose centre is A; and
which is upon the circumference B D let the strait line C D
intercepted fall, and be produced till it cut A B in E, so that E D
between the and E A may be equal; and from the incident line C
circumferenc D let the line D F be reflected. I say, A B and D F
e and the
semidiameter will be parallel.
, be equal to Let A G be drawn through the point D. Seeing,
that part of therefore, E D and E A are equal, the angles E D A
the and E A D will also be equal. But the angles F D G
semidiameter and E D A are equal; for each of them is half the
 which is angle E D H or F D C. Wherefore the angles F D G
between the and E A D are equal; and consequently D F and A B
point of
concourse
are parallel; which was to be proved.
and the Coroll. If E A be greater then E D, then D F and A
centre, the B being produced will concur; but if E A be less than
reflected line E D, then B A and D H being produced will concur.
will be If from a 10. If from a point within a circle
parallel to point within a two strait lines be drawn to the
the circle two
semidiameter circumference, and their reflected
strait lines be
. drawn to the lines meet in the circumference of
circumferenc the same circle, the angle made by
e, and their the lines of reflection will be a third
reflected part of the angle made by the lines
lines meet in of incidence.
the
circumferenc From the point B (in the 10th
e of the same figure) taken within the circle
circle, the whose centre is A, let the two strait
angle made lines B C and B D be drawn to the
by the circumference; and let their
reflected
lines will be a reflected lines C E and D E meet in
third part of the circumference of the same
the angle circle at the point E. I say, the angle
made by the C E D will be a third part of the
incident angle C B D.
lines.
Let A C and A D be drawn.
Seeing, therefore, the angles C E D and C B D together taken are
equal to twice the angle C A D (as has been demonstrated in the 5th
article); and the angle C A D twice taken is quadruple to the angle C
E D; the angles C E D and C B D together taken will also be equal to
the angle C E D four times taken; and therefore if the angle C E D be
taken away on both sides, there will remain the angle C B D on one
side, equal to the angle C E D thrice taken on the other side; which
was to be demonstrated.
Coroll. Therefore a point being given within a circle, there may be
drawn two lines from it to the circumference, so as their reflected
lines may meet in the circumference. For it is but trisecting the angle
C B D, which how it may be done shall be shown in the following
chapter.
 Vol. 1. Lat. & Eng.
C. XIX.
Fig. 1-10

Fig Fig Fig Fig Fig Fig Fig Fig Fig Fig
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.
 CHAPTER XX.

OF THE DIMENSION OF A CIRCLE, AND THE

DIVISION OF ANGLES OR ARCHES.
1. The dimension of a circle never determined in numbers by Archimedes and
others.—2. The first attempt for the finding out of the dimension of a circle by
lines.—3. The second attempt for the finding out of the dimension of a circle
from the consideration of the nature of crookedness.—4. The third attempt;
and some things propounded to be further searched into.—5. The equation of
the spiral of Archimedes with a strait line.—6. Of the analysis of geometricians
by the powers of lines.

The 1. In the comparing of an arch of a circle with a

dimension of strait line, many and great geometricians, even from
a circle never the most ancient times, have exercised their wits;
determined
in numbers and more had done the same, if they had not seen
by their pains, though undertaken for the common
Archimedes good, if not brought to perfection, vilified by those
and others. that envy the praises of other men. Amongst those
ancient writers whose works are come to our hands, Archimedes
was the first that brought the length of the perimeter of a circle
within the limits of numbers very little differing from the truth;
demonstrating the same to be less than three diameters and a
seventh part, but greater than three diameters and ten seventy-one
parts of the diameter. So that supposing the radius to consist of
10,000,000 equal parts, the arch of a quadrant will be between
15,714,285 and 15,704,225 of the same parts. In our times,
Ludovicus Van Cullen and Willebrordus Snellius, with joint
endeavour, have come yet nearer to the truth; and pronounced from
true principles, that the arch of a quadrant, putting, as before,
10,000,000 for radius, differs not one whole unity from the number
15,707,963; which, if they had exhibited their arithmetical
operations, and no man had discovered any error in that long work
of theirs, had been demonstrated by them. This is the furthest
progress that has been made by the way of numbers; and they that
have proceeded thus far deserve the praise of industry.
