Experience Seamless Full Ebook Downloads for Every Genre at textbookfull.

com

A History of Modern Europe Fourth Edition Merriman

https://textbookfull.com/product/a-history-of-modern-europe-
fourth-edition-merriman/

OR CLICK BUTTON

DOWNLOAD NOW

Explore and download more ebook at https://textbookfull.com

 Recommended digital products (PDF, EPUB, MOBI) that
you can download immediately if you are interested.

A People s History of Modern Europe 1st Edition William A.

Pelz

https://textbookfull.com/product/a-people-s-history-of-modern-
europe-1st-edition-william-a-pelz/

textboxfull.com

Europe in the Modern World: A New Narrative History Since

1500 1st Edition Edward Berenson

https://textbookfull.com/product/europe-in-the-modern-world-a-new-
narrative-history-since-1500-1st-edition-edward-berenson/

textboxfull.com

A History of Modern Oman Jeremy Jones

https://textbookfull.com/product/a-history-of-modern-oman-jeremy-
jones/

textboxfull.com

The Russian Empire, 1450-1801 (Oxford History of Early

Modern Europe) 1st Edition Nancy Shields Kollmann

https://textbookfull.com/product/the-russian-empire-1450-1801-oxford-
history-of-early-modern-europe-1st-edition-nancy-shields-kollmann/

textboxfull.com
Cambridge International AS Level History Modern Europe
1750 1921 Coursebook 2nd Edition Graham Goodlad

https://textbookfull.com/product/cambridge-international-as-level-
history-modern-europe-1750-1921-coursebook-2nd-edition-graham-goodlad/

textboxfull.com

The Great Cauldron A History of Southeastern Europe Marie-

Janine Calic

https://textbookfull.com/product/the-great-cauldron-a-history-of-
southeastern-europe-marie-janine-calic/

textboxfull.com

A Political History of Big Science: The Other Europe

Katharina C. Cramer

https://textbookfull.com/product/a-political-history-of-big-science-
the-other-europe-katharina-c-cramer/

textboxfull.com

A history of modern political thought in East Central

Europe. Vol. 1, Negotiating modernity in the ’Long
Nineteenth Century’ First Published In Paperback. Edition
Baár
https://textbookfull.com/product/a-history-of-modern-political-
thought-in-east-central-europe-vol-1-negotiating-modernity-in-the-
long-nineteenth-century-first-published-in-paperback-edition-baar/
textboxfull.com

A history of modern political thought : the question of

interpretation 1st Edition Browning

https://textbookfull.com/product/a-history-of-modern-political-
thought-the-question-of-interpretation-1st-edition-browning/

textboxfull.com
A HISTORY OF

MODERN EUROPE
A HISTORY OF

MODERN
EUROPE

VOLUME 2: FROM THE FRENCH REVOLUTION TO THE

PRESENT

FOURTH

JOHN MERRIMAN

EDITION

Yale University

W. W. NORTON & COMPANY

NEW YORK • LONDON

W. W. NORTON & COMPANY has been independent since its

founding in 1923, when William Warder Norton and Mary D. Herter
Norton first published lectures delivered at the People’s Institute, the
adult education division of New York City’s Cooper Union. The firm
soon expanded its program beyond the Institute, publishing books
by celebrated academics from America and abroad. By midcentury,
the two major pillars of Norton’s publishing program—trade books
and college texts—

were firmly established. In the 1950s, the Norton family transferred

control of the company to its employees, and today—with a staff of
four hundred and a comparable number of trade, college, and
professional titles published each year—W. W. Norton & Company
stands as the largest and oldest publishing house owned wholly by
its employees.

Copyright © 2019, 2010, 2004, 1996 by John Merriman

All rights reserved

Printed in Canada

Editor: Justin Cahill

Assistant Editor: Rachel Taylor

Project Editor: Caitlin Moran

Production Manager: Stephen Sajdak

Photo Editor: Agnieszka Czapski

Designer: Jillian Burr

Director of College Permissions: Megan Schindel

Permissions Clearer: Patricia Wong

Media Editor: Carson Russell

Editorial Assistant, Emedia: Alexandra Malakhoff

Composition: Graphic World

Manufacturing: Transcontinental

Cartography: Mapping Specialists

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Names: Merriman, John M., author.

Title: A history of modern Europe / John Merriman, Yale University.

Description: Fourth edition. | New York : W.W. Norton & Company,

2019. |

Includes index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2018057737 | ISBN 9780393667363 (pbk.)
Subjects: LCSH: Europe—History—1492-Classification: LCC D228
.M485 2019 | DDC 940.2—dc23 LC record available at

https://lccn.loc.gov/2018057737

ISBN: 978-0-393-66738-7 (Vol. 2 pbk.)

W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., 500 Fifth Avenue, New York, NY

10110

wwnorton.com

W. W. Norton & Company Ltd., 15 Carlisle Street, London W1D 3BS

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 20 19 18 17 16 15

Contents

List of Maps xiv

Preface xvii

Acknowledgments xxiii

PART FOUR Revolutionary Europe,

1789–1850

12 The French Revolution 451

The Old Regime in Crisis 452 Long-Term Causes of the French

Revolution • The Financial Crisis

The Revolution Begins 457 Convoking the Estates-General •

Storming of the Bastille • The Great Fear and the Night of August 4
Consolidating the Revolution 464 The Declaration of the
Rights of Man and Citizen • “The Baker, the Baker’s Wife, and the
Baker’s Little Boy” •

Reforming the Church and Clergy • The Reforms of 1791 •

Resistance and Revolution • The Flight to Varennes

War and the Second Revolution 474 Reactions to the French

Revolution in Europe • A Second Revolution • Counter-Revolution •
The Terror

The Final Stages of the Revolution 487 Thermidor • The

Directory: Politics and Society • Instability • The Eighteenth Brumaire

Perspectives on the French Revolution 492 European

Responses to the Revolution

13 Napoleon and Europe 496

Napoleon’s Rise to Power 497 The Young Bonaparte •

Napoleon and the Revolution

Consolidation of Power 501 Establishment of the Consulate •

The Concordat • Napoleon’s Leadership • Wars of Conquest and

Empire •

The Corsican Warrior

vi

CONTENTS

The Foundations of the French Empire 512 Institutional

Foundations: Imperial Centralization • Legal Foundations: The
Napoleonic Code • Social Foundations: The Imperial Hierarchy
The Tide Turns against Napoleon 515 The Continental System
•

The Peninsular War • Stirrings of Nationalism in Napoleonic Europe •

Military Reforms in Prussia and Austria • The Empire’s Decline and

the Russian Invasion • The Defeat of Napoleon

Monarchical Restoration and Napoleon’s Return 525

The Bourbon Restoration • The 100 Days

Napoleon’s Legacy 527

14 The Industrial Revolution 532

Preconditions for Transformation 533 Demographic Explosion

•

The Expanding Agricultural Base • Trains and Steamboats

A Variety of National Industrial Experiences 539 In the

Vanguard: Britain’s Era of Mechanization • Industrialization in France
•

Industrialization in the German States • Sparse Industrialization in

Southern and Eastern Europe

The Middle Classes 547 Diversity of the Middle Classes •

The Entrepreneurial Ideal and Social Mobility • Rising Professions

Middle-Class Culture 551 Marriage and Family • Separate

Spheres and the Cult of Domesticity • A Culture of Comfort •

Education • Religion

The Ambiguities of Liberalism: Voluntarism versus State

Intervention 558

Impact of the Industrial Revolution 560 Continuities on the

Land •

Urbanization • On the Move

Industrial Work and Workers 566 Women and Families in the

Industrial Age • Child Labor • The Laboring Poor • Class
Consciousness •

Workers’ Associations and Social Protest

The Origins of European Socialism 574 Utopian Socialists •

Practical Socialists • Karl Marx and the Origins of “Scientific

Socialism”

