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Download ebooks file Practical Machine Learning and Image Processing: For Facial Recognition, Object Detection, and Pattern Recognition Using Python Himanshu Singh all chapters

Python

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Practical Machine
Learning and
Image Processing
For Facial Recognition, Object Detection,
and Pattern Recognition Using Python

Himanshu Singh
Practical Machine
Learning and Image
Processing
For Facial Recognition, Object
Detection, and Pattern
Recognition Using Python

Himanshu Singh
Practical Machine Learning and Image Processing
Himanshu Singh
Allahabad, Uttar Pradesh, India

ISBN-13 (pbk): 978-1-4842-4148-6 ISBN-13 (electronic): 978-1-4842-4149-3


https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-4149-3
Library of Congress Control Number: 2019933848

Copyright © 2019 by Himanshu Singh


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part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of
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Printed on acid-free paper
Table of Contents
About the Author���������������������������������������������������������������������������������ix
About the Technical Reviewer�������������������������������������������������������������xi
Acknowledgments�����������������������������������������������������������������������������xiii
Introduction����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������xv

Chapter 1: Setup Environment��������������������������������������������������������������1


Install Anaconda����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������1
Windows����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������2
macOS�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������4
Ubuntu�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������4
Install OpenCV�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������4
Install Keras����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������5
Test the Installations���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������5
Virtual Environments���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������6

Chapter 2: Introduction to Image Processing���������������������������������������7


Images������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������8
Pixels��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������8
Image Resolution��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������9
PPI and DPI����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������10
Bitmap Images����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������10
Lossless Compression����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������11
Lossy Compression���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������12

iii
Table of Contents

Image File Formats���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������12


Color Spaces�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������13
RGB����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������14
XYZ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������15
HSV/HSL��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������17
LAB����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������18
LCH����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������18
YPbPr�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������19
YUV����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������20
YIQ�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������21
Advanced Image Concepts����������������������������������������������������������������������������������21
Bezier Curve��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������22
Ellipsoid���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������23
Gamma Correction�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������24
Structural Similarity Index�����������������������������������������������������������������������������25
Deconvolution������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������25
Homography��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������26
Convolution����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������27

Chapter 3: Basics of Python and Scikit Image�����������������������������������29


Basics of Python�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������30
Variables and Data Types�������������������������������������������������������������������������������30
Data Structures���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������33
Control Flow Statements�������������������������������������������������������������������������������34
Conditional Statements���������������������������������������������������������������������������������37
Functions�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������38
Scikit Image��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������40
Uploading and Viewing an Image������������������������������������������������������������������41
Getting Image Resolution������������������������������������������������������������������������������42

iv
Table of Contents

Looking at Pixel Values����������������������������������������������������������������������������������43


Converting Color Space���������������������������������������������������������������������������������43
Saving an Image��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������53
Creating Basic Drawings�������������������������������������������������������������������������������53
Doing Gamma Correction������������������������������������������������������������������������������57
Rotating, Shifting, and Scaling Images���������������������������������������������������������������59
Determining Structural Similarity�����������������������������������������������������������������������60

Chapter 4: Advanced Image Processing Using OpenCV����������������������63


Blending Two Images������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������64
Changing Contrast and Brightness���������������������������������������������������������������������66
Adding Text to Images�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������68
Smoothing Images����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������71
Median Filter�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������71
Gaussian Filter�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������71
Bilateral Filter������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������72
Changing the Shape of Images���������������������������������������������������������������������������75
Effecting Image Thresholding�����������������������������������������������������������������������������80
Calculating Gradients������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������84
Performing Histogram Equalization��������������������������������������������������������������������87

Chapter 5: Image Processing Using Machine Learning����������������������89


Feature Mapping Using the SIFT Algorithm���������������������������������������������������������90
Step 1: Space Construction���������������������������������������������������������������������������91
Step 2: Difference between the Gaussians����������������������������������������������������91
Step 3: Important Points��������������������������������������������������������������������������������92
Step 4: Unimportant Key Points���������������������������������������������������������������������92
Step 5: Orientation of Key Points�������������������������������������������������������������������92
Step 6: Key Features�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������93

v
Table of Contents

Image Registration Using the RANSAC Algorithm�����������������������������������������������98


estimate_affine�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������105
residual_lengths������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������105
Processing the Images��������������������������������������������������������������������������������106
The Complete Code�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������106
Image Classification Using Artificial Neural Networks��������������������������������������110
Image Classification Using CNNs����������������������������������������������������������������������118
Image Classification Using Machine Learning Approaches������������������������������125
Decision Trees���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������126
Support Vector Machines����������������������������������������������������������������������������127
Logistic Regression�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������127
Code������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������127
Important Terms������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������130

Chapter 6: Real-time Use Cases�������������������������������������������������������133


Finding Palm Lines��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������133
Detecting Faces������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������135
Recognizing Faces��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������138
Tracking Movements�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������141
Detecting Lanes������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������143