Nevertheless, if we consider the benefit, which is the scope at which
all speculation should aim, the improvement they have made has
been little or none. For any ordinary man may much sooner and
more accurately find a strait line equal to the perimeter of a circle,
and consequently square the circle, by winding a small thread about
a given cylinder, than any geometrician shall do the same by dividing
the radius into 10,000,000 equal parts. But though the length of the
circumference were exactly set out, either by numbers, or
mechanically, or only by chance, yet this would contribute no help at
all towards the section of angles, unless happily these two problems,
to divide a given angle according to any proportion assigned, and to
find a strait line equal to the arch of a circle, were reciprocal, and
followed one another. Seeing therefore the benefit proceeding from
the knowledge of the length of the arch of a quadrant consists in
this, that we may thereby divide an angle according to any
proportion, either accurately, or at least accurately enough for
common use; and seeing this cannot be done by arithmetic, I
thought fit to attempt the same by geometry, and in this chapter to
make trial whether it might not be performed by the drawing of
strait and circular lines.
The first 2. Let the square A B C D (in the first figure) be
attempt for described; and with the radii A B, B C, and D C, the
the finding three arches B D, C A, and A C; of which let the two
out of the
dimension of B D and C A cut one another in E, and the two B D
a circle by and A C in F. The diagonals therefore B D and A C
lines. being drawn will cut one another in the centre of
the square G, and the two arches B D and C A in
two equal parts in H and Y; and the arch B H D will be trisected in F
and E. Through the centre G let the two strait lines K G L and M G N
be drawn parallel and equal to the sides of the square A B and A D,
cutting the four sides of the same square in the points K, L, M, and
N; which being done, K L will pass through F, and M N through E.
Then let O P be drawn parallel and equal to the side B C, cutting the
arch B F D in F, and the sides A B and D C in O and P. Therefore O F
will be the sine of the arch B F, which is an arch of 30 degrees; and
the same O F will be equal to half the radius. Lastly, dividing the
arch B F in the middle in Q, let R Q, the sine of the arch B Q, be
drawn and produced to S, so that Q S be equal to R Q, and
consequently R S be equal to the chord of the arch B F; and let F S
be drawn and produced to T in the side B C. I say, the strait line B T
is equal to the arch B F; and consequently that B V, the triple of B T,
is equal to the arch of the quadrant B F E D.
Let T F be produced till it meet the side B A produced in X; and
dividing O F in the middle in Z, let Q Z be drawn and produced till it
meet with the side B A produced. Seeing therefore the strait lines R
S and O F are parallel, and divided in the midst in Q and Z, Q Z
produced will fall upon X, and X Z Q produced to the side B C will cut
B T in the midst in α.
Upon the strait line F Z, the fourth part of the radius A B, let the
equilateral triangle a Z F be constituted; and upon the centre a, with
the radius a Z, let the arch Z F be drawn; which arch Z F will
therefore be equal to the arch Q F, the half of the arch B F. Again, let
the strait line Z O be cut in the midst in b, and the strait line b O in
the midst in c; and let the bisection be continued in this manner till
the last part O c be the least that can possibly be taken; and upon it,
and all the rest of the parts equal to it into which the strait line O F
may be cut, let so many equilateral triangles be understood to be
constituted; of which let the last be d O c. If, therefore, upon the
centre d, with the radius d O, be drawn the arch O c, and upon the
rest of the equal parts of the strait line O F be drawn in like manner
so many equal arches, all those arches together taken will be equal
to the whole arch B F, and the half of them, namely, those that are
comprehended between O and Z, or between Z and F, will be equal
to the arch B Q or Q F, and in sum, what part soever the strait line O
c be of the strait line O F, the same part will the arch O c be of the
arch B F, though both the arch and the chord be infinitely bisected.