Conclusion 579

15 Liberal Challenges to Restoration Europe 582

The Post-Napoleonic Settlement 584 The Treaty of Paris •

Diplomatic Maneuvering at the Congress of Vienna • The Congress

System •

The Concert of Europe

Restoration Europe 589 The Restoration of Monarchs, Nobles,

and Clergy • Conservative Ideology

CONTENTS

vii

Liberalism 592 Liberals and Politics • Laissez-Faire

Romanticism 594 Conservative Origins • Romantic Literature and
Painting • Romantic Music

Stirrings of Revolt 598 Liberal Revolts in Spain, Portugal, and

Italy •

Stirrings in Germany • Cracks in the Congress of Europe: The Greek

Revolt •

The Decembrist Revolt in Russia • France: The Bourbon Restoration

and the Revolution of 1830

Other Liberal Assaults on the Old Order 610 Independence

for Belgium • Liberal Successes in Switzerland

Nationalist Dreams 612 Revolt in Poland • Uprisings in Italy and

Spain • German Nationalism in Central Europe

Crisis and Compromise in Great Britain 617 Religious and

Electoral Reform • The Reform Bill of 1832 • Chartism and the
Repeal of the Corn Laws

Conclusion 623

16 The Revolutions of 1848 626

Revolutionary Mobilization 627 The February Revolution in

France •

Revolution in the German States • Revolution in the Habsburg Lands

•

Revolution in the Italian States

The Elusive Search for Revolutionary Consensus 639 Crisis

in France • The Frankfurt Parliament
Counter-Revolution 644 Counter-Revolution in Habsburg
Central Europe • Prussian-Austrian Rivalry • The Counter-Revolution
in the Italian States • The Agony of the French Second Republic

The Legacy of 1848 652

PART FIVE The Age of Mass Politics

17 The Era of National Unification 661

The Political Unification of Italy 662 Leadership for Italian

Unification •

Alliances and Warfare to Further Italian Unification • Garibaldi and

the Liberation of Southern Italy • Italy Unified • Limits to Unification
•

Italian Politics • The Rise of Italian Nationalism

The Unification of Germany 672 William I, Bismarck, and the

Resolution of the Constitutional Crisis • Alliances and Warfare to
Establish Prussian Leadership • The North German Confederation •
The Franco-Prussian War and German Unification • Nationalist
versus Internationalist Movements • William II and German
Nationalism

viii

CONTENTS

National Awakenings in the Habsburg Lands 685 Diversity

and Cohesion in the Habsburg Empire • Repression of Nationalism in
the Habsburg Empire • Political Crisis and Foreign Policy Disasters •
Creation of the Dual Monarchy • Ethnic Tensions and Nationalist
Movements in the Dual Monarchy

Conclusion 693
18 Three Powers in the Age of Liberalism:

Parliamentary Britain, Tsarist Russia,

and Republican France 696

The Crimean War 697

Victorian Britain 701 The Victorian Consensus • Victorian

Political Life • The Reform Bill of 1867 • Other Victorian Reforms •
Mass Politics Come to Britain • Irish Home Rule • New Contours in
British Political Life

Tsarist Russia 714 Stirrings of Reform in Russia • The

Emancipation of the Serfs • The Expansion of the Russian Empire •
Nihilists and Populists • Alexander III’s Empire • Unrest, Reform, and
Revolution •

Lenin and the Bolsheviks • The Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905) •

The Revolution of 1905

France: Second Empire and Third Republic 733

The Authoritarian Empire • Economic Growth • The “Liberal Empire”

•

The Franco-Prussian War and the Siege of Paris • The Paris

Commune

Republican France 741 Monarchists and Republicans • The Third

Republic • General Boulanger and Captain Dreyfus • The Radical
Republic

Conclusion 747

19 Rapid Industrialization and Its Challenges,

1870–1914 750

The Second Industrial Revolution 752 New Technology and

Scientific Discoveries • The Electric and Chemical Revolutions •
Regional Variations • Travel and Communications • Further Scientific
Discoveries: “A Boundless Future” and Its Uncertainties

Social Change 765 Demographic Boom • Improving Standards of

Living •

Migration and Emigration • The Changing World of Work •

Industrialization and the Working-Class Family • Teeming Cities •
Social Mobility

Cultural Changes: Education and Religion 780 Education •

The Decline of Religious Practice

The Consumer Explosion 785 The New Leisure • Sports in Mass

Society

Conclusion 788

CONTENTS

ix

20 Political and Cultural Responses to a Rapidly

Changing World 792

State Social Reform 793 The Trade Union Movement • Socialists

•

Christian Socialism • Anarchists • Syndicalists • The Quest for

Women’s Rights
Cultural Ferment 807 Realism • Impressionism • Social
Theorists’

Analyses of Industrial Society • Nietzsche’s Embrace of the Irrational

•

Freud and the Study of the Irrational • Avant-Garde Artists and

Writers and the Rapid Pace of Modern Life • The Avant-Garde’s
Break with Rationalism

Conclusion 823

21 The Age of Europe an Imperialism 826

From Colonialism to Imperialism 827 A Colonial Legacy

The “New Imperialism” and the Scramble for Africa 830

British and French Imperial Rivalry • Germany and Italy Become
Imperial Powers •

Standoff in the Sudan: The Fashoda Affair • The British in South

Africa and the Boer War

The European Powers in Asia 842 India, Southeast Asia, and

China •

Japan and China: Contrasting Experiences • The United States in

Asia

Domination of Indigenous Peoples 849 Social Darwinism •

Technological Domination and Indigenous Subversion • Imperial

Economies •

Colonial Administrations

Assessing the Goals of European Imperialism 860 The

“Civilizing Mission” • The Economic Rationale • Imperialism and
Nationalism

Conclusion 866

PART SIX Cataclysm

22 The Great War 873

Entangling Alliances 874 Irreconcilable Hatreds • The Al iance

System •

Germany Risks Being Surrounded • Anglo-German Rivalry • British-

French Rapprochement • The First Moroccan Crisis (1905)

The Europe of Two Armed Camps, 1905–1914: Great Powers

and their Allies 882 The Balkan Tinderbox • Instability in Turkey

• The Bosnian Crisis of 1908 • The Second Moroccan Crisis (1911) •
The Balkan Wars

The Final Crisis 889 Assassination in Sarajevo • The Ultimatum •

The Schlieffen Plan • “A Jolly Little War”

