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C o m p u t e r Systems
Performance Evaluation
and Prediction
This Page Intentionally Left Blank
C o m p u t e r Systems
Performance Evaluation
and Prediction

Paul J. Fortier
Howard E. Michel

Digital PTess
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Digital Press is an imprint of Hsevier Science.

Copyright © 2003, Elsevier Science (USA). All rights reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any
form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the
prior written permission of the publisher.

Recognizing the importance of preserving what has been written, Elsevier Science prints its
books on acid-free paper whenever possible.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Fortier, Paul J.
Computer systems performance evaluation / Paul J. Fortier, Howard E. Michel.
p. c m .
ISBN 1-55558-260-5 (pbk. :alk. paper)
1. Computer systemsmEvaluation. 2. Computer systems~Reliability. I. Michel,
Howard. II. Title.

QA76.9.E94 F67 2003

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Printed in the United States of America

This book is dedicated to my wife, Kathleen, and my children, Daniel,
Brian, and Nicole, for the encouragement, patience, and support they
provided during the development and writing of this book.
--P. J. E

This book is dedicated to my wife, Linnea, and my daughters, Kristin

and Megan, without whose love and understanding this work would not
have been possible, and to my parents, Howard and Christine, who gave
me a thirst for knowledge and skills to pursue it.
~ H . E. M.
This Page Intentionally Left Blank
Contents

Preface xi

I Introduction
I.I Evolution of computer systems architectures 2
1.2 Evolution of database systems 10
1.3 Evolution of operating systems 15
1.4 Evolution of computer networks 19
1.5 Need for performance evaluation 22
1.6 Role of performance evaluation in computer engineering 23
1.7 Overview of performance evaluation methods 24
1.8 Performance metrics and evaluation criteria 36

2 Computer D a t a Processing H a r d w a r e Architecture 39

2.1 Introduction 39
2.2 Computer hardware architecture 41
2.3 CPU architectures 42
2.4 I/O architectures 49
2.5 Secondary storage and peripheral devices and architectures 50
2.6 Distributed and network architectures 54
2.7 Network topologies 57
2.8 Computer architectures 59
2.9 Computer systems support software architecture 62
2.10 Components of a database system's architecture 92
2.11 Summary 105

Fundamental Concepts and Performance Measures 107

3. I Introduction 107
3.2 Time 109
viii Contents

3.3 Events II0

3.4 Measurements(sampling) 112
3.5 Intervals 115
3.6 Response 116
3.7 Independence 117
3.8 Randomness 118
3.9 Workloads 119
3.10 Problems encountered in model development and use 119
3.11 A case study 124
3.12 Summary 125

4 General M e a s u r e m e n t Principles 127

4. I Schedulingalgorithms 133
4.2 Workloads 137
4.3 Summary 138

Probability 139
5.1 Random variables 149
5.2 Jointly distributed random variables 150
5.3 Probability distributions 150
5.4 Densities 152
5.5 Expectation 155
5.6 Some example probability distributions 163
5.7 Summary 177

6 Stochastic Processes 179

6. I Introduction 179
6.2 Basicdefinitions 179
6.3 Poissonprocess 184
6.4 Birth-death process 187
6.5 Markov process 192
6.6 Summary 200

7 Queuing T h e o r y 201
7.1 Queuing systems 201
7.2 Networks of queues 219
7.3 Estimating parameters and distributions 227
7.4 Computational methods for queuing network solutions 233
7.5 Summary 249
Contents ix

Simulation Analysis 251

8.1 Simulation process 253
8.2 Time control 255
8.3 Systems and modeling 256
8.4 Simulation languages 261
8.5 Applications of simulation 273
8.6 Summary 278

9 Petri Nets 279

9. I Introduction 279
9.2 Basic notation 279
9.3 ClassicalPetri nets 284
9.4 Timed Petri nets 294
9.5 Priority-based Petri nets 298
9.6 Colored Petri nets 300
9.7 Generalized Petri nets 301
9.8 Summary 302

10 H a r d w a r e Testbeds, I n s t r u m e n t a t i o n , M e a s u r e m e n t ,
D a t a E x t r a c t i o n , and Analysis 305
10.1 Derivation of performance evaluation parameters 311
10.2 Network performance tests 315
10.3 General methods of data extraction 319
10.4 Testbed and model workloads 322
10.5 Experimental design 326
10.6 Data presentation 328
10.7 Summary 330

II System P e r f o r m a n c e Evaluation Tool Selection and Use 331

I1.1 Tool selection 331
11.2 Validation of results 334
11.3 Conducting experiments 336
11.4 Performance metrics 337
11.5 Evaluation 342
11.6 Summary 343

12 Analysis of C o m p u t e r A r c h i t e c t u r e s 345
12. I Introduction 345

I Contents
x Contents

12.2 Case I: Central server computer system 345

12.3 Case I1: Multiple server computer system 350
12.4 Case II1: Petri net example 358
12.5 Summary 360

13 Analysis of Operating System Components 361

13. I Introduction 361
13.2 System architectures 362
13.3 Workloads 372
13.4 Experimental design and simulation 376
13.5 Experimental analysis and conclusion 397
13.6 Summary 408

14 Database Systems Performance Analysis 409

14. I Introduction 409
14.2 The testbed systems 409
14.3 The database systems 413
14.4 Testbed performance analysis testing 431
14.5 The results 436
14.6 Summary 444

15 Analysis of C o m p u t e r N e t w o r k s Components 445

15. I Introduction 445
15.2 Analytical modeling examples 448
15.3 Simulation modeling of local area networks 463
15.4 Summary 493