Appendix: Important Concepts and Terminology������������������������������151


Adaboost�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������151
XGBoost�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������152
Pulse-coupled Neural Networks�����������������������������������������������������������������������153
Gradient Descent����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������154
Stochastic Gradient Descent�����������������������������������������������������������������������������155
AdaDelta������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������156
Canny Edge Detector�����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������156

vi
Table of Contents

Sobel Transformation����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������157
Haar Cascade����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������158
LBPH Face Recognition�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������158
Image Moments������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������158
Image Contours�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������159
Chessboard Corners Function���������������������������������������������������������������������������160
Calibrate Camera Function��������������������������������������������������������������������������������161
Perspective Transformation Function���������������������������������������������������������������162

Index�������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������165

vii
About the Author
Himanshu Singh has more than 6+ years of
experience as a data science professional.
Currently, he is a senior data scientist at
V-Soft Labs. He provides corporate training
on data science, machine learning, and deep
learning. He is also a visiting faculty member
in analytics at the Narsee Monjee Institute of
Management Studies, considered one of the
premium management institutes in India. He is founder of Black Feathers
Analytics and Rise of Literati Clubs.

ix
About the Technical Reviewer
Santanu Pattanayak currently works at GE,
Digital, as a staff data scientist and is author
of Pro Deep Learning with TensorFlow: A
Mathematical Approach to Advanced Artificial
Intelligence in Python. He has approximately
12 years of overall work experience, with eight
of years of experience in the data analytics/
data science field, and also has a background
in development and database technologies.
Before joining GE, Santanu worked in
companies such as RBS, Capgemini, and
IBM. He graduated with a degree in electrical
engineering from Jadavpur University, Kolkata,
and is an avid math enthusiast. Santanu is currently pursuing a master’s
degree in data science from the Indian Institute of Technology, Hyderabad.
He also devotes his time to data science hackathons and Kaggle
competitions in which he ranks within the top 500 worldwide. Santanu
was born and brought up in West Bengal, India, and currently resides in
Bangalore, India, with his wife.

xi
Acknowledgments
First of all, I thank the Apress Team, Celestian John and Aditee Mirashi, for
giving me a platform to contribute my image processing knowledge and
share it with readers. Second, I thank my colleagues, without whom this
book would not have been possible: Aravind Kota, Yamuna, and my boss
and mentor, Yunis Ahmad Lone. I also thank my students. They helped
me see which issues are challenging for them, and enabled me to devise
a specific means of explaining the concepts to them in a manner that
facilitates their learning.
Last, but not the least, I thank my wife, Shikha Singh. Her constant
support and help has allowed this project to come to fruition. She assisted
me in all aspects of writing this book, sometimes proofreading and writing
technical details herself.
Many thanks to everyone for your constant support.

xiii
Introduction
Practical Machine Learning and Image Processing gives readers deep
insight into the basics of image processing and various image processing
methodologies and algorithms, applications using various Python
libraries, and real-time use case implementation using machine learning
approaches.
The book begins with a discussion of the setup environment for
different operating systems, presents basic image processing terminology,
and explores useful Python concepts for algorithm application. It
then delves into various image processing algorithms and practical
implementation of them in Python using two libraries: Scikit Image and
OpenCV. Next, advanced machine learning and deep learning methods
are presented for image processing and classification. Concepts such as
Adaboost, XG Boost, convolutional neural networks, and more, for image-
specific applications are explained. Later, the process for making models in
real time and then deploying them is described.
All the concepts in the book are explained using real-life scenarios.
By the end of the book, readers should be able to apply image processing
techniques and make machine learning models for customized
applications.

xv
CHAPTER 1

Setup Environment
In this chapter we prepare our system to run the code included in this
book. Let’s look at how to install the following:

• Anaconda

• OpenCV

• Keras

Aside from the last two packages in the list, most of what we need
comes preinstalled with Anaconda. Let’s start with Anaconda, then follow
with OpenCV and Keras.

I nstall Anaconda
The Anaconda installation page proclaims it is “The Most Popular Python
Data Science Platform.” Using Anaconda, installing supporting software,
setting up virtual environments, and so on, are all quite easy, and the
package comes with one of the best integrated development environments
(IDEs) for Python data science: Jupyter Notebook. Jupyter not only helps
you write Python code, but also it makes your code look beautiful and
presentable. So, let’s get started with the Anaconda installation.

© Himanshu Singh 2019 1


H. Singh, Practical Machine Learning and Image Processing,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-4149-3_1
Chapter 1 Setup Environment

W
 indows
If you are using Windows, here’s the process:

1. Go to www.anaconda.com.

2. On the top right side of the screen , is the button


Downloads. Click it.

3. Scroll down and you will see two versions of


Anaconda: Python version 3.7 and Python version
2.7. In the Python 3.7 version box, select 64-Bit
Graphical Installer (select the 32-bit option, if your
system is a 32-bit system).

4. Wait for the download to finish, then double-click


the installation file.