The Outbreak of War 895

CONTENTS

The Changing Nature of War 899 Trench Warfare • War in the

Air and on the Seas • The Home Front in a Time of Total War

The War Rages On 905 The Eastern Front • The War in the
Middle East, Africa, and the Far East • The War in the Colonies and
Colonials in the Conflict in Europe • The Western Front • Futility and
Stalemate • Soldiers and Civilians
The Final Stages of the War 920 The United States Enters the
War • Russia Withdraws from the War • Offensives and Mutinies •
The German Spring Offensive • The Fourteen Points and Peace

The Impact of the War 929

23 Revolutionary Russia and the Soviet Union 934

War and Revolution 935 Russia at War • The February

Revolution •

The Provisional Government and the Petrograd Soviet • The Army •

The Revolution Spreads • Lenin’s Return • The July Days • The
Kornilov Affair

The October Revolution 948 The Peace of Brest-Litovsk

Civil War 952

The Soviet Union 956 Democratic Centralism • The New

Economic Policy

24 The Elusive Search for Stability in the 1920s 964

The End of the War 965 Revolution in Germany and Hungary •

The Treaty of Versailles • Independent Poland • Settlements in
Eastern Europe

National and Ethnic Challenges 978 The National Question

and the Successor States • Colonial and National Questions • Ireland

Economic and Social Instability 987 Social Turmoil • The Left

and the Origins of the Welfare State

Political Instability 993 Germany’s Fragile Weimar Republic •

The Established Democracies: Britain and France

Artists and Intellectuals in the Waste Land 999

25 The Europe of Economic Depression

and Dictatorship 1006

Economies in Crisis 1007 The Great Depression • Gradual

European Economic Revival

The Dynamics of Fascism 1013 Mussolini and Fascism in Italy •

Hitler and the Rise of the Nazis in Germany • Right-Wing

Authoritarian Movements in Central and Eastern Europe • Fascism in
Austria • The Popular Front in France against the Far Right • Fascism
in the Low Countries and Britain

CONTENTS

xi

Hitler’s Third Reich 1032 The Collapse of the Weimar Republic •

The Nazi State • Hitler’s New Reich and the Jews • Hitler’s Foreign
Policy •

The Führer and the Duce • Remilitarization and Rearmament

The Soviet Union under Stalin 1044 Five-Year Plans • Soviet

Culture • “Darkness at Noon”: Stalin’s Purges

The Spanish Civil War 1053 Social and Political Instability • The
Struggle between Loyalists and Nationalists

Conclusion 1058

26 World War II 1062

The Coming of World War II 1063 The Axis • German

Aggression and British and French Appeasement • The Unholy
Alliance
The War in Europe Begins 1071 The German Invasion of
Poland •

The “Phony War” • The War in the Frozen North • The Fall of France
•

The Battle of Britain

A Global War 1077 Organizing Total War • Hitler’s Allies • The

German Invasion of Russia • Japan’s Attack on the United States

Hitler’s Europe 1086 The Nazi “New European Order” • The

“Final Solution” • Collaboration • Resistance • Against Hitler in

Germany • Germany on the Defensive • The War in North Africa •

Hitler’s Russian Disaster

The Tide Turns 1101 The Big Three • The Allied Invasion of Italy
•

Germany’s Balkan Allies • The D-Day Invasion of France

Allied Victory 1108 Victory in Europe • The Defeat of Japan

Conclusion 1113

PART SEVEN Europe in the

Post-War Era

27 Rebuilding Divided Europe 1122

In the Wake of Devastation 1123 The Potsdam Conference •

The United Nations and Cold War Alliances • Confronting Turmoil

and Collaborators • Punishing Collaborators
Economic Recovery, Prosperity, and Cooperation 1131

Economic Cooperation • The Post-War Baby Boom • The Green

Revolution •

Welfare States

Post-War Politics in the West 1140

xii

CONTENTS

Political Realignments 1142 Divided Germany • Eastern Europe

under the Soviet Shadow • The Soviet Union and Its Satellites in the
Post-War Era • Post-Stalin Soviet Union

Changing Contours of Life 1150 Intellectual Currents in the

Post-War Era • Advances for Women • Catholicism in Post-War
Europe • An Urban World • Living Better • Oil and the Global
Economy

Conclusion 1157

28 The Cold War and the End of European Empires 1160

Cold War 1161 The Korean War (1950–1953) • Stirrings in

Eastern Europe • Soviet–Western Tensions • Sino-Soviet Rivalry •
The Brezhnev Era •

Nuclear Weapons and Superpower Tensions

Decolonization 1172 Decolonization in South and Southeast Asia

•

Britain and the Middle East • The Suez Canal Crisis • French
Decolonization •
The Fight for Independence in Algeria • Decolonization in Sub-
Saharan Africa

Conclusion 1187

29 Transitions to Democracy and the Collapse

of Communism 1190

Politics in a Changing Western World 1192 Student Protests

Challenge Gaullist France • Shifts in Western European Politics after
1968 • The Transition to Democracy in Southern Europe

Religious and Ethnic Conflicts 1200

The Fall of Communism 1202 Resistance to Soviet Domination

•

The Gorbachev Era • Transition to Parliamentary Government in

Poland and Hungary • The Collapse of the Berlin Wall and of East
German Communism • The “Velvet Revolution” in Czechoslovakia •
Revolutions in Bulgaria, Romania, and Albania • The Collapse of the
Soviet Union • The Disintegration of Yugoslavia • Challenges in the
Post-Communist World

Conclusion 1229

30 Global Challenges: The War Against Terror

and the Uncertainties of a New Age 1232

Creating a Single Europe 1233 The Origins of the European

Union •

Creating a Single Market • Backlash against a European Identity •

Europe and the United States

Globalization 1240 Opposition to Globalization

Massive Immigration to Europe 1242 Growing Immigration •

Regional Ethic Political Tensions

CONTENTS xiii

Terrorism 1248 European Responses to U.S. Policy • Continuing

Conflict in the Middle East

The Return of Right-Wing Populism and Authoritarianism

1252

Poland and Hungary • Xenophobic Populism Elsewhere in Europe

The Russian Challenge 1256

Conclusion 1258

Further Readings A1

Credits A25

Index A31

Maps

France before and after 1789 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .470

Expansion of Revolutionary France, 1792–1799 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . .479

The Counter-Revolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .482

The Empire of Napoleon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508
The Industrial Revolution in Europe, 1815–1860 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . 541

Europe after the Congress of Vienna, 1815 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . .587

The Birth of Belgium, 1831–1839 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611

Major Revolutions, 1848–1849 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .628

The Unification of Italy, 1859–1870 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . .667

The Unification of Germany, 1866–1871 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . .676

Nationalities in the Habsburg Empire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . .686

The Crimean War, 1853–1856 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .700

The Expansion of Russia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 721

Areas of Industrial Concentration, 1870–1914 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .759

Colonial Empires until 1880 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 831

Imperialism in Africa circa 1914 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . 834

South Africa, 1800–1910 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 840
India and the Far East Before 1914 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . 843

Europe in 1914 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .877

The Balkans, 1914 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 884

The German Advance, 1914 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .897

The Western Front, 1914–1917 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 906

The Eastern, Italian, and Balkan Fronts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . .907

The German Offensive, 1918 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .926

The Russian Civil War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .953

The Soviet Republics, 1922–1939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .957

Territorial Settlements After World War I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . 971

Dictatorships in Europe, 1932–1937 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . 1014

The Spanish Civil War, 1936–1939 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . .1055

German, Italian, Hungarian, and Soviet Expansion, 1935–1939 . . . .