References 495

Index 505
Preface

This book provides an up-to-date treatment of the concepts and techniques

applied to the performance evaluation of computer systems. Computer sys-
tems in this context include computer systems hardware and software com-
ponents, computer architecture, computer networks, operating systems,
database systems, and middleware. The motivation in writing this book
comes from the inability to find one book that adequately covers analytical,
simulation, and empirical testbed techniques applied to the evaluation of
systems software and the computer systems that support them. The book
can be used as a single- or multiple-semester book about computer systems
performance evaluation or as a reference text for researchers and practition-
ers in the computer systems engineering and performance evaluation fields.
Over the last 10 to 25 years a vast body of knowledge has accumulated
dealing with the performance evaluation of computer systems. Specialized
measurement tools, both hardware and software, have become available to
aid in the testing and monitoring of a computer system's performance, as
have numerous simulation languages and tools aimed at specific compo-
nents of a computer system or for generalized modeling studies. Analytical
techniques and tools can be readily acquired and easily applied to the high-
level analysis of computer systems and their applications. However, many of
these efforts have resulted in disparate solutions whose results are difficult,
if not impossible, for the computer engineer or analyst to easily apply to
new problems. In addition, most realistic problems require the application
of all of these techniques at some level to ascertain the performance of a sys-
tem and all of its component elements to support rapid product design,
development, and fielding.
To consider performance in the design and development stages of a sys-
tem's inception, modeling must be used, since the intended product system
is not yet available for instrumentation and empirical testing. Modeling is
relatively well understood by practitioners in the field with the appropriate
xii Preface

background; however, these techniques are not as easily transferred to the

other members of a design team who could also benefit from such knowl-
edge. The purpose of this book is to make analytical-, simulation-, and
instrumentation-based modeling and performance evaluation of computer
systems components possible and understandable to a wider audience of
computer systems designers, developers, administrators, managers, and
users. The book assumes the reader has a familiarity with concepts in com-
puter systems architecture, computer systems software, computer networks,
and elementary mathematics including calculus and linear algebra.
The thrust of this book is to investigate the tools for performance evalu-
ation of computer systems and their components and provide an overview
of some tools used in practice.
Chapter 1 discusses computer systems performance evaluation and pre-
diction and why these techniques are necessary in today's world of ever
decreasing computer systems cost.
In Chapter 2 the components making up computer systems are exam-
ined in further detail regarding their architectures, basic hardware elements
construction, networks and topologies, operating systems control protocols
and architecture, database management systems components and technolo-
gies, distributed systems, client/server systems, and other computer systems
configurations.
Chapter 3 readdresses the modeling issue from the slant of modeling
computer systems, how the various tools have been useful in past systems,
and how they can be applied to future endeavors. The basic concepts of
time, events, measurements, intervals, response, and independence as they
pertain to computer systems are discussed.
Chapter 4 expands on the basic definitions outlined in Chapter 3. Con-
cepts in general measurement processes, service time distributions, schedul-
ing, and response time related to computer systems applications are
presented.
Chapter 5 introduces the concepts of probability of events. The concept
of sample space and its application to computing basic probability of event
occurrence within a sample space are investigated. This is followed by dis-
cussions of randomness of events and the relation of this phenomenon to
probability. Conditional and joint probability concepts are then presented,
as is the concept of random variables and probability distributions.
Chapter 6 builds on the fundamentals of probability into stochastic
processes. The basic definition of a stochastic process is provided and then
its relationship to the Poisson process is presented. With these definitions,
Preface xiii

the concept of a pure birth and death process is developed, as are analysis
techniques. The chapter then delves into the Markov process and Markov
chains as they relate to the analysis of computer systems and their elements.
In Chapter 7, we introduce the concept of a queue and the analysis tech-
niques required to evaluate single queues and networks of queues. These
techniques are then developed into modeling techniques applied to com-
puter systems evaluation.
Chapter 8 introduces the concept of simulation modeling. The methods
for constructing simulation models from a description of an intended mod-
eled system are presented. The concepts of simulation events and timekeep-
ing are addressed, followed by the application of techniques to computer
systems analysis.
Chapter 9 introduces another analysis technique: Petri nets. The basic
elements comprising Petri nets are developed and then applied to modeling
aspects of computer systems. Fundamental Petri nets are described, as are
timed and general Petri nets.
Chapter 10 shows prospective designers or architects how to model
future systems configurations using present systems information. The chap-
ter shows how to instrument a system in order to extract and measure sys-
tems performance numbers. These measurements and data are then used in
development of analysis processes for defining present performance and
predicting future performance of computer systems and their components.
Chapter 11 aids the reader in determining what specific analysis tool is
best used to evaluate a computer system or component of interest. The
modeler is presented material to aid in determining when to use analytical
techniques, which technique to use, and when to use it. If analytical tech-
niques are not the best to use, the reader is advised how to select a simula-
tion modeling tool and when to apply it in analyzing a computer system.
Finally, the reader is given information regarding when and how to select
the appropriate operational analysis tool for measuring and modeling exist-
ing computer systems and components.
Chapters 12 through 15 provide analysis examples for specific computer
systems components. Computer architecture and component evaluation are
provided, as are operating systems, database systems, and network systems
modeling and analysis.

