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OXFORD IB DIPLOMA PROGRAMME
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ENGLISH A
| ANGUAGE AND
LITERATURE ...
Rob Allison
Brian Chanen OXTORD
UNIVERSITY PRESS
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Course Companion definition the planet, help to create a better and more peaceful
world. IB learners strive to be:
The IB Diploma Programme Course Companions
are resource materials designed to support students Inquirers They develop their natural curiosity.
throughout their two-year Diploma Programme They acquire the skills necessary to conduct inquiry
course of study in a particular subject. They help and research and show independence in learning.
students gain an understanding of what is expected They actively enjoy learning and this love of
while presenting content that fully illustrates the aims learning will be sustained throughout their lives.
and purposes of the IB. They reflect its philosophy and Knowledgeable They explore concepts, ideas,
approach, by encouraging a deeper understanding and issues that have local and global significance.
of each subject through connections to wider global In so doing, they acquire in-depth knowledge and
issues, based on independent, critical thinking. develop understanding across a broad and balanced
The Companions mirror the IB philosophy of range of disciplines.
whole-course approaches to the curriculum Thinkers They exercise initiative in applying
through the use of a wide range of authentic thinking skills critically and creatively to recognise
resources. These resources integrate perpectives and approach complex problems, and make
in international-mindedness, promote learning reasoned, ethical decisions.
in accord with the IB learner profile and deepen Communicators They understand and express
experience of the IB Diploma Programme core ideas and information confidently and creatively in
requirements: theory of knowledge, the extended more than one language and in a variety of modes
essay, and Creativity, Action, Service (CAS). of communication. They work effectively and
Each Companion can be used in conjunction with willingly in collaboration with others.
other materials. Indeed, successful IB students are Principled They act with integrity and honesty,
strongly encouraged to enhance their learning with a strong sense of fairness, justice, and respect
through consultation of a variety of supplementary for the dignity of the individual, groups, and
resources. Suggestions for further reading, as well as communities. They take responsibility for their own
for extending research investigations, are regularly actions and the consequences that accompany them.
given in a fashion that integrates this extension Open-minded They understand and appreciate their
work within each course. own cultures and personal histories, and are open
In addition, all Companions provide guidance to the perspectives, values, and traditions of other
for successfully completing all course assessment individuals and communities. They are accustomed to
requirements and advice for respecting academic seeking and evaluating a range of points of view, and
honesty protocols. They are distinctive and are willing to grow from the experience.
authoritative, without being rigidly prescriptive. Caring They show empathy, compassion, and
respect towards the needs and feelings of others.
IB mission statement
They have a personal commitment to service, and
The International Baccalaureate aims to develop act to make a positive difference to the lives of
inquiring, knowledgable and caring young people
others and to the environment.
who help to create a better and more peaceful world
Risk-takers They approach unfamiliar situations
through intercultural understanding and respect.
and uncertainty with courage and forethought,
To this end the IB works with schools, governments and have the independence of spirit to explore
and international organisations to develop
new roles, ideas, and strategies. They are brave and
challenging programmes of international education
articulate in defending their beliefs.
and rigorous assessment.
Balanced They understand the importance of
These programmes encourage students across the intellectual, physical, and emotional balance to
world to become active, compassionate, and lifelong achieve personal well-being for themselves and
learners who understand that other people, with others.
their differences, can also be right.
Reflective They give thoughtful consideration
The IB learner profile to their own learning and experience. They are
The aim of all IB programmes is to develop
able to assess and understand their strengths and
limitations in order to support their learning and
internationally minded people who, recognising
professional development.
their common humanity and shared guardianship of
A note on academic honesty What constitutes malpractice?
It is of vital importance to credit owners of This is behaviour that results, or may result in you,
information appropriately, whenever that or any student, gaining an unfair advantage in one
information is re-used. Originators of ideas Or more assessment component.
(intellectual property) have property rights.
Malpractice includes plagiarism, whether in
You must base honest, productive work on your the same language, or translated from another
own individual ideas. The work of others used in language. It also includes collusion.
developing these ideas, must be fully referenced in
Plagiarism is defined as the representation of the
correct fashion.
ideas or work of another person as your own. The
Therefore, in all assignments for assessment, written following are some of the ways to avoid plagiarism:
or oral, you must always express yourself without
e Words and ideas of another person used to
copying from others.
support one’s arguments must be acknowledged.
Whenever other sources are used or referred to,
e Passages that are quoted verbatim must
either as direct quotation or as paraphrase, they
be enclosed within quotation marks and
must be appropriately recorded and listed with the
acknowledged.
relevant academic references.
e (CD-ROMs, email messages, websites on the
Internet, and any other electronic media must be
How do | acknowledge the work of others?
treated in the same way as books and journals.
This is done through the correct and systematic use
of footnotes and bibliographies. e The sources of all photographs, maps,
illustrations, computer programs, data, graphs,
Footnotes (placed at the bottom of a page) or audio visual, and similar material must be
endnotes (placed at the end of a document) are acknowledged if they are not your own work.
required when you quote or paraphrase, translate,
or closely summarise the information provided in e Works of art, whether music, film, dance,
other documents. theatre arts, or visual arts, and where the
creative use of a part of a work takes place, must
You do not need to provide a footnote for be acknowledged.
information that is part of a recognised ‘body of
knowledge’. That is, commonly accepted definitions Collusion is defined as supporting malpractice by
do not always need to be footnoted, as they are part another student. This includes:
of such assumed knowledge. e allowing your work to be copied, or translated,
Bibliographies should include a formal list of the and then submitted for assessment by another
resources used in your work. student
‘Formal” means that you should use one of e duplicating work for different assessment
several commonly accepted forms of presentation. components and/or diploma requirements.
This usually involves separating your resources Other forms of malpractice include any action
into different categories (e.g. books, magazines, that gives you an unfair advantage, or affects the
newspaper articles, Internet-based resources, CDs, results of another student. Examples include,
works of art and translations from other languages, taking unauthorised material into an examination
whether computer derived or not). room, misconduct during an examination, using
In this way, you provide full information for your unauthorised electronic aids of any type, and
readers, or viewers of your work, so that they can falsifying a CAS record.
find the same information, if they wish. A formal,
academic bibliography is compulsory for the
extended essay.