5. Finish the installation and restart your system.

6. Now, open the Start menu, search for the Anaconda


prompt, and select it. A shell named Anaconda
Prompt appears. Type Jupyter Notebook inside the
shell and you will see a screen like the one displayed
in Figure 1-1.

2
Chapter 1 Setup Environment

Figure 1-1. Opening screen

7. In the top right corner of the Files tab, you’ll see


the drop-down New. Click the downward-pointing
arrow and Select Python 3. Now you’re ready to
code (Figure 1-2)!

Figure 1-2. A new Python script

3
Chapter 1 Setup Environment

m
 acOS
If you are using macOS, here is the Anaconda installation process:

1. Download Anaconda for macOS as you would for


Windows.

2. Double-click the .pkg file and follow the installation


procedures.

3. Open your terminal and type Jupyter Notebook.


You will see the same screen shown in Figure 1-1.

U
 buntu
The process for downloading Anaconda in Ubuntu is as follows:

1. Download Anaconda for Linux as you did for


Windows.

2. Go to the installation folder and type bash


Anaconda-latest-­Linux-x86_64.sh.

3. Follow the installation procedures, open your


terminal, and type Jupyter Notebook. You will see
the same screen shown in Figure 1-1.

I nstall OpenCV
Now that we have installed Anaconda and Jupyter Notebook. The next
thing to do is to install its supporting software. For OpenCV, do the
following:

1. Open the Anaconda Prompt.

2. Type conda install -c conda-forge opencv.

4
Chapter 1 Setup Environment

3. You could also type conda install -c conda-


forge/label/broken opencv.

4. After a few minutes, OpenCV will be installed in


your environment.

Install Keras
To install Keras, follow these procedures:

1. Open the Anaconda Prompt.

Type conda install -c conda-forge keras.

2. After a few minutes, Keras will be installed in your


environment.

Test the Installations


Before going further, you need to test the installations as follows:

1. Open Jupyter Notebook.

2. Open a new Python 3 notebook.

3. Type import cv2. If you do not receive an error,


then OpenCV has been installed perfectly. If an
error comes, either you did something wrong during
the installation, or there may be a compatibility
issue. For rectification, either restart the process of
installation, or refer to OpenCV documentation page.

5
Chapter 1 Setup Environment

4. Type import keras. If you do not receive an error,


then Keras has been installed perfectly. If an error
comes, either you did something wrong during
the installation, or there may be a compatibility
issue. For rectification, either restart the process of
installation, or refer to Keras documentation page.

Virtual Environments
Now that we have installed the software we need, let’s take a look at virtual
environments. Virtual environments are very important when you want
to develop multiple projects. What should we do if we are developing
a product using Python 3, but we want to create another project using
Python 2.7? If we do it directly, we may encounter problems because
different versions of Python are installed. Or, we could create a virtual
environment, install Python 2.7, and develop the product inside that
environment. Regardless of what you develop inside a virtual environment,
it never influences any code outside the environment. Let’s see how we
can create a virtual environment:
1. Type conda create -n environment_name
python=version anaconda. In place of
environment_name, type any name you wish to give
to your environment. In place of version, type any
version of Python that you wish to use (for example,
2.7, 3.5, 3.6, and so on).
2. Now that we have created the environment, we have
to activate it. We do this by typing source activate
environment_name.
3. We can now open Jupyter Notebook and start
working in this environment.
4. To deactivate the environment, type source deactivate.

6
CHAPTER 2

Introduction to Image
Processing
In this chapter we examine exactly what an image is, and its related
properties. By the end of the chapter, you should have an understanding of
the following concepts:

• Images

• Pixels

• Image resolution

• Pixels per inch (PPI) and dots per inch (DPI)

• Bitmap images
• Lossless compression and lossy compression

• Different image file formats

• Different types of color spaces

• Advanced image concepts

© Himanshu Singh 2019 7


H. Singh, Practical Machine Learning and Image Processing,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-4149-3_2
Chapter 2 Introduction to Image Processing

I mages
Visual representation of a real-life object (a person or any other object)
in a two-dimensional form is called an image. An image is nothing but a
collection of pixels in different color spaces. Figure 2-1 is an example of a
normal image.

Figure 2-1. Normal Image

P
 ixels
You might think of a complete image as a set that consists of small
samples. These samples are called pixels. They are the smallest elements in
any digital image. Have you ever zoomed in on an image to such an extent
that you see small squares? Those are pixels. So, pixels are subsamples of
an image that, when get combined, give us the complete image. Figure 2-2
shows how pixels, with various colors, may look.

8
Chapter 2 Introduction to Image Processing

Figure 2-2. Pixels of various colors (Source: www.freeimages.co.uk)

I mage Resolution
Image resolution is the number of pixels present in an image. The greater
the number of pixels, the better quality. Image resolutions are described,
for example, as 320 × 240, 640 × 480, 800 × 600, 1024 × 768, and so on.
This means, for example, that there are 1024 pixel columns and 768 pixel
rows. The total number of pixels is obtained by multiplying both numbers,
which gives us 786,432 pixels. Figure 2-3 shows comparative depictions of
different image resolutions.