I Preface
This Page Intentionally Left Blank
 I
Introduction

What is computer systems performance evaluation and prediction and why

are these techniques necessary in today's world of ever decreasing computer
systems cost? To answer these questions requires the computer engineer to
understand how all elements of a computer system come into play in realiz-
ing a user's application and its implementation, fielding, and maintenance.
All aspects of a computer system's lifetime are important when trying to
understand issues of performance. It is not sufficient to simply buy the
"best" general-purpose computing machine one can find today and then
implement the intended application on it. One must consider how the sys-
tem will fit into an existing computing facility and what the requirements
on the computer system are today and what these requirements will be dur-
ing the computer system's lifetime.
The most important driving factors when designing, building, and field-
ing a computer system are that it performs the intended function correctly,
performs the intended function efficiently, and does so in a cost-effective
manner. Therefore, initial design for correctness may often outweigh per-
formance and cost as the driving force. Having said this, it is often the case
that computer systems designers think of performance, cost, and correctness
interchangeably. They are, however, different. A correct design may not
imply one that performs blazingly fast or is very cost effective. This may be
due to other considerations--for example, we may need to trade off
performance or perfect correctness to save cost per unit. This is more typical
of engineering designs. We do not always (if ever) have the luxury of infinite
time and budget, allowing one to design, build, and field the most elegant
and optimal-performing computer system. Therefore, we need methods to
aid us in developing systems where we can trade off these conflicting items
in some logical manner. That is what computer systems performance evalu-
ation is and what this book is all about.
2 I. I Evolution of computer systems architectures

The objective of this book is to describe a variety of performance analy-

sis methods that can be applied to the various stages of a computer system's
design, construction, fielding, and life-cycle maintenance. The goal is to
provide the reader with an understanding of what tools or techniques are
best applied within a computer system's life cycle so that the designer can
analyze alternatives and select near optimal solutions for each stage of this
process. We cannot hope to be exhaustive in our coverage of all aspects of a
computer system's design, nor can we do so for each analysis technique
available. Our goal is to provide sufficient detail, examples, and references
so that an interested reader can know what performance evaluation tech-
nique is best to apply, how to apply this technique to some level of sophisti-
cation, and where to look for further detailed information on a topic if it is
needed. Our intention is to provide more of an in-depth survey so that the
reader can understand how all the various concepts and techniques apply to
computer systems tradeoff analysis.

I.I Evolution of c o m p u t e r systems architectures

Computers came into being with the development of the ENIAC computer
system in the late 1940s. The early ENIAC and subsequent computers were
constructed of vacuum tubes and filled a large room. These early computer
systems were dedicated to a single task and had no operating system. The
power of these early computers was less than that of the handheld calcula-
tors in use today. These computers were used mainly for ballistic missile tra-
jectory projections and military research. The architecture of these early
computers was based on the von Neumann stored program, single-stream
instruction flow architecture (Figure 1.1). This basic architecture and phi-
losophy is still in use today in most computer systems.
These early computer systems had no sophisticated operating systems,
databases, networks, or high-level programming languages to simplify their
operations. They stored program instructions and data needed for compu-
tation in the same place. Instructions were read from memory one at a time
and were mostly associated with the loading and storage of program data
from memory to registers where the data were to be operated on. Data in
these early systems were not shared by programs. If a program needed data
produced by another program, these data items were typically copied into a
region near the end of a program's space, and the end addresses were hard-
coded for use by the application program in which they were embedded.
A user application resides on a computer system. The computer system
provides the physical medium on which the data and programs are stored
I. I Evolutionof computer systemsarchitectures 3

Figure 1.1 Memory

Basic computer
system.
Control
Unit ALU

l 1
I/0 Processor ,,I Output [
I 'nput I Devices I
Devices I

and the processing capacity to manipulate the stored data. A processing unit
of a computer system consists of five main elements: the memory, an arith-
metic logic unit, an input unit, an output unit, and a control element. The
memory unit stores both the data for programs and the instructions of a
program that manipulates stored data.
The program's individual elements or instructions are fetched from the
memory one at a time and are interpreted by the control unit. The control
unit, depending on the interpretation of the instruction, determines what
computer operation to perform next. If the instruction requires no addi-
tional data, the control indicates to the arithmetic logic unit what operation
to perform and with what registers. (See Figure 1.1.)
If the instruction requires additional data, the control unit passes the
appropriate command to the memory (MAR, memory address register) to
fetch a data item from memory (MDR, memory data register) and to place
it in an appropriate register in the ALU (data register bank) (Figure 1.2).
lk
r