Contents
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Introduction
This is our second time writing an Oxford University What we will not do is answer any of the questions. If
Press course book for Language and Literature. Each the questions had answers, you could just Google them.
book took almost three years to write and during And though we know you have assessments to do, and
the course of researching, writing and revising, we we know that grades matter to you and to your future,
were teaching both “Language and Literature” and we will not offer shortcuts and tricks. We will, however,
“Literature”, developing curriculum for IB and give you tips on how to approach assessments, but we
marking too many papers. Writing, as you know, believe that by just reading and considering questions
can be difficult—you read, research, think, outline, and writing in your learner portfolio, you will become a
write, rewrite and never seem to get it right. But it better student of language and literature. The classroom
can—just like the teaching and marking—be fun. For and this book should be a place for you to read, think,
our introductory note, that is what we want to stress: play, hypothesize, make connections, express ideas
reading, writing and “doing” English can be fun ... and grow. Ideally, the classroom would never have
and meaningful. The best part of writing the book a test. It would be great if assessment were invisible,
was having conversations with each other, friends, if the teacher simply observed and enjoyed and then
colleagues and students about what really matters adjusted teaching, activities and projects to suit this
when approaching language and literature; it was also invisible assessment. As soon as you tune yourself to
finding surprising texts, sharing articles, and writing a test, to a particular task, it is too easy to see the task
posts on social media to generate discussion. At one and the criteria for assessing it rather than seeing the
point during the work, Rob told the story of his own reading, thinking and play that will naturally lead you
reading and progression to becoming a teacher. It was to doing that task well. A language and literature class
pretty simple: he loved reading and he did not really is not meant to get you ready to do well on assessment
know why. Part of it was, almost stereotypically, being but to read and think better, which will also result in
taken away to another place. Part of it was wanting greater success on assessments. All the research says
to just find more, to work your way through the that reading and responding—thinking about a text
shelves of the library. Part of it was enjoying finding “a and having something to say about it—is the best way
good part” that you just had to read to someone else. to learn to understand, analyze, synthesize, interpret,
Reading and thinking was not something you had organize your thoughts, learn vocabulary and gain
to do or learned to do and doing it almost felt like a clarity in your writing.
guilty pleasure. This is what writing the book was for
us, so we hope that you will get some of that pleasure You may not love reading books or blogs, watching
yourself as you read this book. This is also what a good movies and discussing these things. In that case, a
language and literature class should be. We know language and literature class can be a boring place for
that not every text is something you find interesting you. But it is our job (and your teacher’s job) to help
and that in some classes you just sit down and write you see the variety and excitement in language and
a “practice commentary”, but it is the engagement literature and try to enjoy and appreciate it—at least
and curiosity that will make you a good student of IB part of the time!
Language and Literature and serve you in the future. But if you love reading and thinking, we hope you
We have tried to structure this book so that it imitates will not find this book, or the language and literature
an interesting language and literature classroom. class, boring. It should be just the kind of thing you like
We have built activities, discussions and texts into because we are not putting you on an endless march
through lists, acronyms and memorized facts, but
thematic units within each of the three areas of
exploration in the course. As we move through the offering you a chance to do what you enjoy, to do what
main concerns of each area, we not only introduce works best, and to “do English”.
a wide variety of texts but try to ask the kinds of
questions and offer the kinds of ideas that will help Brian Chanen and Rob Allison
you to get at the concepts that underpin the course
and, really, the kinds of big questions that all people
working with language and literature are constantly
considering.
Studying Language and Literature
Learning grammar
Many students wonder if they should be “learning grammar” or
doing exercises of some sort to help their writing. This is a somewhat
difficult question to answer. First, the problem is defining what
teachers and students might mean by grammar. For linguists,
grammar is the system of rules that describes structures (such as
both sentence and word structures), forms and sometimes even
the sounds and meanings of words. What we tend to mean when
we are talking about speaking and writing is whether we follow
the “prescriptive” grammar rules that we take to mean the right
and wrong way to write and speak. If your goal is to increase your
vocabulary, the best method is to read as much as possible as soon
as possible. If your goal is to become a more fluent writer, better
able to express your ideas, then the best method is to read as much
as possible and to write without inhibition. In terms of errors (verb
tense, a missing apostrophe), these are often best cured by learning
good editing, or from some intervention from your teacher who
sees a frequent error in your work. Most studies show, though, that
frequent reading and writing usually leads to the disappearance of
errors over time without any intervention. To be fair, many would
argue that it is useful to know some basic grammatical structures or
the names of parts of speech—knowledge like this can help to clarify
your understanding of how language works and why, and may help
you to self-correct. The act of worrying about correcting yourself,
though, can often lead to less writing, a fear of writing, or writing
that is stilted. If you feel like you need more facility with language,
you can exercise your writing skills through work like sentence-
combining activities, writing pastiche or imitations of professional
work (literary and non-literary) or writing “variations” on single
sentences.
Studying Language and Literature
There are many aspects to the language and literature course and there
are many ideas, terms, text types, modes, literary periods and theories
that you can explore over the course of the two years. Obviously,
you can never learn everything there is to know about language and
literature, but not only that, there is not a set body of knowledge to
know and understand even for this course. You will be encountering
ideas because of your teacher, your community, your peers and the
texts you study. You will learn, in a sense, what you need to know in the
moment and, perhaps more importantly, what you want to know.
With this in mind, the most important aspect of the IB Language and
Literature course is the set of aims as well as the concepts that underlie
the study. No matter what you are studying at any given moment, it
should tie back to the aims and somehow be grounded in the important
concepts. While these aims and concepts are important, they are also
not meant to be intimidating or complex or even represent something
that you have to “learn”. The aims are natural, the concepts are inherent
in the study of language and literature. In fact, when we design a
curriculum, the first thing we do as a group of language and literature
teachers from a wide variety of languages is say “what is it that we
really want students to be able to do, to take with them into the future?”
The concepts are not made up after the fact, but come from where we
think all questions, problems and the power and wonder of language
and literature spring.