1920x1080

1280x720

640x480

Figure 2-3. Comparative image resolution (Source: www.


freeimages.co.uk)

9
Chapter 2 Introduction to Image Processing

P
 PI and DPI
As noted at the beginning of the chapter, PPI means “pixels per inch”
whereas DPI means “dots per inch.” They are the units for measuring
image resolution.
If we consider an inch of an image, the number of square pixels we are
able to see inside it is represented by PPI. DPI, on the other hand, is related
to printing. When we print an image and look at an inch of the print, the
number of dots of ink used is represented by DPI.
As shown in Figure 2-4, PPI looks more smooth whereas DPI is crispier.

Figure 2-4. PPI and DPI representations

B
 itmap Images
In general, when we look at pixel values, they are a range of integers. But,
when we convert the range of integers into bytes, we then have a bitmap
image.
One kind of bitmap is a binary image in which each pixel has one of
two numbers: either a zero or a one. They represent black or white and are
often used for storing images efficiently. Figure 2-5 shows a binary bitmap
image.

10
Chapter 2 Introduction to Image Processing

Figure 2-5. Binary bitmap Representation of Figure 2-1

Lossless Compression
When we want to reduce the size of a file (which can be an image), but
we don’t want to compromise quality, this kind of compression is called
a lossless compression. The compressed file can be saved, but when we
require it, during the decompression process, all the information is restored
and we get the actual image (Figure 2-6). This first type of compression
gives priority to the information contained in the file—especially when
compressing text, where we cannot afford to lose even a single piece of
information.

Original Compressed Restored

Figure 2-6. Lossless compression process

11
Chapter 2 Introduction to Image Processing

L ossy Compression
With lossy compression, on the other hand, some of the data may be lost.
Lossy compression prioritizes saving space, rather than the accuracy of
the retrieved file. Some files, such as those that contain music or images,
can be trimmed and still be unaffected by the compression. There may be
some loss, but it isn’t worrisome (Figure 2-7).

Partially
Original Compressed
Restored

Figure 2-7. Lossy compression process

Image File Formats


The following are some of the most widely used image formats, which are
explained in Table 2-1:

• JPEG: Joint Photographic Experts Group

• JPEG2000: New JPEG format developed in 2000

• TIFF: Tagged Image File Format

• GIF: Graphics Interchange Format

• BMP: Bitmap

• PNG: Portable Network Graphics

• WebP: Format developed by Google

• SVG: Scalable Vector Graphics

12
Chapter 2 Introduction to Image Processing

Table 2-1. Descriptions and Uses of Different Image Types


Image Format Description Use

JPEG Lossy compression of raw images Photographs and


paintings
JPEG2000 Optimized form of JPEG; better compression Surveillance
ratio; both lossless and lossy compression
TIFF Lossless compression; can be stored and Document storage
retrieved without losing information
GIF Bitmap image format; supports animation; Gaming and
lossless compression animation
BMP Independent of display device; lacks of In Windows
compression
PNG Lossless data compression; supports Image transfer
different color spaces over the Internet
WebP Lossless and lossy compression; small size, Stickers in
but comparable image quality with JPEG messaging apps
SVG For interactivity and animation; behaviors Web site
and images defined in XML format; they can development
be searched, indexed, and compressed

Color Spaces
The organization of the colors of in an image in a specific format is called
color space. The way in which a color is represented is called a color model.
Each and every image uses one of the following color spaces for effective
picture representation:

• RGB: red, green, blue

• XYZ: color in the x, y, and z dimensions

13
Chapter 2 Introduction to Image Processing

• HSV/HSL: hue, saturation, and value/hue, saturation,


and lightness

• LAB: luminance, and green–red and blue–yellow color


components
• LCH: lightness, chroma, and hue

• YPbPr: green, blue, and red cables

• YUV: brightness and chroma, or color

• YIQ: luminance, in-phase parameter, and quadrature

Let’s have a look at all these color models one by one.

RGB
Using the RGB color space, red, green, and blue are mixed in different ways
to make different color combinations. Why do we use RGB? Because our
eyes have color receptors that can perceive these three colors and their
combinations quite effectively.
We can form any color, theoretically, from these three colors. Each
color’s intensity is defined within a range of 0 to 255. This range is called
color depth.
RGB color space has two more components :

1. White point chromaticity

2. Gamma connection curve

14
Chapter 2 Introduction to Image Processing

Figure 2-8 shows a Venn diagram of the RGB color space.