. . . . . . 1067
xiv

MAPS

xv

The German and Italian Advance, 1939–1942 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . 1073

The Japanese Advance and Allied Counteroffensive, 1941–1945 . . . .

. . . . . .1085

Hitler’s Europe, 1942 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1087

The Defeat of Germany, 1942–1945 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1102

Post-War Territorial Settlements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . 1126

Decolonization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1184

The Fall of Communism in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union,

1989–1993 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1203

The Disintegration of Yugoslavia, 1995 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . .1223

Members of the European Community . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . .1234

Preface
I am very pleased to present the fourth edition of A History of
Modern Europe.

We cannot understand the events and challenges of the present in

Europe and elsewhere without understanding the past, and I hope
students will find this book a helpful tool in this important endeavor.

Today, Europe confronts three daunting challenges. First,

organizations like al-Qa’ida and the Islamic State have given rise to a
new kind of warfare: that against terrorism. Second, the murderous
civil war in Syria, instability in much of the Middle East and parts of
Africa, and the wrenching poverty on both continents have
generated a constant flow of refugees and immigrants hoping to
reach Europe in order to find a better life. Thousands have perished
in the Mediterranean in this effort. For centuries, Europe sent waves
of emigrants to other parts of the world, particularly North and
South America. Now the pattern has been reversed. Refugees and
immigrants, both those arriving over the past decade and those
decades earlier, have added to the religious and cultural complexity
of European states.

Third, right-wing ultra-nationalist populism, often closely tied to

hostility to the arrival of refugees and immigrants, has gained
strength in many, if not most, European countries. This is sadly true
in the United States, as well, where the resurgence of white
supremacist groups can be seen, especially after the election of
Donald Trump as president in 2016. Here, too, continuities with the
European past are clear. To some extent, Europe seems to be
reliving the xenophobia and ultra-nationalism of the 1920s and
1930s, without, hopefully, the same absolutely catastrophic
consequences of a world war. As the global economic crisis that
began in 2008 underscored, the interconnections of economies,
nations, and societies around the world could not be clearer.

Today more than ever, the history of Europe cannot be understood

without attention to Europe’s interaction with cultures in the rest of
the world. Europeans, to be sure, have for centuries learned from
Asian, African, Middle Eastern, and American cultures. At the same
time, through commercial contact, conquest, and intellectual,
religious, and political influence, as well as, finally, decolonization,
the European powers and cultures have affected the histories of
non-Western peoples.

Our fourth edition also more specifically places questions of race and
of racism in their long, sad history in the European context. This also
becomes especially crucial in the chapters that consider colonialism
and, in particular, the “new imperialism” that marked the period from
the mid-1880s until the outbreak of xvii

xviii PREFACE

World War I in 1914, in the Great War itself, and the experience of
Europe and colonial peoples in the post-war period. A History of
Modern Europe makes it possible to put recent events and
challenges in Europe in the context of changes and continuities with
the past.

Europe’s colonial and imperial empires were forged by military

supremacy and one-sided murderous wars against indigenous
peoples. To be sure, the dynamism of European trade, settlement,
and conquest has had great impact, most notably on Asia, Africa,
and the Americas, but also on the history of European peoples.

Here, too, history provides its lessons. Unlike the Spanish Empire,
trade was the basis of the burgeoning English Empire. The Spanish
Empire reflected the combination of the absolutism of the Spanish
monarchy and the determination to convert—by force if necessary—
the indigenous populations to Catholicism. In sharp contrast, many
settlers came to the North American English colonies in search of
religious freedom. And, again in contrast to the building of the
Spanish Empire a century earlier, the English colonists sought not to
convert the indigenous peoples to Christianity, but rather to push
them out of colonial areas of settlement. While the Spanish colonies
in general reflected state centralization, their English counterparts
evolved in a pattern of decentralization that would culminate in the
federalist structure of the United States, achieved by the successful
War of Independence from British rule (1775–1783). In this new
edition, British domination in India also receives more well-deserved
attention.

Our fourth edition also emphasizes the role of warfare in European

history of the societies of the continent since the Middle Ages. In
1922, the Russian Communist Leon Trotsky in a speech described
war as “a great locomotive of history.”

Quite conceivably, wars have been a motor for change in Europe

even more than revolutions, although the two have often been
connected (as in the cases of the French Revolution of 1789 and the
Russian Revolution of 1917). While discussing dynastic rivalries and
nationalism, the fourth edition describes and analyzes how wars
themselves have often generated political and social change. For
example, French financial and military contributions to the American
War of Independence further accentuated the financial crisis of the
monarchy of France, helping to spark the French Revolution. Later,
French armies of military conscripts that replaced the professional
armies of the age of aristocracy contributed to the emergence of
nationalism in Britain and France in the eighteenth century. The
defeat of the Russian army by the Japanese in 1905 brought political
concessions that helped prepare the way for the Russian Revolution
of 1917. The German, Austro-Hungarian, Ottoman, and Russian
Empires disappeared in the wake of World War I and World War II;
the economic and social impact of these wars generated political
instability, facilitating the emergence of fascism and communism.
World War I and the role played by colonized peoples gave impetus
to movements for independence and nationalist insurgents within
the British, French, and Dutch Empires that would ultimately be
successful, transforming the world in which we live.
PREFACE

xix

The growth of strong, centralized states helped shape modern

Europe, and warfare was a major component of this essential
history. Medieval Europe was a maze of overlapping political and
judicial authorities. In 1500, virtually all Europeans defined
themselves in terms of family, village, town, neighborhood, and
religious solidarities. Over the next three centuries, dynastic states
consolidated and extended their territories while increasing the reach
of their effective authority over their own people. Portugal, Spain,
England (and later as Great Britain), France, the Netherlands, and
Russia built vast empires that reached into other continents. Ever
larger and more powerful armies, navies, and the wars they fought
were a crucial part of this story, too. By the early nineteenth century,
the European Great Powers had emerged, their military forces ready
for battle.

With the rise of nationalism in the wake of the French Revolution

and the Napoleonic era, demands of ethnic groups for national
states encouraged the unification of Italy and Germany and stirred
unrest among Croats, Hungarians, Romanians, and other ethnic
groups who were anxious for their own national states. The
emergence of parliamentary rule in these new states proved to be
no easy matter after World War I. In this fourth edition we devote
more coverage to the long, fascinating history of East Central and
Eastern Europe, adding to our coverage of the Polish-Lithuanian
Commonwealth during the early modern period up until the Third
Partition of Poland in 1795.

In Russia, the quest for democracy continues, even more than a

quarter of a century since the fall of communism. President Vladimir
Putin has consolidated his personal power, and that of the oligarchy
that supports him. Several of his most outspoken opponents have
perished in unexplained circumstances. Putin has aggressively
worked to expand Russian interests as he defines them, annexing
Crimea and supporting violent Russian separatists in eastern
Ukraine. The Baltic states, with sizable Russian minorities, have
reason to be afraid. Putin’s Russia has emerged as a rival of the
United States, well after the end of the Cold War.