According to the IB Language A: language and literature guide, the aims
of all subjects in Studies in language and literature are to enable
students to:
1 engage with a range of texts, in a variety of media and forms, from
different periods, styles and cultures
2 develop skills in listening, speaking, reading, writing, viewing,
presenting and performing
3 develop skills in interpretation, analysis and evaluation
4 develop sensitivity to the formal and aesthetic qualities of texts and
an appreciation of how they contribute to meaning
5 develop an understanding of relationships between texts and a
variety of perspectives, cultural contexts, and local and global issues
6 develop an understanding of the relationships between studies in
language and literature and other disciplines
7 communicate and collaborate in a confident and creative way
8 foster a lifelong interest in and enjoyment of language and literature.
The key concepts of all three courses in Studies in language and
literature are shown in the margin on the next page.
Studying Language and Literature
During your course of study you will see that these concepts and the
questions and concerns around them or inherent in them, are reflected
in the texts and ideas you examine. The concepts can help you to
make connections between texts and they can also remind you of the
fundamental concerns that underlie the study of language and literature.
While it may be obvious, for example, that poetry involves creativity,
it may be interesting to consider the ways in which this creative act
compares with the creativity involved in producing propaganda. As
another example, you may also see yourself moving back and forth in
relation to culture. You may purposefully study a given text in order
to consider the ways in which a work of literature might engage with,
reflect or refract cultural values. At another time, though, while you are
working on considering the rhythm and effect of a sonnet, you may be
drawn to think about the ways in which culture figures in the use of
d-~sp=lalaTRl 03
structure or form. And, ultimately, your study in this course is not about
TSl
€ . “learning” a particular text or coming up with a neat set of stylistic
CULTURE features of various text types, but is about engaging with the concepts
that are at the heart of language and literature.
The course itself is structured in three areas of exploration: “Readers,
writers and texts”; “Time and space” and “Intertextuality: connecting
texts”. There is some logic in moving through these areas of exploration
in order. The first section focuses closely on the creation of meaning
and the interactions between producers, texts and receivers. “Time
and space” widens the study of a text to include the complex contexts
that influence meaning, and “Intertextuality” encourages further
connections between and among texts. At the same time, these areas of
exploration naturally overlap and can be studied in any order. In fact,
while we progress through the areas in this book, you will notice many
connections among the ideas, texts and concepts in the various activities
and discussions in each part.
“learning about” a particular field of study, but that you are immersing
yourself in academic activities that come from existing fields, that are
practised today by professionals and that share some common conceptual
concerns. The beauty of a language and literature course is not that you
will learn to be a linguist or a particular type of literary critic, but that you
will, in your approach to the problems of language and literature, simply
be a critic and a scholar.
Approaching literature
If there is one thing that can be said about literary studies today it is that
it is an inclusive field that represents many varied ways of approaching
literary texts. While one of the first shifts in literary studies in the early
1900s was to move from appreciating the beauty of literature and
understanding the history of literature to close, careful interpretations of
individual texts, many theoretical movements since then have expanded
the field. Today, you are likely to find professors and critics who are
still interested in studying the history of literature (though they may be
doing this with the aid of text analysis software) or are offering close
readings of texts but you will also find, in every English department,
scholars who closely consider reader responses to texts or investigate
texts in relation to post-colonial culture or gender. Once again, your job
in this course is not to understand a particular theoretical approach,
but to borrow liberally from all fields in order to understand both
the richness of literature and the common problems that are concerns
throughout the discipline.
The areas of exploration in this course offer a nice analogy for the ways in
which all literary scholars can look at texts. We might first be concerned
with what literature is and how it functions. In looking closely at a text
and determining its meaning and offering an interpretation, we are acting
like “new critics” or doing a kind of “practical criticism”. But we soon
may find in the classroom that everyone has a slightly different view of
the text or that the reader plays a very large role in determining meaning.
We may also find that we can argue over what we may consider to be the
author’s intentions based on the text at hand. Or we can argue that it is
wrong to consider “intention” at all. While at these times in the classroom
it may seem that almost any interpretation is possible, or that some
interpretations seem better than others, we may ultimately think along
with the scholar Umberto Eco who says that “if there is something to be
interpreted, the interpretation must speak of something which must be
found somewhere, and in some way respected”.
Looking at the interactions of “readers, writers and texts”, we may
also see that there is so much more that bears on the meaning of a
given text, offers insight into a text, or suggests how a text might be
significant or interesting to more than just an individual reader but is
also important across “time and space”. As we begin to broaden our
n investigation we could go back to “historical” literary criticism that
Studying Language and Literature
Media studies
Media studies is another area that will influence your study of
texts. Media studies, by definition, concerns itself with the study of
communication through a variety of media so is concerned with the
ways in which language is communicated whether in the medium of
print, through a telephone or on the screen. Media studies often deals
with mass communication and the ways in which communication
changes when transmitted through a device. Media studies is also
concerned, then, with “the media” itself and both the meaning
and effect of texts in popular culture ranging from music videos to
fake news.
A big part of media studies has come out of developments in literary
studies in the 1960s in the form of a new focus, semiotics. Semiotics
can be defined as a science of signs, focusing in particular on how
signs work as an emerging construction from a complex relationship
between sender and receiver. While literature clearly focuses on
signs in language, media studies expands its net to include multiple
sign systems found in popular and mass culture. This might include
obvious contributor fields such as film, music, television, video
games and graffiti art but may also attend to less obvious fields such
as traffic signage, fashion, furniture or toy design, job applications
and interviews, and so on. Media studies may include considerations
of the use of language but obviously adds consideration of
additional grammars (sets of rules) focusing on, for example,
design, colour, setting, movement, sound and taste (perhaps all
of the physical senses). Regardless of which grammar system is
emphasized, media studies looks to focus on signs and codes in
multiple contexts to understand how meanings are generated, an
attention that has obvious overlaps with several contemporary
approaches to literature.
Digital humanities
Digital humanities is one of the fields influencing the study of
literature today. The excerpt on the next page shows how digital
tools can bring together many ways of analysing texts and presenting
an interpretation of how they function. In the following study, the
theorists worked on a type of historical literary study that also
looked very closely at the language and structure of texts. Using
tools and mapping software, the critics looked at hundreds of texts
from the 1800s to determine how emotions portrayed in the text were
linked to geographical locations in London. The image taken from
the study represents some of the researchers’ findings and shows
how the new and old of literary studies comes together.