Figure 1.2
Low-level memory
Memory
access.
Array

ALU 1-"
$
Registers

I Chapter I
4 I. I Evolution of computer systems architectures

This continues until all required operands are in the appropriate registers of
the ALU. Once all operands are in place, the control unit commands the
ALU to perform the appropriate instruction--for example, multiplication,
addition, or subtraction. If the instruction indicated that an input or output
were required, the control element would transmit a word from the input
unit to the memory or ALU, depending on the instruction. If an output
instruction were decoded, the control unit would command the transmis-
sion of the appropriate memory word or register to the output channel indi-
cated. These five elements comprise the fundamental building blocks used
in the original von Neumann computer system and are found in most con-
temporary systems in some form or another.
A computer system is comprised of the five building blocks previously
described, as well as additional peripheral support devices, which aid in data
movement and processing. These basic building blocks are used to form the
general processing, control, storage, and input and output units that make
up modern computer systems. Devices typically are organized in a manner
that supports the application processing for which the computer system is
intended--for example, if massive amounts of data need to be stored, then
additional peripheral storage devices such as disks or tape units are required,
along with their required controllers or data channels.
To better describe the variations within architectures we will discuss
some details briefly--for example, the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and the
control unit are merged together into a central processing unit, or CPU.
The CPU controls the flow of instructions and data in the computer sys-
tem. Memories can be broken down into hierarchies based on nearness to
the CPU and speed of access--for example, cache memory is small,
extremely fast memory used for instructions and data actively executing and
being used by the CPU. The primary memory is slower, but it is also
cheaper and contains more memory locations. It is used to store data and
instructions that will be used during the execution of applications presently
running on the CPU--for example, if you boot up your word processing
program on your personal computer, the operating system will attempt to
place the entire word processing program in primary memory. If there is
insufficient space, the operating system will partition the program into seg-
ments and pull them in as needed.
The portion of the program that cannot be stored in memory is main-
tained on a secondary storage device, typically a disk drive. This device has
a much greater storage capacity than the primary memory, typically costs
much less per unit of storage, and has data access times that are much
slower than the primary memory. An additional secondary storage device is
I. I Evolution of computer systems architectures 5

the tape drive unit. A tape drive is a simple storage device that can store
massive amounts of data~again, at less cost than the disk units but at a
reduced access speed. Other components of a computer system are input
and output units. These are used to extract data from the computer and
provide these data to external devices or to input data from the external
device. The external devices could be end-user terminals, sensors, informa-
tion network ports, video, voice, or other computers.
A computer system's architecture is constructed using basic building
blocks, such as CPUs, memories, disks, I/O, and other devices as needed.
In the following sections we will examine each of the components of a
computer system in more detail, as we examine how these devices can be
interconnected to support data processing applications.

1.1.1 CPU a r c h i t e c t u r e s

The central processing unit (CPU) is the core of a computer system and
consists of the arithmetic logic unit (ALU) and the control unit. The ALU
can come in a variety of configurations~from a single simple unit, up to
extremely complex units that perform complex operations. The primary
operation of the ALU is to take zero or more operands and perform the
function called for in the instruction. In addition to the ALU, the CPU
consists of a set of registers to store operands and intermediate results of
computations and to maintain information used by the CPU to determine
the state of its computations. For example, there are registers for the status
of the ALU's operation, for keeping count of the instruction to be per-
formed next, to keep data flowing in from memory or out to memory, to
maintain the instruction being executed, and for the location of operands
being operated on by the CPU. Each of these registers has a unique func-
tion within the CPU, and each is necessary for various classes of computer
architectures. A typical minimal architecture for a CPU and its registers is
shown in Figure 1.3 and consists of a primary memory connected to the
CPU via buses. There are registers in the CPU for holding instructions,
instruction operands, and results of operations; a program location counter,
containing either the location in memory for instructions or operands,
depending on the decoding of instructions; and a program counter contain-
ing the location of the next instruction to perform.
The CPU also contains the control unit. The control unit uses the status
registers and instructions in the instruction register to determine what func-
tions the CPU must perform on the registers, ALU, and data paths that
make up the CPU. The basic operation of the CPU follows a simple loop,

I Chapter I
6 I. I Evolutionof computer systemsarchitectures

L
Y

Figure 1.3
Typical CP U MAR
architecture.
.I"1 Memory I~ MDR ALU+ I
Control' [~

IR I

Data
reg

/
Operands and Results CPU
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

called the instruction execution cycle (Figure 1.4). There are six basic func-
tions performed in the instruction loop: instruction fetch, instruction
decode, operand effective address calculation, operand fetch, operation exe-
cution, and next address calculation. This execution sequence represents the
basic functions found in all computer systems. Variations in the number of
steps are found based on the type and length of the instruction.

I.I.2 Instruction architectures

There are numerous ideas about how to organize computer systems around
the instruction set. One form, which has come of age with the new power-
fill workstations, is the reduced instruction set computer (RISC), where
each instruction is simple, but highly optimized. On the far spectrum of
architectures is the very long word instruction architecture, where each

Instruction .I Instruction Operand Operand

Fetch "1 Decode Address Fetch
Computation

Next Instruction Instruction

Address Execution
Computation

Figure 1.4 Instruction cycle execution.

I. I Evolution of computer systems architectures 7

instruction may represent an enormous processing function. A middle

ground is the complex instruction set computer (CISC).

Memory-addressing schemes
There are also numerous ways in which to determine the address of an oper-
and from an instruction. Each address computation method has its benefits
in terms of instruction design flexibility. There are six major types of
addressing computation schemes found in computers: immediate, direct,
index, base, indirect, and two-operand. We will examine these further in
Chapter 2.

I.I.3 M e m o r y architectures

Generally, a computer system's memory is organized as a regular structure,

addressed using the contents of a memory address register and with data
transferred through a memory data register (Figure 1.5). Memory architec-
tures are based on the organization of the memory words. The simplest
form is a linear two-dimensional structure. A second organization is the
two-and-a-half-dimensional architecture.

I.I.4 I10 architectures

Input and output architectures are used by computer systems to move

information into or out of the computer's main memory and have evolved
into many forms. I/O architectures typically rely on the use of one element
of the computer as the router of I/O transfers. This router can be the CPU,
the memory, or a specialized controller. Chapter 2 discusses these architec-
tures in greater detail.