To make room for this new material, and to help make this book a
better teaching tool, some of the chapters have been reduced in
length. There are other changes, as well. As part of a beautiful new
full-color design, the maps have been significantly improved and
new illustrations have been added. The final chapter has been
brought up to date with considerable attention given to the major
challenges Europe now must confront. To take one important
example, with the initiation of a new single currency within the
European Union, Europe entered a new era. But “Brexit”—the
shocking vote in Great Britain for a departure from the European
Union—represents a serious challenge to the survival of that
institution.

The fourth edition also boasts new resources for students and
instructors. The text is available for the first time in an affordable
ebook format. Whether in print or electronic form, students will find
at the end of each chapter new materials for review, including key
terms and names, study questions, and descriptive chronologies.
Instructors may find expanded versions of these chronologies—with
more than could fit on the limited space in these pages—available as
printable handouts

xx

PREFACE

online. Instructors will also find a brand-new test bank, including

multiple-choice and short answer questions, and a set of art slides to
present the illustrations and maps in the classroom.
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
Latham, 135.
Laurent, 136.
Lawes and Gilbert, 5.
Lebedeff, 27.
Leeuwenhoeck, 20.
Lendner, 118.
Lipman, C. B., 41, 42, 44, 54.
Lipman, J. G., Blair, Owen, and McLean, 94.
Löhnis, 22, 43, 69, 136.
Magnus, 107.
Malpighi, 46.
Marchal, 34, 136.
Martin, 73.
Martin and Lewin, 69.
McBeth, 28, 134.
McBeth and Scales, 118, 140.
McLean and Wilson, 118, 136.
Mockeridge, 43.
Moore, G. T., 105.
Morris, 150, 151, 162.
Muntz and Coudon, 118, 136.
Nabokich, 27.
Nagaoka, 38.
Nakano, 107.
Nasir, 94, 95.
Neller, 137.
Omelianski, 27, 42.
Orla-Jensen, 26, 35.
Otto, 133.
Oudemans and Koning, 118.
Pasteur, 3, 20.
Perey, 94.
Perotti, 136.
Petersen, 104.
Pillai, 43.
Potter and Snyder, 137, 138.
Povah, 138.
Pratt, 132.
Prescott, 61.
Pringsheim, 107.
Ramann, 118.
Rathbun, 120.
Reh, 162.
Remy, 118.
Richards, 112.
Richardson, 159.
Ritter, 138.
Robbins, W. J., 109.
Robbins, W. W., 105.
Roussy, 134.
Russell, 112.
Russell and Hutchinson, 57, 66, 94.
Salunskov, 42.
Sandon, 57, 75.
Scales, 28, 134.
Schellenberg, 133.
Schindler, 107.
Schloesing, 3, 4, 34.
Schmitz, 134.
Schramm, 111.
Servettaz, 109.
Seydel, 44.
Sherman, 69.
Shibata, 136.
Söhngen, 26, 27, 134.
Takahashi, 118.
Taylor, 120.
Ternetz, 135.
Treub, 112.
Truffaut, 69.
Verkade and Söhngen, 134.
Von Ubisch, 109.
Waksman, 37, 118, 120, 121, 123, 125, 126, 134, 136.
Waksman and Cook, 136.
Wann, 111.
Warington, 4, 34.
Waynick, 42.
Welwitsch, 112.
Werkenthin, 120, 121.
West, 88, 105.
Whiting, 36.
Wilfarth, 46.
Winogradsky, 4, 6, 34, 41, 44.
 SUBJECT INDEX.