Studying Language and Literature
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In fact, a critical reader would be able to recognize fake news, explain its
strategies and respond in a meaningful way.
A useful list
Following are a set of simple questions to ask yourself in response
to any text/language act to encourage active rather than passive
encounters. Hopefully, these simple steps will support a wide range
of the possible variables.
® Whose views are being represented?
® What or whose interests are being served?
e What are the intentions behind the message?
® What reading or speaking position are you being invited to take
up? Are we being asked to see the situation from a particular
point of view?
e What cultural assumptions are being taken for granted?
e What or who is absent that one might expect to find?
This set of diagrams suggests some very practical ways of moving from
your first reading of a text to a more formal analysis (which might result,
for example, in an essay, a commentary or a presentation).
Studying Language and Literature
we ask “Why do we study these books, why not just read them?” you will
have a variety of responses and you might even have a more difficult time
answering the question. It is useful to remember that one of the aims of this
course is to “foster a lifelong interest in and enjoyment of language and
literature”. This may seem like a strange or gratuitous or even somewhat
disingenuous goal. But it is not. And the enjoyment of language and
literature should not be far removed, if at all, from the other skills of the
course. In fact, maybe those other skills, like critical thinking, are best
developed through enjoyment. Perhaps “enjoyment and engagement” is
the best way to go on to show “knowledge and understanding” or build
“interpretation” in relation to later assessment criteria.
The literary critic Rita Felski, who we will mention later in this book,
has written about a push to “address the limits of scholarly skepticism”
and this look at the limits of “pure” academic criticism might be
an interesting way to look at varied and interesting inquiry in the
classroom. This move, she says, “calls on us to engage seriously with
ordinary motives for reading—such as the desire for knowledge or
the longing for escape—that are either overlooked or undervalued in
literary scholarship” (Uses of Literature). Comparing everyday reading to
the work we might see in a literary journal, Felski makes the following
observations:
“[Academic] reading constitutes a writing, a public performance
subject to a host of gatekeeping practices and professional norms:
a premium on novelty and deft displays of counter-intuitive
interpretive ingenuity, the obligation to reference key scholars in the
field, rapidly changing critical vocabularies, and the tacit prohibition
of certain stylistic registers. This practice often has little in common
with the commentary a teacher carries out in the classroom, or
with what goes through her mind when she reads a book in an As you progress through this
armchair, at home. Published academic criticism, in other words, course, you will be growing
in your experience with the
is not an especially reliable or comprehensive guide to the ways in
subjectand you will also
which academics read. We are less theoretically pure than we think
be growing as a learnerin
ourselves to be; hard-edged poses of suspicion and skepticism jostle
general. The skills you need
against more mundane yet more variegated responses”. as a learner—thinking skills,
From Uses of Literature by Rita Felski (2008) communication skills, social
skills, self-management skills
Commenting on the different ways in which we read, Felski says that and research skills—are, in
she is trying to show the “shared affective and cognitive parameters” of turn, developed through your
reading for enjoyment and reading from a more academic perspective. engagement with the concerns
Classwork and work in the learner portfolio that comes from your of language and literature.
genuine response to the pleasures and difficulties of any text are valid Obviously, these are the skills
not only in and of themselves but as companions to the kind of work you need to do the work in this
you might be expected to do in more formal academic settings like book and the work in this book
will help you to further develop
the exam room. Felski goes on to extol the virtues of reactions to, and
these skills. Just as a reminder,
stances towards, reading that include recognition, enchantment,
we will highlight each of these
knowledge and shock—reading reactions that we might have at home,
skills once so you see how you
but might shy away from in the classroom. Let us not be afraid to read are always learning to learn.
and respond, and to grow by doing so.
Y
| READERS,
WRITERS AND TEXTS
.A
i ,\‘_ h‘\
!a‘-'
“In the beginning was the word ...
John 1:1
“A word after a word after a word is power!
Margaret Atwood
A well-known literary critic, Terry Eagleton, once pondered the question: “What isn’t
political?” Here, he was asking a question about how language is used. Yes, sometimes
language is overtly aesthetic—as in poetry or literature or song—and yes, sometimes language
is overtly practical—as in timetables for trains. But when we consider language, texts and
works in the context of this course, we really mean the use of language for very specific
purposes (intent) or for very specific effect (impact). We presume, in fact, that language is
intentional or impactful, and the nature of this course is to trace the ways this may be true and,
if so, how it has been accomplished. In this part of the course, you will consider overtly the
way that both creators and consumers actively participate in the construction of knowledge.
This area of exploration introduces you to the nature of language and literature and their
study. Specifically, the investigation in this area involves close attention to the details of texts
of a variety of types, literary forms and genres, so that you learn about the choices made by
creators and the ways in which meaning is communicated through, for example, words, image
and sound. In your course, you will also focus on your own role as a reader in generating
meaning, and you will learn to negotiate your own understanding of a text with the ideas
of others in the classroom. Our goal in this first section of the book is to present works and
activities that will help you understand the creativity of language, the relationship between
language and thought, and the aesthetic nature of literature. Texts are powerful means to
express individual thoughts and feelings, and your own thoughts and feelings and your own
experience with texts are an essential part of communication.
The works in this section should also allow you to become familiar with the literary, stylistic
and rhetorical features of all texts. The nature of the book is to let you experience texts and
to learn features on a “need to know” and a “want to know” basis. In other words, this
section gives you the opportunity to read a variety of complex texts and ask questions about
the details of their operation. The aim is not simply to find or list the features of texts but
to recognize the complex elements that affect meaning and to see that texts—indeed, all
communicative acts—are constructed. Our questions throughout the section will allow you to
respond to texts in ways that linguistic and literary professionals might and to engage with the
same concerns. In your responses and your learner portfolio you can be a producer yourself,
completing all kinds of writing: creative, academic, personal, expository or whatever you think
you want to put on the page to record and respond.
These are the guiding conceptual questions that underpin the study in “Readers, writers and
texts”.