Figure 1.5
CP U memory
access.
Memory
Array

OPU

I Chapter I
8 I. I Evolutionof computersystemsarchitectures

StorageDensity
IL

Figure 1.6 Registers I

Memory hierarchy.
I
Cache I
I
I PrimaryMem I

Disk

AccessSpeed (~ Tape

I.I.5 Secondary storage and peripheral

device architectures

I/O devices connect to and control secondary storage devices. Primary

memory has grown over the years to a fairly high volume, but still not to the
point where additional data and program storage is not needed. The storage
hierarchy (Figure 1.6) consists of a variety of data storage types. From the
highest-speed memory element, cache, to the slowest-speed elements, such
as tape drives, the tradeoff the systems architect must make is the cost and
speed of the storage medium per unit of memory. Typical secondary storage
devices include magnetic tape drives, magnetic disk drives, compact optical
disk drives, and archival storage devices such as disk jukeboxes.
Magnetic tape information storage provides a low-cost, high-density
storage medium for low-access or slow-access data. An improvement over
tape storage is the random access disk units, which can have either remov-
able or internal fixed storage media. Archival storage devices typically are
composed of removable media configured into some array of devices.

I.I.6 N e t w o r k architectures

Networks evolved from the needs of applications and organizations to share

information and processing capacity in real time. Computer networks pro-
vide yet another input and output path for the computer to receive or send
I. I Evolutionof computersystemsarchitectures 9

information. Networks are architected in many ways: They could have a

central switching element, share a central storage repository, or could be
connected using intelligent interface units over a communications medium
such as telephone wires or digital cables. The configuration used depends
on the degree of synchronization and control required, as well as the physi-
cal distribution between computers. Chapter 2 will examine some architec-
tures and topology configurations for networked computer systems.

I. 1.7 Computer architectures

Computer architectures represent the means of interconnectivity for a com-

puter's hardware components as well as the mode of data transfer and proc-
essing exhibited. Different computer architecture configurations have been
developed to speed up the movement of data, allowing for increased data
processing. The basic architecture has the CPU at the core with a main
memory and input/output system on either side of the CPU (see Figure
1.7). A second computer configuration is the central input/output control-
ler (see Figure 1.8). A third computer architecture uses the main memory as
the location in the computer system from which all data and instructions
flow in and out. A fourth computer architecture uses a common data and
control bus to interconnect all devices making up a computer system (see

Figure 1.7
Basic computer
architecture.
I/0 CPU Memory

IPrinterI

Hgure 1.8 I/0

Alternative CPU Controller Memory
computer HUB
architecture.

~ I 'ter I

I Chapter I
I0 1.2 Evolutionof database systems

Figure 1.9
Common bus CPU m Memory I/0
architecture.

l l
y
I/0 Bus
Figure 1.10
Dual bus
architecture.
CPU Memory I/0

Memory
Bus

Figure 1.9). An improvement on the single shared central bus architecture is

the dual bus architecture. This architecture either separates data and control
over the two buses or shares them to increase overall performance (see Fig-
ure 1.10).
We will see how these architectures and elements of the computer sys-
tem are used as we continue with our discussion of system architectures
and operations.

1.2 E v o l u t i o n of d a t a b a s e systems

Database systems have been with us since the 1960s as research vehicles
(first-generation products wrapped around the hierarchical and network
data models) and since the mid 1980s as fully functional products using the
relational data model. Since these early beginnings, database systems have
evolved from simple repositories for persistent information to very powerful
tools for information management and use.
Database systems have been of interest to the computer systems
performance analyst and to computer systems applications developers since
the earliest days of commercial computers. Early computer systems lacked
extensive on-line data storage (primary memory as well as secondary disk
storage), forcing systems architects and developers to rely heavily on exter-
nally archived information (typically stored in tape drives). Initial data stor-
age repositories were constructed using simple direct addressing schemes
that linked specific storage to a specific device and specific location on that
device. For example, to extract a piece of information an application needed
Discovering Diverse Content Through
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160 grains.

Confederatio and Inimica Tyrannis.

Obverse: A circular central field, size 6, covered with a cluster of
thirteen small stars; around this device a glory of fine rays,
presenting a corrugated outline of sixteen points. Legend:
“confederatio 1785.” Border, serrated.
Reverse: An Indian, standing beside an altar or pedestal, his right
foot upon a crown, an arrow in his right hand, a bow in his left; at his
back a quiver full of arrows. Legend: “inimica tyrannis america.”
Border, serrated; edge, plain; size, 18; weight, 112 grains.

Connecticut Cent, 1788.

Obverse: Identical with one of 1787.
Reverse: The same as one of the coins of Vermont. Another
Connecticut coin of this year, has the same reverse as the
“georgivs iii rex” issue of Machin & Co., from the mint established
by them in the State of New York.
Note.—The obverse and reverse dies of the Connecticut cents are too
numerous to mention, there being no less than one hundred and sixty-four of the
first, and eighty-four of the latter.

New England Token.

Obverse: Same as that of the common type of the Carolina Token
of 1694, and from the same die as that and the “London Halfpenny.”
Reverse: An inscription, in five lines, occupying the whole field,
“god preserve new england 1694.” Borders, milled; edge, plain;
copper; size, 18½; weight, 133 and 236 grains.

Good Samaritan Shillings.

 The same general type and variety as the Pine Tree Shilling, but
bearing upon the obverse a well-executed device, illustrating the
parable of the Good Samaritan; but two or three specimens of this
coin have been known, two of which are in existence and of unique
varieties; they are supposed to have been pattern pieces, struck at
the origin of the Mint of Massachusetts Colony.

PLATE III.
 Large Pattern Cent. Not Issued. Bar Cent. Very Rare.
Fugio. “Mind Your Business.” First. Inimica Tyrannis Americana. Fugio.
“Mind Your Business.” Second.
See description.