Figure 2-8. RGB colors overlap

X
 YZ
RGB colors have a threshold of saturation. They cannot go beyond what
we can see. The XYZ color space helps us go beyond this threshold. Now,
you may wonder why we would want to go beyond the threshold. Well,
it may not be possible for our human eyes to perceive certain colors, but
in the digital world, you may need these colors to be used. For example,
XYZ can be used for color matching; we can enter a color code and then
reproduce later it in different application, such as printing. Using XYZ, we
can encode all the colors that exist in the real world. This color space is
called XYZ because it extrapolates RGB colors in three dimensions: x, y,
and z. Figure 2-9 presents an XYZ representation of an image.

15
Chapter 2 Introduction to Image Processing

Figure 2-9. The XYZ color space

Pixel Thresholding A threshold is used for establishing conditions.


For example, if a pixel intensity is greater than 47, make it black or
make it white; 47 is called a threshold.
Extrapolation If we predict or estimate some value based upon its
relationship with previous values, we are extrapolating. A neighbor to
white pixel may be white (by assumption or extrapolation).

16
Chapter 2 Introduction to Image Processing

H
 SV/HSL
HSV/HSL is an alternative representation of the RGB color space. It
consists of the following components:

• Hue

• Saturation

• Value

• Lightness

Hue is a property that describes three colors: green, red, and magenta. It
can also be a mixture of two pure colors: red and yellow, and yellow and green
Saturation measures the intensity of an image. It tells us how far a color
is from gray. A lower value means the color is approaching gray.
Lightness refers to the intensity of color with respect to white. It tells us
how far a color is from white.
Value is another measure of intensity. It tells us how far a color is from
black. Figure 2-10 shows an HSV representation of an image