Now seeing the arch O c is more crooked than that part of the arch
B F which is equal to it; and seeing also that the more the strait line
X c is produced, the more it diverges from the strait line X O, if the
points O and c be understood to be moved forwards with strait
motion in X O and X c, the arch O c will thereby be extended by little
and little, till at the last it come somewhere to have the same
crookedness with that part of the arch B F which is equal to it. In
like manner, if the strait line X b be drawn, and the point b be
understood to be moved forwards at the same time, the arch c b will
also by little and little be extended, till its crookedness come to be
equal to the crookedness of that part of the arch B F which is equal
to it. And the same will happen in all those small equal arches which
are described upon so many equal parts of the strait line O F. It is
also manifest, that by strait motion in X O and X Z all those small
arches will lie in the arch B F, in the points B, Q and F. And though
the same small equal arches should not be coincident with the equal
parts of the arch B F in all the other points thereof, yet certainly they
will constitute two crooked lines, not only equal to the two arches B
Q and Q F, and equally crooked, but also having their cavity towards
the same parts; which how it should be, unless all those small
arches should be coincident with the arch B F in all its points, is not
imaginable. They are therefore coincident, and all the strait lines
drawn from X, and passing through the points of division of the strait
line O F, will also divide the arch B F into the same proportions into
which O F is divided.
Now seeing X b cuts off from the point B the fourth part of the
arch B F, let that fourth part be B e; and let the sine thereof, f e, be
produced to F T in g, for so f e will be the fourth part of the strait
line f g, because as O b is to O F, so is f e to f g. But B T is greater
than f g; and therefore the same B T is greater than four sines of
the fourth part of the arch B F. And in like manner, if the arch B F be
subdivided into any number of equal parts whatsoever, it may be
proved that the strait line B T is greater than the sine of one of
those small arches, so many times taken as there be parts made of
the whole arch B F. Wherefore the strait line B T is not less than the
arch B F. But neither can it be greater, because if any strait line
whatsoever, less than B T, be drawn below B T, parallel to it, and
terminated in the strait lines X B and X T, it would cut the arch B F;
and so the sine of some one of the parts of the arch B F, taken so
often as that small arch is found in the whole arch B F, would be
greater than so many of the same arches; which is absurd.
Wherefore the strait line B T is equal to the arch B F; and the strait
line B V equal to the arch of the quadrant B F D; and B V four times
taken, equal to the perimeter of the circle described with the radius
A B. Also the arch B F and the strait line B T are everywhere divided
into the same proportions; and consequently any given angle,
whether greater or less than B A F, may be divided into any
proportion given.
But the strait line B V, though its magnitude fall within the terms
assigned by Archimedes, is found, if computed by the canon of
signs, to be somewhat greater than that which is exhibited by the
Rudolphine numbers. Nevertheless, if in the place of B T, another
strait line, though never so little less, be substituted, the division of
angles is immediately lost, as may by any man be demonstrated by
this very scheme.
Howsoever, if any man think this my strait line B V to be too great,
yet, seeing the arch and all the parallels are everywhere so exactly
divided, and B V comes so near to the truth, I desire he would
search out the reason, why, granting B V to be precisely true, the
arches cut off should not be equal.
But some man may yet ask the reason why the strait lines, drawn
from X through the equal parts of the arch B F, should cut off in the
tangent B V so many strait lines equal to them, seeing the connected
straight line X V passes not through the point D, but cuts the strait
line A D produced in l; and consequently require some determination
of this problem. Concerning which, I will say what I think to be the
reason, namely, that whilst the magnitude of the arch doth not
exceed the magnitude of the radius, that is, the magnitude of the
tangent B C, both the arch and the tangent are cut alike by the strait
lines drawn from X; otherwise not. For A V being connected, cutting
the arch B H D in I, if X C being drawn should cut the same arch in
the same point I, it would be as true that the arch B I is equal to the
radius B C, as it is true that the arch B F is equal to the strait line B
T; and drawing X K it would cut the arch B I in the midst in i; also
drawing A i and producing it to the tangent B C in k, the strait line B
k will be the tangent of the arch B i, (which arch is equal to half the
radius) and the same strait line B k will be equal to the strait line k I.