PLATE IV.
 Half Cent. 1836. Confederate C. S. A. Half Dollar. Half Cent. 1840.
Half Cent. 1845. “Jefferson Head” Cent. Half Cent. 1846.
See description.

Massachusetts Half Cent, 1787.

Obverse: Same general description as the Cent of 1787.
Reverse: Same in general as the Cent of 1787, except that the
shield upon some specimens, bears only “half cent.” Borders,
milled; edge plain; size, 15 to 15½; weight, 75 to 83 grains.
The “Cent,” 1788. Twelve Types. Thirteen Varieties.

Massachusetts Cent, 1788.

Obverse: A clothed Indian, standing, facing left, in his right hand a
bow, in his left an arrow. Legend: “commonwealth.”
Reverse: A spread eagle, a broad shield upon his breast, six pales
gules (upright), a chief azure (open or plain). Upon the chief, or
upper part of the shield, the word “cent,” in bold Roman lettering. In
exergue, beneath a heavy horizontal bar, the date 1787. Borders,
milled; edge, plain; size, 16½ to 19; weight, 146 to 165 grains.

Fugios or Franklin Cents.

The Fugios or Franklin Cents are the earliest coins issued by
authority of the United States. They being all dated 1787, and made
in conformity with resolution of Congress, dated July 6, 1787:
“Resolved, That the Board of Treasury direct the contractor for the
copper coinage to stamp on one side of each piece the following
devices, viz.: Thirteen circles linked together, a small circle in the
middle, with the words ‘united states’ round it, and in the centre the
words, ‘we are one’; on the other side of the same piece the
following device, viz.: a dial with the hours expressed on the face of
it; a meridian sun above, on one side of which is to be the word
‘fugio,’ and on the other the year in figures ‘1787’; below the dial the
words ‘mind your business.’”

The Bar Cent, or U S A Copper.

This coin, presumed to have belonged to the same issue as the
Nova Constellatio Coppers, was probably made in Birmingham,
England, by Thomas Wyon, for circulation in America. The “U S A”
Copper was first passed as money in the City of New York, in
November, 1785. The device was taken from an old Continental
button, to which fact and the light weight of the piece, has been
attributed the disfavor shown the coinage and the limited circulation
given the same.
Obverse: Large Roman “U S A” in a monogram, on a plain field.
Reverse: Thirteen horizontal bars. Border, serrated; Edge, plain;
size, 15½; weight, 85 grains. Two pairs of dies.

Maryland Penny.
 The Maryland Penny. One Type. One Variety. Unique.
Obverse: Similar to that of the sixpence.
Reverse: A Ducal Coronet, upon which are erected two masts,
each bearing a flying pennant. Legend: “denarivm terre-mariæ.”
Copper; size, 13.
The only specimen of this piece extant was imported into America
from England, at a cost of £75, and was sold for $370 with the
collection of J. J. Mickley, Esq., of Philadelphia.

Rosa Americana Half-Penny, 1722.

Obverse: Laureated head of King George I, facing right. Legend:
“georgius dei gratia rex.”
Reverse: A full double rose; from this project five barbed points.
Legend: “rosa americana utile dulci 1722” which encircles the
piece. Border, beaded; edge, plain; “Bath Metal;” size, 16 to 18;
weight, 139 grains.
Devices: Same as those of the Penny of this coinage. Legends:
Same import as those upon the Penny, but varied by abbreviations
and in punctuation. Border, beaded; edge, plain; “Bath Metal;” size,
13 to 14; weight, 75 grains.

Liber Natus Libertatem Defendo—First.

Reverse: Arms of the State of New York. Upon an oval shield at
the center is shown the sun rising from behind a range of hills, the
sea in the foreground; left of the shield, Justice, with sword and
scales; right, Liberty, with staff and cap. Upon a hemisphere, above
the shield, stands an eagle, wings outspread, facing right. Exergue:
1787; beneath this, next the border, “excelsior.” Border, serrated;
edge, plain; size, 17; weight, 157 grains.

PLATE V.
 Maryland Penny. Half Cent. 1847. Rosa Americana Half Penny. 1722.
Liber Natus Libernatum Defendo. First. Granby or Higley Token. 1737.
Liber Natus Libernatum Defendo. Second.
See description.

PLATE VI.
 Washington Cent. 1783. Washington Liverpool Half Penny. 1793. “Naked
Bust.” Washington Cent. 1792.
Non Dependens Status. Half Cent. 1842. Pattern Cent. 1792.
See description.

Liber Natus Libertatem Defendo.—Second.

Obverse: An Indian, standing, crowned with feathers, and facing
left; in his right hand he wields a tomahawk, his left supports a bow,
the end of which rests on the ground near his feet; over his right
shoulder appears the top of a quiver of arrows, which is borne upon
his back. Legend: “liber natus liberatem defendo.”
Reverse: A hemisphere of the globe, marked by longitudinal and
meridianal lines; upon this stands a large heavy-bodied eagle, wings
spread, somewhat drooping, beak toward the right. Legend: “neo-
eboracus 1787 excelsior.” Border, serrated; edge, plain; size, 17;
weight, 153 grains.

Granby or Higley Token, 1737.

Obverse: A deer, standing, facing left, occupying the whole field.
Legend: “valve me as you please.” Exergue: The Roman numerals
III upon a small scroll; a little crescent is shown below.
Reverse: Three hammers, each bearing a crown upon the head.
Legend: “i am good copper 1737.”