Figure 2-10. The HSV color space

17
Exploring the Variety of Random
Documents with Different Content
Payments to lay officials, such as stewards, bailiffs, rent-
collectors, and auditors, appear in Valor Ecclesiasticus as follows:
Brewood Nunnery (4), nil; Burton-on-Trent, £28; Croxden (13), £7;
Dieulacres (13), £5 6s. 8d.; Dudley, £2 6s. 8d.; Hulton, £6; Rocester
(9), £2 13s. 4d.; Ronton, £4 6s. 8d.; St. Thomas’s (7), £11 13s. 4d.;
Stone, £3 6s. 8d.; Trentham, £5; Tutbury (9), £18 13s. 4d.: Total, £94
6s. 8d. The figures in brackets show the number of religious, where
these can be ascertained. At Dudley and Trentham these must have
been very few, yet at the latter the expenditure on administration was
£5. Tutbury also spent large sums on management. On the other
hand, Rocester, with nine canons and two stewards, and a small
expenditure on management, appears in a favourable light. The
canons at Rocester were on good terms with their neighbours, and
the house was almost unique among the smaller houses in
Staffordshire in the matter of charity. The general impression of the
canons of Rocester is that they were living quiet, simple lives,
working hard themselves, and held in respect.
The Nunnery at Brewood[197] possessed a hall, parlour, kitchen,
buttery, and larder, with a large bedroom (in which they all slept on
two bedsteads) and a bailiff’s chamber. Of outhouses there were
brewhouse and cooling house, bolting house for kneading bread,
cheeseloft, and a “kylhouse,” all of which were more or less
adequately furnished. There were hangings of painted cloth in the
parlour. In the hall there were two tables but only one form. The
nuns’ bedroom contained a feather bed and one tester of white linen
cloth, two coverlets and a blanket described as old, one bolster, two
pillows and four pairs of sheets. The bailiff slept on a mattress on the
floor, with a coverlet and blanket. His axe remained in his bedroom
when the house was sold. A table-cloth and two latten candlesticks,
a bushel and a half of salt, four pewter porringers, four platters, and
two saucers, which are mentioned, also throw light on the standard
of living. Of grain they had a quarter of wheat (6s. 2d.), a quarter of
“munke-corne” (8s.), a quarter of oats (1s. 8d.), and a quarter of
peas (2s. 8d.). The bread they made was of good quality: rye is not
even mentioned. Their one horse was sold for 4s., the wain and
dung-cart for 16d. They had ten loads of hay (15s.).
With this we may compare the abbey and out-buildings at
Dieulacres.[198] In the cloister was a lavatory. No beds or bedding
are mentioned in the dorter or dormitory, which the monks had
forsaken for more comfortable quarters in smaller bedrooms, of
which there were several. The corner chamber was luxuriously
provided with a mattress, feather bed, bolster, and two pillows, a
blanket and coverlet, a tester of “dorney,” a hanging of sey (silk), etc.
In the inner chamber also was a mattress. In the ryder’s chamber
were two bedsteads, a hanging of painted cloth, etc. In the butler’s
chamber were a mattress and feather bed and four coverlets, a
bolster and two pillows. In the buttery were five napkins, three
pewter salts, eight hogsheads, six candlesticks, etc.; in the larder, a
salting vat; in the kitchen, five great brass pots, four small pans, a
cauldron, three spits, a frying pan, a gridiron, thirty-eight plates,
dishes, and saucers, a grater, two chafing dishes, a brass “skimmer,”
etc. There was a brewhouse, bolting-house and labourers’ chamber
(with two mattresses and two coverlets).
Their live stock consisted of six oxen (sold for £4 5s.), sixty ewes
and lambs (£3 6s. 8d.), three horses (£1), and twelve swine (13s.
4d.). Of grain they had 159 bushels of oats (£11 19s.), and rye worth
£1 1s., with twenty-nine loads of hay which sold for £3.
At St. Thomas’s, Stafford,[199] the seven religious and twenty-
nine “servants” had stores as follows:
Wheat. Rye and Munke-corn. Barley. Peas. Hay.
Arberton Grange 3 qrs. 11 qrs. 40 qrs. 10 qrs. 20 loads
Berkswick Grange 12 „ 4 „
St. Thomas’s Priory 12 „
There were also the following farm implements and horses:
Waggons. Harrows. Ploughs. Cart. Cart Horses. Mares.
Arberton Grange 2 2 1 3 2
Berkswick Grange 2 2 2
Some of the waggons were “ironbound” and some “unbound,”
and all, with the ploughs and harrows, and the cart, appear to have
been complete “with yokes and teams to them belonging.”
The live stock was as follows:
Oxen. Cows. Calves. Wethers. Ewes. Lambs. Swine. Winter
Beasts.
Arberton Grange 12 9 8 60 70 6 6
Berkswick 12 80 9
Grange
In the house the dormitory had “cells” or cubicles, but the
absence of beds and bedding there indicates that more comfortable
quarters were occupied. The court had a conduit for the supply of
water. The Prior’s parlour was hung with linen, and had a folding or
trestle table, two forms and four chairs. There were six bedrooms
furnished as follows: the water chamber had bedsteads with painted
hangings, two feather beds, two bolsters, two pillows and four
coverlets. The great chamber had a bedstead with a feather bed, a
coverlet, two fustian blankets and a bolster. The two “inner
chambers” had a bedstead each, furnished with a bolster apiece and
four old coverlets between them. The chamber over the chapel had a
bedstead with feather bed, coverlet, a pair of blankets and sheets,
and a cupboard, form, chair and hangings of linen cloth. The carter’s
chamber had a bedstead with a mattress, a pair of sheets and three
old coverlets.
In the buttery were napkins and cloths, a washing towel, tubs,
two pewter salts, two costrells or wine jugs; in the kitchen, four brass
pots, a broche or spit, two brass pans, a brass mortar, two
cupboards, a mustard quern, a kemnell or tub, a skimmer, a flesh
hook and two pairs of pothooks, seven platters, a voider or basket
for clearing away the relics of meals, three dishes, four saucers, four
porringers, etc. The brewhouse and bakehouse was well furnished
with leads, vats, pans, etc., and attached to it was a bedroom, which
Richard Torner doubtless occupied, and which was well supplied
with bed and bedding. St. Thomas’s Priory was well and comfortably
furnished, and the standard of comfort there was considerably higher
than at either of the other smaller Staffordshire houses of which we
have details.
In the houses of the friars[200] there were few signs of anything
approaching domestic comfort. The kitchens had various necessary
utensils, more, apparently, than the communities would require for
their own cooking, and pointing probably to considerable
dispensation of charity and poor relief. There was a considerable
amount of church furniture—vestments, candlesticks, etc.,—but
practically nothing at all in the way of bedding or linen.
The records by no means show that the religious, either monks,
nuns, or friars, were living a life more luxurious than the generality of
people. If we are to take the prices at which their live stock was sold
it must have been of inferior breed. The sales being “compulsory”