Why and how do we study language and literature?
=B
How does language use vary among text types and among literary forms?
h
Communication models
In the late 1940s information theorists Claude Elwood Shannon
and Warren Weaver described what has come to the known as the
Shannon-Weaver model of communication. This basic description of COMMUNICATION
language transmission often serves as a starting point for studying
the various stages of sending and receiving a message. The actual
writings of Shannon and Weaver are quite complex and delve into
detailed issues of encoding/decoding and the nature of noise, or
those elements like poor satellite reception that affect the quality
of the reception of information. The usefulness of the model is also
complicated by current developments in technology that make the
roles of participants and various technologies less clear. Here is a
rough drawing of the model.
Shannon—-Weaver model
Receiver
Feedback
Control Studies ~ Content Analysis ~ Media Analysis ~ Audience Analysis Effect research
--->
Message interrupted
Noise is interesting in that it serves as a nice metaphor for the
complexity of communication. Thinking about all of the steps in the
basic communication model, and considering the addition of noise,
at which points along the continuum can a message deviate from
its original intention as thought? Does an institutionalized mass
communication apparatus (such as broadcast television) help to
clarify or confuse messages?
® Reconsider the image at the start of this section: Is there
“noise” in this image, or between you and the image? Are
certain elements of the image itself or of your experience
unnecessary?
* How do we know what is essential and what is noise in a
newspaper? On a website? In a work of art?
/-
1.1 Thoughts and Feelings H -
A literary perspective B0
We could easily call literary works a special form of communication
or at least a distinct use of language. Like any work of art, we may
find it hard to talk about “purpose” or even “audience” in relation
to literature. Even if the only, or most general, purpose of literature
is to entertain, there is still communication. The short story “Faces”
by Aimee Bender does more than serve here as an example of the
communication of thoughts and feelings. In the passage below a
young boy is taken to the doctor by his concerned mother because,
strangely, he doesn’t seem to be able to name his friends ... or
recognize their faces. Read this excerpt and consider what is
interesting. Consider the questions that follow.
The doctor wrote something on her clipboard and returned to the drawer to take out
another picture, this one of a family. I wasn’t sure why she had all these group pictures in
her drawer, but maybe she saw people like me all the time.
“How about them?” she asked.
5 “Yes?”
“What can you tell me about them?”
“They’re all black,” I said. “I can see that.”
“Can you pick out the grandfather?”
I looked for a while. No one had white hair. “No.”
10 “Can you pick out the baby?”
Ilooked for a while again and finally I found a baby stroller, off in the corner.
“There,” I said. “A baby.”
“Can you find the young man?”
I stared at it, but I couldn’t find the young man any more than I could tell who was the
15 grandfather. And just because someone was old didn’t mean he was a grandfather anyway.
“No,” I said. “And it’s not because I'm racist.”
She brought out a similar photo of a family of white people. All I got was the shape of the
group made by their heights and the positions of arms and feet.
“This one is sitting,” I said, pointing.
20 The doctor looked at my mother now. They exchanged a meaningful look.
“What?” I said. “Do I have brain damage? What? Who cares who’s who? I enjoy the general.
What'’s so wrong with that? Why is this important? If I meet the person and talk to them, I'll
know who they are then.”
My mother was silent.
25 The doctor was silent.
“Why did you say that?” asked the doctor, after a minute.
“What do you mean?”
“Why did you just say all that?”
“Because I hate snap judgements,” I said.
30 The doctor folded her arms.
“But how do you know?” she asked.
“How do I know what?”
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
Sie ritten weiter und trafen einen anderen Christen. „Woran
arbeitest du?“ fragte der Mann. Übel gelaunt erwiderte der Christ:
„Hier will ich Chuchio[116] säen, damit niemand passieren kann.“
Als sie nahe dem Hause des Chiquéritunpa waren, sagte dessen
Tochter zu ihrem Mann: „Erst werde ich mit dem Knaben absteigen,
der schon gehen kann. Hierauf sollst du absteigen, und wenn du
dich auf die Bank setzt, sollst du dich nicht wundern, wenn sie sich
bewegt. Bewegt sich das Haus, sollst du dich nicht wundern. Du
sollst nicht meine Mutter grüßen und auch nicht meinen Bruder. Nur
den Vater sollst du grüßen.“
Als sie ankamen, stieg sie zuerst ab und trat ein. Ihr folgte der
Knabe, der schon gehen konnte. Zuletzt stieg der Mann vom Pferde.
Als er vom Pferde stieg, verwandelte es sich in einen Haufen
Knochen. Er ging hinein und setzte sich auf einen Schemel. Derselbe
bewegte sich, denn er war eine große Schlange. Er tat, als merke er
nichts. Auch das Haus bewegte sich, er tat aber, als kümmere er sich
nicht darum. Zuerst kam seine Schwiegermutter und grüßte ihn, er
beantwortete aber den Gruß nicht. Darauf kam sein Schwager und
grüßte, aber er beantwortete auch dessen Gruß nicht. Der Schwager
schlug ihm vor, sie sollten spielen, er antwortete ihm aber nicht.
„Heute Nacht sollst du nicht bei mir schlafen. Ich schlafe in einer
Hängematte, mein Sohn in einer und du in einer dritten,“ sagte
Chiquéritunpas Schwester zu ihrem Mann. „Morgen sollst du mit
meinem Bruder spielen“, sagte sie. Sie legten sich nun schlafen.
Am folgenden Tage rief der Hahn früh: „Jesus Christus, Jesus
Christus!“ Als der erste Christ, der ihnen begegnet war, nach seinem
Acker kam, fand er ihn voll von Mais und Mandioka und außerdem
eine Hütte und ein hübsches Weib. Der zweite Christ, der
geantwortet hatte, er wolle Hügel mit dornigen Büschen säen, fand
seinen Acker in solche verwandelt. Der dritte Christ fand seine
Umzäunung für die Tiere schon fertig und voll von schönem Vieh.
Derjenige, der geantwortet hatte, er wolle Steine säen, fand seinen
Acker voller Steine. Derjenige, der getischlert hatte, um sich ein
Haus zu bauen, fand es schon fertig und voller Kleider. Derjenige,
der übellaunig geantwortet hatte, er wolle Chuchio säen, fand den
Acker in dichtes Gestrüpp verwandelt, durch das niemand konnte.