Washington Cent, 1783.

 Obverse: Large laureated bust of Washington, draped, facing left.
Legend: “WASHINGTON & INDEPENDENCE 1783.”
Reverse: A figure of a female, facing left, seated upon a rock; right
hand holds an olive branch; left, staff of liberty, with cap. Legend:
“united states.” Exergue: t. w. i. e. s. Border, beaded; edge, plain;
size, 17½; weight, 120 grains. Two obverse and three reverse dies.

Washington Liverpool Half-Penny.

Obverse: Bust of Washington, in uniform, facing left, hair in a
queue. Legend: “washington president.”
Reverse: A ship, under sail, to the right: Legend: “halfpenny”
under the ship, waves, and in the foreground, on a panel, the date
1793. Border, milled; edge, lettered: “payable in anglesey london
or liverpool.” Size, 19; weight, 163 grains.

Washington Naked Bust Cent, 1792.

Obverse: A classical bust of Washington, undraped, facing right;
the head is encircled by a fillet, confining the hair, which is cut short
and is curly; the fillet is tied at the back of the head by a bow knot
with long pendent ends. Legend: “washington president 1792.”
Reverse: A small eagle, displayed, wings upraised; on his breast a
shield argent, six pales gules; right talon, an olive branch, fourteen
leaves, six berries; left talon, thirteen arrows; about the head of the
eagle are six mullets, and above is the word “cent.” Border, milled;
edge, plain, or inscribed: “united states of america.” Size, 19;
weight, 198 grains. Some six or eight specimens only are known.

Non Dependens Status.

Obverse: A full bust, facing right; flowing hair to the shoulders.
Upon the drapery of the bust a small oval shield as an epaulet,
emblazoned with a staff bearing a flag; across the staff, saltierwise,
rests a naked sword. In each angle of this device is displayed a fleur
de lis. Upon the breast of the bust is a head with spreading wings.
Legend: “non-dependens status.”
Reverse: An Indian, seated upon a globe, facing left; nude, except
a cap or bandeau upon his head, and a feather tunic around the
lower part of the body. In his extended right hand he holds a bunch
of tobacco; the left reaches behind him and rests upon a shield,
bearing the same emblems displayed upon the epaulets upon the
bust on the obverse. Legend: “amer ica,” divided by the figure of the
Indian. Exergue: 1778. Border, plain; edge plain; size, 19.
Some coin dealers advertise the Non Dependens Status as “a rare
copper, worth $100.”

Pattern Cent, 1792.

Obverse: A bust of Liberty, facing to right, the hair confined by a
fillet. Above is inscribed the word “liberty,” and beneath the date
“1792.”
Reverse: A portion of a globe, on which stands an eagle, with
raised wings. Legend: “united states of america.” This cent has a
grained edge, like the cents of 1793. Some numismatists give it the
preference as the first cent.

George Clinton Copper, 1787.

The George Clinton Copper has the bust of Governor Clinton
facing right, with legend “george clinton.”
Reverse: The State arms of New York, and in the exergue, “1787
excelsior.” This last reverse is found also combined with the Liber
Natus, which has an Indian standing, facing left, with tomahawk in
the right hand and bow in the left, a bundle of arrows also at his
back. Legend: “liber natus libertatem defendo.” This latter
obverse is also found combined with another reverse, as follows: An
eagle stands upon a section of the globe. Legend: “neo eboracus
1787 excelsior.”

PLATE VII.
George Clinton Copper. 1787. Kentucky Token. Immunis Columbia. 1787.
Massachusetts Pine Tree Shilling. 1652. Chain Cent. 1793. Myddelton
Token.
See description.

PLATE VIII.
 Greek Egyptian Coin. Ptolemæus Soter. 285-300 B. C. Roman Coin.
Faustina, Daughter of Antoninus Pius, Wife of Marcus Aurelius. Died, 175
A. D. Macedonian Silver Coin. Alexander the Great. 300 Years B. C.
Silver Shekel of Judea. Simon Maccabees. 145 B. C. Persian Silver Coin.
Vologeses III. 148-190 A. D. Judean Copper Coin. Simon Maccabees. 145 B.
C.
See description.

Kentucky Token or Cent

Has a hand holding a scroll inscribed “Our Cause is Just.” Legend:
“unanimity is the strength of society.” Reverse: A radiant
pyramid, triangular in shape, of fifteen stars united by rings, each
star having placed in it the initial of a State, Kentucky being at the
top. Legend: “e pluribus unum.”

Shekel (Simon Maccabees).

The Shekel was originally a weight. The first form in which money
was used by the Jews, and by all other nations of which we have any
knowledge, was the pieces without any regular shape or any marks
or devices upon them. Precious metals passed by weight. Thus it is
said of the purchase made by Abraham of the cave and field of
Machpelah, “And Abraham hearkened unto Ephron; and Abraham
weighed to Ephron the silver, which he had named in the audience of
the sons of Heth, four hundred shekels of silver, current with the
merchant.” Gen. xxiii. 16.
The weight of a shekel was a little less than one-half an ounce
troy. The term “current with the merchant,” probably refers to the
purity of the silver, which was about ninety-five per cent. fine, and the
value in our money was fifty-eight cents. It first appeared as a coin in
the time of the Maccabees, who lived about 140 B. C. The amount of
silver in the coin is the same as was contained in the piece of silver
denominated a shekel. It will be seen that on one side is the golden
cup that had manna (see Exod. xvi. 33, and Heb. ix. 4), with the
inscription in old Hebrew character, “shekel of israel;” on the other
side appears Aaron’s rod that budded with the legend in the same
character, “jerusalem the holy.” This specimen is in the Mint
cabinet; one of the most rare and interesting coins in the collection.