tended to lower the prices realized, but the monks had, in all
probability, sold as much as they could and dared as the imminence
of dissolution became more threatening, and of course their better
animals would find the readiest sale. As regards the furniture of the
houses, the inventories of the sales may well be compared with
other contemporary lists of a similar nature, such as the “Inventory of
the Goods and Catales of Richd. Master, Clerk, Parson of Aldington”
[Kent], in 1534, which is given by Froude.[201] If Dieulacres really
had only sixty sheep in the sixteenth century it had sadly declined
from its earlier wealth in that branch of industry, and there was little
occupation for the servants. But, probably, as we have said, the
number represents the remainder which had not been sold. All sales
so made were by law ipso facto void if they became known, so that
no extraordinary number could have been parted with. The inference
therefore is that their sheep-farming had declined, and the monks of
Dieulacres, at any rate, had not taken the part in the conversion of
arable into pasture of which the monasteries have often been
accused. Ronton Priory had enclosed all its demesne, but there is no
evidence that it was for the purpose of forming large sheep-runs—it
may have been merely in order to facilitate “convertible
husbandry”—a very different matter.
As we have already pointed out, none of the graver charges
which were alleged against many of the religious at the time of the
Dissolution, and have been so generally magnified since, were even
hinted at in connection with Staffordshire. On the other hand, there
are many signs that they were respected by their neighbours. Indeed
the only definite fault which could be found with them was an
occasional charge of insolvency, and even that is sometimes so
vague as to be practically worthless. Bishop Ingworth enlarged upon
the bankrupt condition of the friars. The house at Lichfield was “more
in debt than all the stuff that belongs to it will pay, by twenty nobles.”
The house at Newcastle-under-Lyme, he says, had mortgaged all its
substances and was bankrupt, with its buildings in a ruinous
condition. The Grey Friars at Stafford owed £4. Dieulacres was £171
10s. 5d. in debt, and St. Thomas’s Priory, Stafford, £235 19s. 7d.
Fortunately we have details of some of these debts, so that it is
possible to see how they had been incurred. The Lichfield friars
owed thirty shillings which had been raised on loan for building
purposes, and twenty shillings to the Bishop for five years’ rent; the
rest of the debt was for malt and rye. At Dieulacres and St. Thomas’s
Priory[202] the items of indebtedness appear to be usually fees to
various officials, such as the Bishop, the Dean and Chapter, and the
Archdeacon, wages to stewards and bailiffs, stipends to vicars, and
tradesmen’s small bills. Among them there is only one other instance
of borrowing, besides that already mentioned at Lichfield, though St.
Thomas’s Priory had raised £43 by mortgaging some of its plate,
including a silver censer and a cross of silver plate.
The total amount of indebtedness, as well as the nature of the
debts, hardly bears out the charge of general insolvency which has
been brought against the religious houses.
No doubt their days of undimmed prosperity had passed.
Economic changes had pressed hard on all landlords, and recent
religious movements had seriously affected all forms of charity. The
friars in particular must have felt the effects of the latter, and their
buildings had evidently fallen steadily into disrepair. Yet even they
can hardly be said with justice to have been hopelessly insolvent.
They had assets of considerable value:[203] those which were sold at
Stafford amounted to £32 6s. 4d. at the Austin Friars (besides 13 oz.
of plate and bells worth £8 8s.), and £34 3s. 10d. at the Grey Friars
(besides 16 oz. of plate, £45 worth of lead, and bells worth £10. The
sale of the effects at the Grey Friars’ house at Lichfield produced
£68 15s. The small debt of the Grey Friars at Stafford was
discharged by the sale of timber and growing corn.
The indebtedness of the “monasteries” is in all probability to be
accounted for, to no small extent, by the very large sums which most
of them had been recently called upon to pay under the pretence
that they were to be allowed to continue. The amount seems to have
been roughly calculated at a year’s net income, as will be seen from
the following table. The first column of figures gives the net income
of the house as returned in Valor Ecclesiasticus (1535), and the
second the fine paid for being allowed to continue (1536–7).
Net Income. Fine.
£ s. d. £ s. d.
Croxden Abbey 90 5 11 100 0 0
Hulton Abbey 76 14 0 66 13 4
Rocester Priory 100 2 10½ 100 0 0
St. Thomas’s, Stafford 141 13 2¼ 133 6 8
To enable themselves to pay such very large sums in ready
money the monks would have to leave many small creditors unpaid
for a time. The fact that they were able to do this is of itself sufficient
to show that in the popular estimation they were considered
thoroughly solvent. They had abundance of assets, as is shown by
the amounts raised at the sales of the furniture, etc., at the
Suppression. Dieulacres (which had not been called upon to pay a
fine for continuance), proved to have lead alone worth £720, besides
117 oz. of plate, and bells worth £37 10s. The actual goods sold
produced £63 14s. 10d., and would have doubtless realized a much
higher sum if they had been disposed of under other conditions.
Besides, the net income of the Abbey was returned in Valor
Ecclesiasticus as £227 5s., so that a debt of £171 10s. 5d. cannot be
considered, under the circumstances, entirely unreasonable.
The financial condition of St. Thomas’s Priory, the other house
which we are told was heavily in debt, was rather worse than that of
Dieulacres, but it had recently paid the heavy fine of £133 6s. 8d. It
owed £235 19s. 7d., in addition to the mortgage of £43 6s. 8d.,
which was covered by the plate mentioned. Yet even this large sum
is not much more than half as much again as a year’s net income;
and if, as we have surmised, it had been partially incurred by the
payment of the Fine for Continuance, it was considerably less. At the
sale of the effects of the Priory, £87 9s. 6d. was realized, besides
£40 worth of lead, bells worth £54, plate, etc. Here, again, we cannot
fairly say that the position was one of hopeless bankruptcy.
The allegation of insolvency against the houses appears,
therefore, to have little basis in fact. The monks had felt the adverse
effects of recent tendencies, both economic and religious, and their
finances had quite recently been subjected to a severe and
exceptional strain. But in spite of this they appear to have been in a
fairly sound financial position. Their normal debts represent only the
casual credit of ordinary life. Their alleged insolvency was merely
temporary and mainly fictitious. In the ordinary course of events it
would have been discharged in due course.
CHAPTER IX
LOSS AND GAIN