Chiquéritunpas Sohn schlug
seinem Schwager ein Spiel vor.
„Was für ein Spiel?“ sagte er.
„Wir wollen das Haus
wegrücken“, sagte
Chiquéritunpas Sohn und
versetzte es mit einem Arm. Mit
seiner ganzen Stärke rückte der
Mann das Haus weg. „Nun wollen
Abb. 129. Tongefäß. Chiriguano.
Caipipendi. ⅕. wir das Pferd wieder lebendig
machen“, sagte Chiquéritunpas
Sohn und hob die Beine des
Pferdes, auf welchem der Mann gekommen war, hoch. Es
verwandelte sich in ein sehr fettes Pferd mit feuersprühendem Mund.
Auch dies machte der Mann nach.
Am folgenden Tag schlug der Mann seinem Schwager,
Chiquéritunpas Sohn, ein Spiel vor. „Was wollen wir spielen?“ sagte
er. „Wir wollen die Sonne herunternehmen“, sagte der Mann. Mit
einer langen Rute aus Chuchio nahm er die Sonne herunter. Es
wurde nun so warm, daß sowohl Chiquéritunpa wie sein Sohn
davonliefen. Am folgenden Tag wurde der Mann Häuptling.
Derjenige, der von den Mädchen Prügel bekommen hatte, denen
er ihre Kleider geraubt hatte, blieb bei der Schwester
Chiquéritunpas. Eines Tages sagte sie zu ihm, er solle nach einem
großen See gehen. Dort solle er tauchen und eine Handvoll Sand
heraufholen. Diesen Sand solle er in das Haus legen. Er ging nun
zum See, tauchte und holte eine Handvoll Sand herauf, den er ins
Haus legte. Am folgenden Tage sagte die Schwester von
Chiquéritunpa: „Sieh nun nach, was aus dem Sande geworden ist!“
An Stelle des Sandes fand er ein hübsches Weib. „Dies soll deine
Frau sein“, sagte Chiquéritunpas Schwester.
Am Tage pflegte er mit ihr am See zu baden. Dort spielte er mit
ihr, liebkoste sie und im Bade bespritzten sie sich mit Wasser.
„Bade nicht mit ihr so viel am See. Denke daran, daß sie nur aus
Sand gemacht ist“, sagte Chiquéritunpas Schwester.
Er hörte nicht auf sie, sondern spielte und koste mit ihr unten am
Seeufer. Eines Tages, als er mit ihr spielte, wurde sie immer
schmaler, bis sie sich zuletzt in einen Haufen Sand verwandelte.
Weinend ging der Mann zur Schwester Chiquéritunpas. Hayma
opama! (Und mehr war es nicht).
Diese Sage ist, wie wir sehen, nicht frei von europäischen
Elementen. In ihren Hauptzügen ist sie jedoch rein indianisch. Keine
der von mir hier mitgeteilten Sagen scheint mir so phantasiereich,
wie diese.
„Choihuihuis“ Frauenraub.
W i e A g u a r a t u n p a Ta t u t u n p a t ö t e t e u n d d a n n s e l b s t
getötet wurde.
Abb. 130. Silberne Nadel zur Befestigung des Tiru. Die Form indianisch, die
Ornamente spanisch. Chiriguano. Parapiti. ⅓.
D e r F u c h s u n d d e r J a g u a r.
Der Fuchs traf den Jaguar in seinem Acker. Dieser war mit Säen
beschäftigt.
„Willst du, daß ich dir helfen soll, Onkel?“ sagte der Fuchs.
„Ja, Neffe. Ich will mir die Grabestöcke holen“, sagte der Jaguar.
„Das will ich“, sagte der Fuchs und ging zur Hütte des Jaguars.
Als er dorthin gekommen war, sagte er zur Frau des Jaguars: „Ich
schäme mich, dir mein Anliegen zu sagen.“
„Wieso?“ sagte sie.
„Ja,“ sagte der Fuchs, „der Jaguar hat mich hierher geschickt,
damit ich bei dir und deinen beiden Töchtern schlafe.“ Das glaubte
die Frau des Jaguars nicht.
„Ja, es ist wahr,“ sagte der Fuchs. „Du sollst hören, was er sagt,“
und nun rief er: „Soll ich sie alle nehmen?“
„Alle“, rief der Jaguar als Antwort.
Der Fuchs schlief nun zuerst bei der Frau des Jaguars und dann
bei der ältesten Tochter und dann bei der jüngeren. Sie war noch
Jungfer, und er tat ihr weh.[124] Darauf ging der Fuchs weg. Er lief
im Grase, damit die Spuren nicht sichtbar wären. Er sprang auf einen
langen Holzstamm. Zuletzt kam er an einen Pfuhl. Er tauchte unter
und kam an der anderen Seite wieder herauf. Er lief, was er laufen
konnte, bis er zu einem Baum mit dornigem Stamm kam. Er kroch
an demselben hinauf und legte sich schlafen. „Hier will ich liegen
und von der Frau und den Töchtern des Jaguars träumen, bei denen
ich geschlafen habe“, sagte der Fuchs. Er legte sich hin und schlief
ein.
Als der Jaguar merkte, daß der Fuchs nicht mit den Grabehölzern
kam, dachte er: „Ich will doch nachsehen, was aus dem Fuchs
geworden ist. Der Fuchs ist doch ein Schwindler.“
Als der Jaguar nach seinem Hause kam, sagte seine Frau zu ihm:
„Wie kannst du so grausam sein und den Fuchs herschicken, daß er
bei uns schlafe?“
Ergrimmt machte sich der Jaguar auf den Weg, um den Fuchs zu
suchen. Er folgte seinen Spuren und kam zu dem Pfuhl, wo die
Spuren des Fuchses ein Ende nahmen. Überall suchte er ihn.
Schließlich verstand er, daß der Fuchs in den Pfuhl getaucht war. Der
Jaguar tauchte nun auch nieder und fand die Spuren des Fuchses
auf der anderen Seite. Er folgte ihnen und kam zu dem Baume.