Absidia, 121.
Acarina, 150, 151, 157.
Acid formation by Fungi, 139.
Acidity of soil, 17; effect on Actinomyces, 140; relation to
nitrification, 36.
Actinomycetes, 119, 134, 139.
Aeration of soil, effect on bacteria of, 61.
Agriotes, 150.
Air supply in soil, 17.
Algæ, agents causing disappearance of nitrate from soil, 12;
associations of, in soil, 105, 106; blue green, 102 sqq. (see also
Cyanophyceæ and Myxophyceæ); colonisation of new ground
by, 112; conditions of growth for, 101, 104, 107, 108; distribution
of, 102, 104, 106, 109; economic significance of, 100, 102;
filamentous, 106; flora of soil, 101, 112; formation of humus
substances, 112; fragmentation of filaments, 107, 110;
frequency of occurrence, 102 sqq.; glucose, effect of, on growth,
108, 109; green, 104 sqq. (see also Chlorophyceæ); importance
in cultivation of rice, 113; numbers in soil of, 109, 110; nutrition
of, 107, 108, 110; producers, of organic substance, 100; pure
cultures of, 107, 111; relation to gaseous interchange in soil,
113; relation to soil moisture, 112; seasonal changes in numbers
of, 88; subterranean, 105.
Alkaloids, as source of nitrogen for fungi, 138.
Alternaria, 119.
Amino-acids, formation of, by algæ, 108.
Amino-compounds, decomposition of, by fungi, 136, 138.
Ammonia, assimilation of, by bacteria, 33, 40, 45; effect of
partial sterilisation on soil content of, 66; formation in soil, 170;
formation in soil by bacteria, 32 sqq.; formation in soil by fungi,
135 sqq., 141; influence of physical conditions on formation of,
137; property of attracting Diptera, 159; utilisation by higher
plants, 36.
Ammonium sulphate, effect on fungi, 121, 126, 127.
Anabæna, 102, 112.
Annelida, 149.
Antagonism of salts in soil, 60.
Ants, 153.
Arachnida, 150, 151.
Arctic soil, bacterial flora of, 24.
Areinida, 150, 151, 157.
Armillaria, 132.
Ascomycetes, 119.
Aspergillaceæ, 136.
Aspergillus, 119, 120, 135, 136, 138, 139.
Azotobacter, 6, 41, 95, 96; assimilation of nitrates by, 45;
decreasing efficiency in liquid culture, 44; indicator of soil acidity,
44.
Bacillariaceæ, 100 (see also Diatom).
Bacillus amylobacter, distribution of, 24.
Bacillus radicicola, 24, 46 sqq.; inoculation of soil with, 50; life
cycle of, 47.
Bacteria, association with algæ in nitrogen fixation, 111;
anærobic respiration of, 37; effect of arsenic on, 61; cellulose
destroying, 134; changes in morphology in culture, 22, 47;
classification of main groups, 23, 25; composition of cells of, 39;
inverse relationship with protozoa, 10, 79, 82 sqq.; isolation from
soil, 21; methods of describing, 21; method of estimating
numbers of, 53 sqq., 80; nitrogen fixation by, 110, 111; numbers
in relation to algæ, 110; numbers in soil, 52 sqq.; oxidation of
hydrogen by, 27, 37; effect of partial sterilisation on, 8, 9, 66, 67;
part played in soil fertility by, 7; pure cultures, isolation by
plating, 20; seasonal changes in numbers of, 59, 87 sqq.; effect
of salts on, 60; short time changes in numbers of, 11, 57, 58;
effect of temperature on, 67; uneven distribution of, 57.
Basidiomycetes, 119, 123, 132.
Beets, attacked by Phoma betæ, 135.
Boletus, 132.
Botrytis, 122.
Bryophyta, 100, 132.
Bumilleria, 105.
Calcium compounds in soil and fungi, 139.
Carabidæ, 150.
Carbohydrates, decomposition by bacteria, 26 sqq.;
decomposition by fungi, 140; decomposition in soil, 168; effect
on ammonia production in soil, 33; presence in algal sheath and
bacteria, 111.
Carbon, changes in amount in soil, 167; relationships of
bacteria, 27; relationships of fungi, 133; source of, for soil
bacteria, 39; sources of, for soil fungi, 139.
Carbon dioxide, assimilation by algæ, 99, 107, 108; assimilation
by soil bacteria, 35, 36, 40.
Carotin, in algæ, 100; formed by Spirochæta cytophaga, 29.
Cecidomyidæ, 155.
Cellulose, decomposition by bacteria, 27, sqq.; decomposition
by fungi, 133, 134, 141; relation of nitrogen supply to
decomposition of, 30; decomposition in soil, 168; as source of
energy for nitrogen fixation, 43.
Centipedes, see Chilopoda.
Cephalosporium, 120.
Cephalothecium, 136.
Chilopoda, 157.
Chironomidæ, 155.
Chlorella, 108.
Chlorococcum, 105.
Chlorophyceæ, 100.
Chlorophyll, loss of, from algæ, 108.
Ciliates, classification of, 72; cyst wall of, 73.
Citric acid, formation of, by fungi, 139.
Cladosporium, 119.
Clamp connections in fungi, 119.
Classification, of algæ, 100; of bacteria, 23, 25; of fungi, 131; of
protozoa, 69 sqq.
Climate, effect of, on algæ, 101.
Clostridium, 41, 44; as fixer of nitrogen, 6.
Coccomyxa, 104.
Coleoptera, 150, 154, 155.
Collembola, 150, 153, 154.
Colletotrichum, 131.
Commensals, 132.
Conjugatæ, 100.
Cortinarius, 132.
Cotton, destroyed by fungi, 134.
Counting, of algæ, 109; of bacteria, 53 sqq.; of fungi, 122; of
protozoa, 77, 79, 80.
Cresol, decomposition of, by bacteria, 22, 24, 31.
Criteria, physiological, of fungi, 128.
Crop growth, effect on fungi, 122.
Cryptomonadineæ, 100.
Cucumber leaf spot, 131.
Cyanamide, decomposition of, by fungi, 136.
Cyanophyceæ, 103 (see also Myxophyceæ and blue-green
algæ).
Cylindrospermum, 102.
Cysts, 68, 73, 74.
Denitrification, by bacteria, 37; by fungi, 136.
Desiccation, resistance to, by algæ, 106.
Dew, relation to algæ, 101, 113.
Diatoms, 104 sqq. (see also Bacillariaceæ).
Dicyanamide, decomposition of, by fungi, 136.
Dipeptides, formation of, by algæ, 108.
Diplopoda, 157.
Diptera, 150, 154, 155, 159.
Disaccharides and fungi, 134.
Earthworms, abundance of, in soil, 153; effect of, in soil, 13,
160, 175.
Eel-worms, 149 (see also Nematoda).
Elaphomyces, 132.
Enchytræidæ, 149.
Energy, laws of, 165; relationships of soils, 166; requirements of
soil organisms, 15, 16.
Energy supply, relation of bacterial activities to, 25 sqq., 40, 44;
sources of, for soil bacteria, 26 sqq., 40, 43; supplies of, for soil
organisms, 111, 164, 167, 168.
Environmental conditions in soil, 16.
Eremacausis, 2.
Ericales, 132, 135.
Euglena, 99.
Euglenaceæ, 100.
Experimental error, in bacterial counts, 54; in fungal counts, 124.
Farmyard manure, see Manure.
Fats, used by fungi, 134.
Fatty acids used by fungi, 134.
Fertility of soil, views on, 2; effect of decomposition of plant
residues on, 1, 165; effect of organisms on, 175.
Filter paper, destruction of, by fungi, 133; destruction of, by
Spirochæta cytophaga, 28.
Fixation of nitrogen, discovery of, by Berthelot, 5; by bacteria, 40
sqq.; by algæ, 110, 111; by mixtures of bacteria and algæ, 111;
by fungi, 135 sqq. (see also Nitrogen Fixation).
Flagellatæ, 100.
Flax sickness and fungi, 122.
Formaldehyde, as agent for destroying fungi, 141.
Fungi, control of, in soil, 139 sqq.; counting of, 122; distribution
of, in soil, 119 sqq., 127; fertilisers, effect of, on numbers of in
soil, 126; as facultative parasites, 131, 132; fruiting bodies of,
123; destruction of hemicelluloses by, 133; individual, 122, 123;
action on monosaccharides of, 134; mineral relationships of,
139; mycorrhizal, 132, 135, 139, 140; heterocyclic nitrogen
compounds and, 138; occurrence in soil, 118; qualitative study
of, 118; selective feeding of, 140; specific determination of, 119.
Fungi imperfecti, 119.
Fusaria, 134.
Fusarium, 119, 120, 122, 128, 133, 136.
Gamascidæ, 156.
Gases of swamp water (Paddy soils), 113.
Gastrodia, 132.
Gelatinous envelope of algæ, 109, 111.
Geographical distribution of azotobacter, 41; of soil bacteria, 24;
of protozoa, 75, 76; of soil fungi, 119, 125.
Germination, of algal spores, 107.
Glucose, use of, by algae, 108, 109, 111; use of, by moss
protonema, 109.
Glycocoll, formation of, by algæ, 108.
Granulobacter, 42.
Greenland, bacteria in soil from, 24.
“Grunlandmoor,” fungi in, 126.
Hantzschia, 105.
Hemiptera, 154.
Heterokontæ, 100.
“Hochmoor,” fungi in, 126.
Hormidium, 104.
Humus, the food of plants, 1; formation of, by fungi, 134, 141;
formation of, in soil, 168; forest, 132; fungal hyphæ as
constituent of forest humus, 132.
Hydrogen ion concentration, in soil, 17; effect on fungi of, 124.
Hymenoptera, 150, 154.
Insecta, 150, 157.
Insects, numbers present in soil, 154.