I say all this is true, if the preceding demonstration be true; and
consequently the proportional section of the arch and its tangent
proceeds hitherto. But it is manifest by the golden rule, that taking B
h double to B T, the line X h shall not cut off the arch B E, which is
double to the arch B F, but a much greater. For the magnitude of the
straight lines X M, X B, and M E, being known (in numbers), the
magnitude of the strait line cut off in the tangent by the strait line X
E produced to the tangent, may also be known; and it will be found
to be less than B h; Wherefore the strait line X h being drawn, will
cut off a part of the arch of the quadrant greater than the arch B E.
But I shall speak more fully in the next article concerning the
magnitude of the arch B I.
And let this be the first attempt for the finding out of the
dimension of a circle by the section of the arch B F.
The second 3. I shall now attempt the same by arguments
attempt for drawn from the nature of the crookedness of the
the finding circle itself; but I shall first set down some premises
out of the
dimension of necessary for this speculation; and
a circle from First, if a strait line be bowed into an arch of a
the circle equal to it, as when a stretched thread, which
consideration toucheth a right cylinder, is so bowed in every point,
of the nature that it be everywhere coincident with the perimeter
of
crookedness. of the base of the cylinder, the flexion of that line
will be equal, in all its points; and consequently the
crookedness of the arch of a circle is everywhere uniform; which
needs no other demonstration than this, that the perimeter of a
circle is an uniform line.
Secondly, and consequently: if two unequal arches of the same
circle be made by the bowing of two strait lines equal to them, the
flexion of the longer line, whilst it is bowed into the greater arch, is
greater than the flexion of the shorter line, whilst it is bowed into
the lesser arch, according to the proportion of the arches
themselves; and consequently, the crookedness of the greater arch
is to the crookedness of the lesser arch, as the greater arch is to the
lesser arch.
Thirdly: if two unequal circles and a strait line touch one another
in the same point, the crookedness of any arch taken in the lesser
circle, will be greater than the crookedness of an arch equal to it
taken in the greater circle, in reciprocal proportion to that of the radii
with which the circles are described; or, which is all one, any strait
line being drawn from the point of contact till it cut both the
circumferences, as the part of that strait line cut off by the
circumference of the greater circle to that part which is cut off by
the circumference of the lesser circle.
For let A B and A C (in the second figure) be two circles, touching
one another, and the strait line A D in the point A; and let their
centres be E and F; and let it be supposed, that as A E is to A F, so is
the arch A B to the arch A H. I say the crookedness of the arch A C
is to the crookedness of the arch A H, as A E is to A F. For let the
strait line A D be supposed to be equal to the arch A B, and the
strait line A G to the arch A C; and let A D, for example, be double to
A G. Therefore, by reason of the likeness of the arches A B and A C,
the strait line A B will be double to the strait line A C, and the radius
A E double to the radius A F, and the arch A B double to the arch A
H. And because the strait line A D is so bowed to be coincident with
the arch A B equal to it, as the strait line A G is bowed to be
coincident with the arch A C equal also to it, the flexion of the strait
line A G into the crooked line A C will be equal to the flexion of the
strait line A D into the crooked line A B. But the flexion of the strait
line A D into the crooked line A B is double to the flexion of the strait
line A G into the crooked line A H; and therefore the flexion of the
strait line A G into the crooked line A C is double to the flexion of the
same strait line A G into the crooked line A H. Wherefore, as the
arch A B is to the arch A C or A H; or as the radius A E is to the
radius A F; or as the chord A B is to the chord A C; so reciprocally is
the flexion or uniform crookedness of the arch A C, to the flexion or
uniform crookedness of the arch A H, namely, here double. And this
may by the same method be demonstrated in circles whose
perimeters are to one another triple, quadruple, or in whatsoever
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