Überall um den Baum suchte er die Fortsetzung der Spuren, fand sie
aber nicht. Da sah er auf und sah den Fuchs, der schlief. Er kletterte
hinauf, brach vorsichtig einen Zweig ab und kitzelte den Fuchs in den
Nasenlöchern. Dieser nieste, wischte sich die Nase und sagte:
„Können die Moskitos mich nicht in Ruhe lassen, wo ich gerade von
der Frau und den Töchtern des Jaguars träume, bei denen ich
geschlafen habe!“
Abb. 131. Brustschmuck aus
Silber. Chiriguano. Caipipendi.
Wird von Männern getragen.
Nun kitzelte ihn der Jaguar etwas kräftiger, und der Fuchs
erwachte. Der Jaguar machte sich bereit, ihn zu packen.
Der Fuchs kroch zusammen, und da der Jaguar zögerte, ihn zu
fassen, sprang er mit einem Satz zur Erde und begann zu laufen,
alles was er laufen konnte. Der Jaguar verfolgte ihn. Schließlich
ermattete der Fuchs jedoch, und der Jaguar fing ihn und
verschluckte ihn. Der Fuchs wurde im Magen des Jaguars wieder
lebendig. Dieser brach ihn aus. Der Jaguar fraß den Fuchs wieder
auf, dieser wurde aber wieder in seinem Magen lebendig und wieder
ausgeworfen. Wiederum fraß der Jaguar den Fuchs auf, der wieder
lebendig wurde usw.
Diese Sage hat eine weite Verbreitung. In etwas verschiedener
Form habe ich sie in Carmen in Mojos erzählen hören.
A l s d i e Z e c k e , Ya t é u , m i t d e m S t r a u ß , Y á n d u , u m
d i e W e t t e l i e f.
[92] Tocay ist eine Hütte, in welcher der Jäger verborgen liegt,
um von dort Vögel mit Schlinge oder Pfeil zu fangen.
[93] Der Große Geist (s. S. 257).
[94] Feuerzeug aus Holzstäbchen.
[95] Ein anderer Chané erzählte mir, daß der Frosch das Feuer
vom schwarzen Geier gestohlen habe.
[96] Domenico del Campana: l. c. S. 22.
[97] Ehrenreich: l. c. S. 30–31.
[98] Im Thurn: Among the Indians of Guyana. London 1883, l. c.
S. 375.
[99] Vgl. Domenico del Campana: l. c. S. 39.
[100] Ava = Chiriguano.
[101] Dies ist sicher ein moderner Zusatz zur Sage. Dasselbe
finden wir in einer hier wiedergegebenen Matacosage.
[102] Lagostomus.
[103] Wahrscheinlich eine Carambycide.
[104] Vgl. S. 51.
[105] Kürbis einer wohlschmeckenden Art.
[106] Ara = Himmelsgewölbe, Weltraum.
[107] Gemildert.
[108] Huirapucu ist ein weiches Holz (Salix Humboldtiana).
[109] „Urundey“ ist rotes Quebracho oder nahestehend.
[110] Dyori wird immer als der Unersättliche geschildert. Er
entspricht dem Móconomóco in den Sagen von Mojos.
[111] Eine große Wildkatze.
[112] Puma (Felix concolor).
[113] Gemildert.
[114] d’Orbigny. Voyage dans l’Amérique Méridionale. T. 3, I. Paris
1834, S. 212.
[115] = Mistol.
[116] Siehe S. 166.
[117] Inómus Geschichte ist im Vorhergehenden erzählt.
[118] Ein Vogel.
[119] Wahrscheinlich Flamingo.
[120] Rio Pilcomayo.
[121] S. 139 wird der bedeutende Handel mit getrockneten
Fischen, der zwischen den Stämmen betrieben wird, geschildert.
[122] Hier wird nicht gesagt, welcher Añatunpa gemeint ist.
[123] Rhamphastus.
[124] Gemildert.
[125] Vgl. Fredr. Hartt: Tortoise Myths. Rio de Janeiro 1875.
[126] Ehrenreich: l. c.
Achtzehntes Kapitel.
Die Chiriguanos und Chanés sind somit auf dem besten Wege, in
den alles andere als glücklichen Kampf zwischen Arbeitgeber und
Arbeitnehmer hineinzugeraten.
Die bolivianische Regierung sollte dafür sorgen, daß die Felder
der Indianer ins Grundbuch eingetragen werden, damit die Weißen
sich nicht ihrer bemächtigen können. Die Regierung müßte auch die
Bedingung aufstellen, daß kein Indianer sein Land verkaufen darf.
Auf diese Weise würde die Regierung den Indianern das Besitzrecht
am Lande, aber nicht das Eigentumsrecht an demselben zusichern.
Die Unsicherheit und die gedrückten Lohnverhältnisse, unter
denen diese Indianer leben, tragen natürlich zur Auswanderung nach
Argentinien und vor allem dazu bei, daß viele Indianer das Land
nicht nur als Saisonarbeiter, sondern für immer verlassen.
Will die bolivianische Regierung etwas für die Indianer tun, so
muß sie in erster Reihe ein Mittel gegen das schlimmste Übel, und
zwar den Alkoholismus, zu finden suchen. Zwischen Maisbier- und
Branntweintrinken ist nämlich ein ungeheurer Unterschied.
Ein Indianer, der sich in einheimischen Getränken betrunken hat,
ist niemals so auf Streit und Schlägerei erpicht, wie derjenige, der
von der Höllensuppe der Weißen gekostet hat. Außer daß der
Branntwein die Moral und Gesundheit der Indianer schädigt, ruiniert
er sie vollständig. Ich habe mit meinen eigenen Augen gesehen, wie
ein Indianer für ein Fäßchen Branntwein seine beste Kuh hergeben
kann.
Die Brennerei für den eigenen Bedarf ist in Bolivia noch gestattet.
Sie müßte verboten werden, ebenso, daß jeder an beliebiger Stelle
Alkohol verkaufen darf.