Immunis Columbia, 1787.

Obverse: The Goddess of Liberty, seated upon a globe, facing
right; in her fully extended left hand she balances the scales of
justice; the right hand supports a liberty staff, bearing a flag and
crowned with a cap. Legend: “immunis columbia.” Exergue: 1787.
Reverse: An eagle, displayed; right talon, an olive branch, thirteen
leaves; left talon, thirteen arrows. Legend: “e pluribus unum.”
Borders, serrated; edge, plain; size, 16½; weight, 135 grains.

Massachusetts Pine Tree Shilling.

“John Hull and Robert Saunderson were equal officers in the
‘gainful business’ of the Mint. How much they coined in all for the
colony, or the exact amount of their profits under the contract they
carried out, cannot be determined.” The coinage was certainly large
in amount, and they, as was well understood, became men of wealth
and substance. When the daughter of John Hull was married to
Judge Samuel Sewall, the founder of the town of Newbury, Mass.,
the prosperous mint-master gave the bride a dowery of her weight in
silver. At the conclusion of the wedding ceremony, a large steel-yard
was brought into the room, and the blushing bride placed upon one
of the platforms of the same, while into a tub upon the other side
were poured the Pine Tree Shillings, until the steel-yard balanced.

Chain Cents.
These have a bust with flowing hair, looking right, with the date
below and word “liberty” above it; on the reverse side, in the
centre, is “one cent,” with “⅟₁₀₀” below it, enclosed in an endless
chain of fifteen links, typifying the number of States then in the
Union. The legend is “united states of america” in all excepting
one die, which reads “united states of ameri,” the engraver
evidently not having room to complete the word.

The Myddelton Tokens.

Obverse: A figure, representing Hope, beside an anchor; she
presents two children to a female, the last extending her right hand
in reception of the charge; the left hand supports a liberty staff, which
is crowned with a cap; in front of the figure with the staff is an olive
branch and a wreath, to the rear a cornucopia. Legend: “british
settlement kentucky.”
Reverse: Britannia, seated disconsolate amid the down-cast
emblems of her power, and facing left; her head is bowed; she holds
in her right hand an inverted spear, the head of which penetrates the
ground; at her right side a bundle of fasces or lictors’ rods have
fallen near the cap of Liberty; upon the ground, before the figure, are
the scales of justice, upon which Britannia has set her left foot and
the sword of justice, with broken blade; the left arm of the figure rests
upon a large shield, bearing the cross of the British ensigns. Legend:
“payable by p. p. p. myddelton.”
PLATE IX.
 Half Cent. 1802. Wreath Cent. 1793. Half Cent. 1794.
Washington Medal. 1789. Half Cent. 1847. New York Cent.
See description.

PLATE X.
Greek Egyptian Coin. Ptolemy. Widow’s Mite. Copper Coin. Roman Bronze
Coin. Trajan Augustus. 98-117 A. D.
Antiochus Epiphanes. Counterfeit Judean Shekel. Dating about the Time
of Christ. Macedonian Coin. Philip III. 317-324 B. C.
See description.

The Small Pattern Cent.

Obverse: A head, facing right, hair unconfined, floating backward
in flowing locks. Legend: “LIBERTY PARENT OF SCIENCE &
INDUST.” Exergue: Beneath the head the date 1792.
Reverse: A wreath, two olive branches crossed at the lower ends
and tied with a ribbon; within the wreath a field bearing an inscription
“one cent” in two lines. Legend: “united states of america.”
Exergue: “⅟₁₀₀.” Border, milled; edge, reeded; size, 14; weight, 65
grains. Extremely rare.

The Double Head Washington.

A small head on both obverse and reverse. The former has the
legend, “washington;” the latter the legend “one cent.” No date.

New York Washington Cent.

Bust of Washington with a wig, and with military draping, face
right. Legend: “non vi virtute vici.”
 Reverse: The Goddess of Liberty, seated, with liberty pole and
scales of justice. Legend: “neo eboracensis.” Date, 1786.

Carolina Elephant (Token.)

A token much prized by collectors is known as the Carolina
Elephant. The obverse is from a rather common English token
known now as the London Elephant. The animal is standing with his
head down. There is no legend.
Reverse: “god preserve carolina and the lords proprieters
1694.”

Copper Half-Cent of 1794.

In 1794 and 1795 similar device to that of 1793; but face Liberty
facing to the right. Weight, 104 grains.

Cent, 1799.
The liberty cap is omitted, as is the lettering on the edge, not to
reappear on the American cent. Liberty Cap Cents are very rare.
In the year 1798 a slight change was made in the obverse of the
cent, giving some of the curls a different termination from those of
1796, 1797, and the early part of 1798. The latter device was
continued each year, until and including 1807. The reverse remained
unchanged during the same time, excepting some slight variations,
probably unintentional, if not positive mistakes. For instance, in 1797
and 1802 we find some without stems to the wreaths, and in one
case only one stem. In 1801 and 1802 some have ⅟₀₀₀ instead of
the fraction ⅟₁₀₀. In addition to this error, a variety of the cent of
1802 has “Iinited,” instead of “United.” In 1796 we have in one
instance “Liherty,” instead of “Liberty.”

Liberty Cent, 1809.

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