Invertebrata, definition of, 147; method of investigating, 148;
groups represented, 149; distribution in the soil, 151; dominant
species and groups, 153; environmental factors of, 157; feeding
habits, 156; relation to agriculture, 160; relation to nitrogen
cycle, 161.
Iron compounds, oxidation by fungi, 139.
Isopoda, 150, 151.
Leguminosæ, association with bacteria, 46 sqq.; enrichment of
ground by, 5.
Lepidoptera, 150, 154.
Life cycles, of bacteria, 22, 47; of protozoa, 72 sqq.
Lime, effect on fungi in soil, 121, 126.
Lyngbya, 112.
Magnesium compounds, effect on fungi, 139.
Manganese compounds, effect on bacteria, 61.
Manure, farmyard, effect on algæ, 109, 110; effect on numbers
of bacteria, 60; effect on numbers of fungi, 126; effect on
numbers of insects, 154, 155.
Manure, Artificial, effect on fungi, 127.
Manure, town stable, occurrence of disease organisms in, 132.
Mastigophora, classification of, 71; species of, 71.
Media, containing nitrates, chemical analysis of, 111; for
counting soil bacteria, 54; for counting protozoa, 79; for counting
fungi, 119, 123.
Melanconium, 134.
Melolontha, 150.
Methane, oxidation of, by bacteria, 26, 27.
Millipedes, see Diplopoda.
Mites, see Acarina.
Mollusca, 149, 157.
Moniliaceæ, 136.
Mucor, 120, 121, 136, 138.
Mucorales, 121, 134.
Mucorineæ, 118.
Mycetophilidæ, 155.
Mycorrhiza, 132, 135, 139, 140.
Myriapoda, 150, 156.
Myxophyceæ, 100 (see also Cyanophyceæ and blue-green
algæ).
Naphthalene, decomposition of, by bacteria, 31.
Naviculoideæ, 100.
Nematoda, 149, 151, 157.
Nitrate, assimilation by algæ, 105, 108, 111; assimilation by
bacteria, 33, 40, 44, 51; assimilation by fungi, 136, 138; removal
from soil, 12, 112, 171; variations in amount in soil, 11.
Nitre-beds, 1.
Nitrification, and bacteria, 34; chemical changes in, 171; and
fungi, 136; energy supply in, 35; mechanism of, 1, 3; and soil
fertility, 1, 3.
Nitrites and fungi, 136; formation by bacteria, 34.
Nitrobacter, 35.
Nitrogen, changes in amount in soil, 167; cycle in soil, 161;
fixation by bacteria, 6, 40 sqq.; fixation by fungi, 135, 136, 141;
fixation of, in clover plant, 5; increase by protozoa of fixation of,
94, 95 (fig.); fixation sources of energy for, 43, 49; gain of, in
soil, 174; in invertebrates, 162; loss of, by leaching, 112; loss of,
from cultivated soils, 173; relationships of fungi, 135;
relationships of algæ, 110-112; relationships of bacteria, 32
sqq., 40 sqq.; relationships of insects, 162.
Nitrosococcus, 35.
Nitrosomonas, 35.
Nodule Organism of the Leguminosæ, 6, 46 sqq.
Nostocaceæ, 100, 101, 102, 107.
Oligochæta, 149, 151, 153, 157.
Oospora, 120.
Orcheomyces, 132.
Orchid cultivation and fungi, 132, 140.
Orthoptera, 154.
Oscillatoriaceæ, 100, 102.
Osmotic pressure, influencing effect of salts on bacteria, 50.
Oxalic acid, formation of, by fungi, 139.
Oxidations effected by soil organisms; by bacteria, 26 et seq.;
by fungi, 139.
Oxygen, absorption by soils, 4.
Partial sterilisation of soil, 8, 66 sqq., 96, 178; influence of
organic antiseptics, 177; limiting factor in, 67, 68.
Pectin, effect of, on fungi, 134.
Pedras negras, 112.
Penicillia, 134.
Pentosans, effect of, on fungi, 134.
Peptones, decomposition of, by fungi, 136, 138; source of
nitrogen for algæ, 108.
Periodicity, of protozoa in soil, 90 sqq. (fig.), 92 (fig.), 93.
Phenol, decomposition of, by bacteria, 24, 25, 31.
Phenylalanine, formation of, by algæ, 108.
Phoma, 132.
Phormidium, 106.
Phosphates, availability of, influenced by bacteria, 52; by fungi,
139; effect on bacteria, 46, 51, 60.
Photosynthesis, 99, 100, 107, 110, 113.
Phycocyanin, 100.
Physical conditions in soil, 16.
Physiological criteria, of bacteria, 22; of fungi, 128.
Phycomycetes, 119.
Phytophthora, 132.
Plant disease, and fungi, 139.
Plant residues, decomposition of, in soil, 168; influence of soil
reaction on, 165; relation to soil fertility, 1, 165.
Plasticity of fungi, 119.
Plectonema, 106.
Potassium salts, effect on bacteria, 60; influence of bacteria on
the availability of, 52.
Protein, decomposition of, in soil, 169; decomposition by
bacteria, 32; decomposition by fungi, 138, 140.
Protococcales, 100.
Protoderma viride, 105.
Protonema of mosses, 100, 105, 106, 109.
Protophyta, chlorophyll-bearing, 100.
Protozoa, inoculation into soil of, 85 sqq.; isolation from soil, 69;
classification of, 69 sqq.; life histories of, 72 sqq.; species of, in
soil, 70 sqq.; distribution of, in soil, 74 sqq.; retention of, by soil,
78 (fig.); size of, 90; reproductive rates, 93; inverse relation with
bacteria, 79 sqq.; presence of trophic forms in soil, 9; numbers
of, in soil, 90, 96, 97; fluctuations in numbers of, 10, 81 (fig.), 82;
external conditions, effect on, 82; seasonal changes, effect on,
87 sqq.; weight of, 90.
Pteridophyta, 132.
Pythium, 132.
Reaction of soil, 17.
Reaction of soil, effect on bacteria, 36, 37, 46, 48, 61; effect on
protozoa, 93, 94 (see also hydrogen ion concentration).
Relationships of Fungi, commensal, 132; mycorrhizal, 132;
symbiotic, 132.
Rhizopoda; classification of, 70, 71; species of, 70, 71.
Rhythm, supposed in ammonification by fungi, 137.
Rhizoctonia, 132.
Rhizopus, 119, 120.
Rice plant, aeration of roots, 113; physiological disease of, 113.
Rock Phosphate as base for nitrifying organisms, 36.
Rothamsted, Broadbalk plot 2 (Farmyard Manure) algæ, 109;
fungi, 125, 127; Insects, 152.
Rothamsted, Broadbalk plot 3 (Unmanured) algæ, 109; fungi,
120, 122, 127; Insects, 152.
Rothamsted, Broadbalk Plots 10, 11, and 13; 122, 127.
Rothamsted, Barnfield Plot 1-0 (Farmyard Manure), Protozoa,
80.
Rothamsted, unmanured grass plot, 120.
Russula, 132.
Rusts, 119.
Saccharomyces, 120.
Saprophytes, facultative, 131.
Saprophytism and algæ, 108, 110.
Scenedesmus, 108.
Seasonal fluctuations in numbers of soil organisms, 12, 87 et
seq., 125.
Selective media, use of, in isolation of soil bacteria, 21.
Serological tests, separation of varieties of B. radicicola by, 48.
Slugs, see Mollusca.
Smuts, 119.
Snails, see Mollusca.
Soil; comparison of, by volume, 17; effect of depth below
surface on algæ, 101, 104, 109, 110, 113; effect of depth below
surface on insects, 151; effect of depth below surface on fungi,
121, 126, 127; effect of various treatments on fungi, 126, 127,
132; environmental factors in, 16; inoculation of, for leguminous
plants, 50; moisture (see Water supply); population, control of,
177 sqq.; population, methods of investigation, 10, 15;
sterilisation and fungi, 137, 138, 141 (see Partial Sterilisation);
stored, survival of algæ in, 107; type and fungi, 121, 126, 127.
Soil conditions, effect on bacteria, 33, 36, 37, 40, 46, 48, 50, 59
sqq.; effect on protozoa, 82.
Soil fertility, see Fertility of soil.
Spicaria, 120.
Spiders, see Areinida.
Spirochæta cytophaga, 28, 43.
Spore forming bacteria in soil, 23, 34.
Spore, fungus, inhibition of formation, 123; presence in air of,
118.
Standardisation of cultural methods for soil bacteria, 54 sqq.
Starch, decomposition of, by fungi, 134.
Stichococcus, 108.
Straw; effect on nitrate production in soil, 33; manure, 29; rotting
of, 30.
Sulphur oxidation, by bacteria, 37; by fungi, 139.
Symbiosis, of Azotobacter with other organisms, 42, 43, see
also Mycorrhiza and Nodule organism.
Symphyla, 150, 151, 157.
Symploca, 112.
Tachinidæ, 150.
Tannins, used by fungi, 134.
Temperature of soil and fungi, 127, 140.
Termites, 160.
Testacella, 149.
Thiospirillum, 37.
Thysanura, 154.
Thysanoptera, 154.
Tipula, 150.
Toluene, decomposition by soil bacteria, 31.
Tolypothrix, 112.
Trichoderma, 119, 120, 122, 134.
 Trochiscia, 105.
Tropisms, 157.
Ulothrix, 105.
Ulotrichales, 100.
Urea, by fungi, 136, 138.
Uric acid, utilisation of, by fungi, 138.
Vaucheria, 104, 106.
Vitality, retention of, by algæ and moss protonema, 105, 107.
Water; supply in soil, 17; and algæ, 112; bacteria, 50, 61, 82;
fungi, 127; protozoa, 82.
Wireworms, 155.
Wood, decay of, 134.
Woodlice, 150; (see also Isopoda).
Yeasts, 138.
Zygnema, 104.
Zygorrhynchus mœlleri, 119, 120, 121.

PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN BY THE UNIVERSITY PRESS, ABERDEEN

 Transcriber’s Notes
Inconsistent and archaic or unusual spelling,
capitalisation, italicisation, hyphenation, etc.
have been retained, unless mentioned below.
The names and classifications of the
organisms as used in the book do not always
conform to modern names and classifications;
these have not been changed.
Depending on the hard- and software used and
their settings, not all elements may display as
intended.
Page 14, table, lower right hand cell: the data
given add up to 8, not to 9.
Page 47, ·9 × ·18 in size: the source document
does not include the units; presumably the
sizes are in microns.
Page 118, endnote 8c (2×): this note does not
exist.
Subject Index, entry Zygorrhynchus mœlleri: also
refers to Zygorrhynchus vuilleminii.
Changes made:
Footnotes, tables and illustrations have been
moved out of text paragraphs.
Several minor obvious typographical,
punctuation and spelling errors (including
accents) have been corrected silently. In
several cases spelling differences (mainly of
proper names) between the text and the index
and endnotes have been standardised. In the
indexes and in tables some ditto marks have
been replaced with the dittoed text. Some
 page references have been corrected to
indicate the correct page number.
Text in a dashed box is not present as such in the
source document, but has been transcribed
from the illustration for legibility and ease of
reference. Some tables have been re-arranged
or split to fit the available width.
Page 28, 29: MacBeth changed to McBeth as
elsewhere (in the Author Index the entries
MacBeth and McBeth have been merged).
Page 32, formula: 30 changed to 3O.
Page 58: From Barnfeild, ... changed to From
Barnfield, ....
Page 85: closing bracket deleted after ... Table
VII. and Fig. 13.
Page 90, Table VIII, column 5: 350·000 and
150·000 changed to 350,000 and 150,000.
Page 97: No creature lies or dies to itself, ...
changed to No creature lives or dies to itself,
...
Page 104: Danske Aerofile Alghe changed to
Danske Aërofile Alger.
Page 114: Recherche sulla Malattia del Riso ...
changed to Ricerche sulla Malattia del Riso ....
Page 115: ... sur de polymorphisme ... changed
to ... sur le polymorphisme ....
Page 116: literature notes 38 (Robbins) and 48
(Schindler) changed to 33 and 34 respectively.
Page 120: Zygorrhynchus vuillemini changed to
Zygorrhynchus vuilleminii as elsewhere.
Page 126: references to Waksman[24] and [24e]
changed to [25] and [25e].
Page 129: ... preparée de la pres de Russum ...
changed to ... préparée de la terre humeuse
du Spanderswoud, près de Bussum ....
Page 134: reference to Kohshi[24] changed to [34].
Page 143: Sämenbildung changed to
Säurenbildung (entry 5); Wurzelbranderregern
im Baden changed to Wurzelbranderregern im
Boden (entry 11).
Page 144: ... Umwandlung von Aminosamen in
Oxysämen ... changed to ... Umwandlung von
Aminosäuren in Oxysäuren ....; ... Wirkungen
der Schimmelze ... changed to ... Wirkungen
der Schimmelpilze ....; Hydrogen-iron
concentration changed to Hydrogen-ion
concentration.
Page 145: Ztschr. f. Garungs. Physiol. changed
to Ztschr. f. Gärungsphysiol.
Page 146: einige Pilze gegen Hemizellulosen
changed to einiger Pilze gegen
Hemicellulosen.
Page 157: Such responses are known
chemotropism ... changed to Such responses
are known as chemotropism ....
Page 170: ... alphatic amino-acids ... changed to
... aliphatic amino-acids ....
*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE MICRO-
ORGANISMS OF THE SOIL ***

Updated editions will replace the previous one—the old editions

will be renamed.

Creating the works from print editions not protected by U.S.

copyright law means that no one owns a United States copyright
in these works, so the Foundation (and you!) can copy and
distribute it in the United States without permission and without
paying copyright royalties. Special rules, set forth in the General
Terms of Use part of this license, apply to copying and
distributing Project Gutenberg™ electronic works to protect the
PROJECT GUTENBERG™ concept and trademark. Project
Gutenberg is a registered trademark, and may not be used if
you charge for an eBook, except by following the terms of the
trademark license, including paying royalties for use of the
Project Gutenberg trademark. If you do not charge anything for
copies of this eBook, complying with the trademark license is
very easy. You may use this eBook for nearly any purpose such
as creation of derivative works, reports, performances and
research. Project Gutenberg eBooks may be modified and
printed and given away—you may do practically ANYTHING in
the United States with eBooks not protected by U.S. copyright
law. Redistribution is subject to the trademark license, especially
commercial redistribution.

START: FULL LICENSE

THE FULL PROJECT GUTENBERG LICENSE
Welcome to our website – the ideal destination for book lovers and
knowledge seekers. With a mission to inspire endlessly, we offer a
vast collection of books, ranging from classic literary works to
specialized publications, self-development books, and children's
literature. Each book is a new journey of discovery, expanding
knowledge and enriching the soul of the reade

Our website is not just a platform for buying books, but a bridge
connecting readers to the timeless values of culture and wisdom. With
an elegant, user-friendly interface and an intelligent search system,
we are committed to providing a quick and convenient shopping
experience. Additionally, our special promotions and home delivery
services ensure that you save time and fully enjoy the joy of reading.

Let us accompany you on the journey of exploring knowledge and

personal growth!

textbookfull.com