Ganz unvernünftig ist das bolivianische Militärgesetz, das die
Indianer zwingt, Militärdienst zu verrichten. Dasselbe kommt zwar
sehr selten zur Anwendung, wenn es aber geschieht, und wenn die
Behörde einen Jüngling zum Militärdienst abholt, ist er selbst und
alle anderen Indianer in der Gegend mit ihm außer sich vor Schreck.
Man kann nicht verlangen, daß die Indianer an der Verteidigung des
Vaterlandes teilnehmen, bevor sie dieselben Rechte wie andere
Bürger haben und wissen, welches ihr Vaterland ist.
Es ist unrecht, zu verlangen, daß sie helfen sollen, Bolivia zu
verteidigen, die Weißen zu verteidigen, die ihnen, ihren Begriffen
nach, ihr Land gestohlen haben. Auch die Chiriguanos und Chanés
lieben ihr Land, aber dieses Vaterland sind nur die Täler und Wälder,
in denen ihre Väter gerodet und ihre Mütter Tongefäße für die Feste
gemalt haben.
Während der Entwicklungsperiode, die Bolivia jetzt durchmacht,
ist es wichtig, sich die indianische Arbeitskraft auch hier im Lande
der Chané- und Chiriguanoindianer zunutze zu machen.
Trotz ihrer eigenartigen Kultur setze ich keine großen Hoffnungen
auf die Zukunft der Chiriguano- und Chanéindianer. Sie werden
indessen als ein wichtiges Element der Mestizenrasse einverleibt
werden, die in Zukunft allein über die Trockenwälder des
Parapititales und die letzten Ausläufer der Anden nach El Gran Chaco
herrschen wird.
Allmählich vergessen sie wohl ihre Sagen von Tatutunpa und
Aguaratunpa und den anderen Göttern.
Die Nachkommen Maringays, Vocapoys und der anderen werden
dann vielleicht studieren, was über ihre Vorväter in diesem Buche
geschrieben ist, das in einem Lande gedruckt ist, wo der Mais nicht
reift und die Palmen nur unter Glas wachsen. Sie werden vielleicht
nach Norden fliegen, um die Schmucksachen zu sehen, mit denen
die Alten bekleidet waren, und die schöngemalten Trinkgefäße, in
welchen ihre Stammütter das Maisbier zu den Festen gereicht
haben.
Die Tapieteindianer.
Zu diesen Indianern.
Hier habe ich zwei verschiedene indianische Kulturen geschildert,
teils eine, die wir bei den noch ursprünglichen Chorotis und
Ashluslays kennen gelernt haben, teils eine, die wir am Fuße der
Anden bei den halbzivilisierten Chanés und Chiriguanos angetroffen
haben. Die Indianer, über die ich hier berichten will, sind dadurch
bemerkenswert, daß sie die materielle Kultur der ersteren und die
Sprache der letzteren (Guarani) haben.
Ende Juli 1908 verweilte ich über eine Woche bei dem
Tapietehäuptling Yaré am Rio Pilcomayo, und im August desselben
Jahres besuchte ich ihre wilden, unzuverlässigen Stammfreunde am
Rio Parapiti, welche dort Yanayguas genannt werden.
Dieser letztere Besuch war recht abenteuerlich.
Mit Isiporenda am Rio Parapiti als Ausgangspunkt, hatte ich mit
einem Chiriguanoindianer als Dolmetscher ein kleines Yanayguadorf
besucht, aus dem die Indianer zu kommen pflegten, um bei den
Chanés und manchmal auch bei den Weißen Arbeit zu suchen. Dort
hörte ich von einem großen Yanayguadorf, das verborgen im Walde
liegen sollte. Ein Yanaygua wurde zu diesen Indianern mit einer
Einladung geschickt, mich zu besuchen. Am folgenden Tage kam er
mit der Antwort. Sie lautete: „Haben die weißen Männer uns etwas
zu sagen, so mögen sie zu uns kommen.“ Sie selbst wollten nicht zu
dem weißen Mann kommen, der sie möglicherweise fangen und
nach den Gummigegenden verkaufen wollte.
Ich entschloß mich sofort für die Visite. Meine schwedischen
Begleiter waren natürlich sofort zu dem Abenteuer bereit, und der
Dolmetscher, der die Segnungen der Zivilisation durch die Mission
kennen gelernt hatte, wurde durch eine Geldsumme mutig gemacht.
Mit einem Yanaygua als Wegweiser machten wir uns auf. Über die
blendend weißen Sandfelder des ausgetrockneten Rio Parapiti und
auf Indianerpfaden reitend, die uns über große Dünen und durch
trockene Gebüsche und Wälder führten, kamen wir nach dem Dorf.
Es lag auf einem Hügel in einem Kesseltal. Der Platz war gut
gewählt, da das Dorf schwerlich von den Feinden der
Yanayguaindianer, den Tsirakuaindianern, überfallen werden konnte,
ohne daß die Einwohner Zeit hatten, sich auf die Verteidigung
vorzubereiten. Als wir uns dem Dorfe näherten, tauchten überall
bewaffnete Leute, wie aus dem Boden hervorgezaubert, auf. Seine
Gäste mit Waffen in der Hand empfangen, hielt ich für etwas
unhöflich, ich entschuldige aber das Mißtrauen dieser Indianer gegen
die Weißen. Vor einigen Jahren waren andere Weiße, wie ich, mit
Geschenken gekommen und hatten mehrere Männer in einen
Hinterhalt gelockt. Diese wurden gebunden nach Santa Cruz de la
Sierra gebracht, um nach den Gummigegenden verkauft zu werden,
aber schließlich durch die Vermittlung einiger humaner Leute
freigelassen.
Ohne auf die Waffen zu blicken und tuend, als würden wir auf die
liebenswürdigste Weise empfangen, ritten wir mitten in das Dorf
hinein und fragten nach dem Häuptling. Ein Herr in mittleren Jahren,
mit einem Schurkengesicht und einem Streitkolben in der Hand, kam
zu uns hin und erhielt sofort ein Waldmesser zum Geschenk. Andere
Geschenke wurden ausgeteilt, und das Ganze schien sich auf die
freundschaftlichste Weise zu entwickeln. Man bot uns Holzklötze zum
Sitzen an, und ich packte bunte Halstücher, Messer, rote und grüne
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