We do not propose to enter into a discussion of the principles


which were involved in the Dissolution of the Monasteries, or of the
religious and moral loss and gain which ensued. It would be
superfluous and profitless. We may, however, attempt to form an
idea of the way those who were responsible for the suppression
solved the various practical questions which had to be faced in
bringing the religious houses to an end, and to estimate the degree
of success which attended their efforts. Of course we shall consider
only the immediate results: the broader and ultimate religious,
constitutional, and economic effects are the province of the historian
of the epoch and the nation, not of the student of a brief episode in
the history of a single locality.
There were many material interests to be considered, for it must
not be forgotten that the monks and nuns, friars and canons, were
not the only people affected by the changes we have been
considering. The King, the clergy, the tenants, the lay people
employed, maintained, and assisted at the monasteries, all had
interests more or less important.
We may note at the outset that the necessity for taking into
consideration the material interests involved was fully recognised.
According to the instructions issued to the suppression officials who
dealt with the lesser monasteries, the Superior of each house was to
be provided for, but no one else. Accordingly at Trentham we find no
record of pensions to any others except the Prior. The rest were to
be given the option of receiving “capacities” or of being transferred to
other houses. This was following the precedent of earlier
dissolutions, and it will be remembered that Dr. David Pole, of
Calwich, was ordered to be “translated to some good house of his
religion near.”[204] While the work of destruction was yet on a small
scale, and its ultimate extension unsuspected, it may have appeared
less necessary to conciliate public opinion, by removing occasion for
complaints of material and pecuniary loss, than appeared later. As it
became evident that the destruction of the monasteries was to
become wholesale, and that great numbers of people, not only
religious but lay folk, must be affected, it may well have seemed
politic and wise to take pains to assure everyone that vested
interests would be respected.
Accordingly a different policy was pursued in the later
dissolutions. All the religious received payments and most received
pensions.
At the suppression of Brewood,[205] Prioress Isabel Launder
received a reward of £2 and a pension of £3 6s. 8d.; each of the
nuns a reward of £1 and a pension of £1 13s. 4d. At Stafford[206] the
payments were as follows:
£ s. d. £ s. d.
Richard Whytell, “late Prior” 6 0 0 reward, 26 13 4 pension
Richard Harvey, Sub-Prior 2 0 0 „ 6 0 0 „
Sir Christopher Simson 20 0 „ 6 0 0 „
Sir Thomas Bageley 20 0 „ 5 6 8 „
Sir William Pykstok 20 0 „ 5 6 8 „
Sir William Stapulton 20 0 „ 5 0 0 „
Sir William Boudon 10 0 „
No explanation is given as to why William Boudon received a
smaller “reward” than the rest, and was awarded no pension; but, as
we have already noticed, he had not signed the Deed of Surrender
on the previous day and perhaps he had to be punished for his
recalcitrancy.
At Dieulacres[207] the arrangements were of a similar nature:
£ s. d. £ s. d.
Thomas Whitney, Abbot 6 0 0 reward, 60 0 0 pension
Robert Bageley, Prior 2 10 0 „ 60 0 0 „
Henry Bennett 2 10 0 „ 6 0 0 „
George Ferny 2 10 0 „
Brother Rauffe Motesset 2 0 0 „ 5 6 8 „
Randall Barnes 2 0 0 „ 5 6 8 „
Brother William Crosse 2 0 0 „ 5 6 8 „
Brother Robert Cherinton 2 0 0 „ 5 6 8 „
Brother Edmond Bolton 2 0 0 „ 5 0 0 „
Brother William Prowdluffe 2 0 0 „ 5 0 0 „
Thomas Loke 2 0 0 „ 2 0 0 „
Brother Richard Gordon 2 0 0 „ 2 0 0 „
John Bykerton 2 0 0 „ 2 0 0 „
To George Ferny no pension was allotted. Pensions to “late
monks” of Croxden, Rocester, Tutbury, and Burton are mentioned in
subsequent records. In 1553 the payments to late monks of Tutbury
appear as follows: Prior Thomas Meverell, £50; Thomas Moreton,
alias Sutton, £7; Richard Arnold, £6 13s. 4d.; Thomas Raynard, £6;
Robert Stafford, £6; Roger Hilton, £6.
In the pension lists of 2–3 Philip and Mary, Robert Moore, who
had been one of the prebendaries of the collegiate church of Burton-
on-Trent, appears in receipt of £6; John Carter, a “late canon,” £6;
William Sutton, “minor canon,” £6; and William Hether, epistoller, £5;
with Thomas Smith, incumbent of a chantry, £1 5s. 9d.
Monks of Burton who were in receipt of pensions in 1540 were as
follows: John Pole, Robert Robynson, Robert Heithcott, William
Fyssher, John Goodcole, William Symon, and Humphrey Cotton. Of
these the following appear in the list of Mary’s reign above-
mentioned: William Fyssher, £6; William Symonds, £5; and
Humphrey Cotton, 40s. The following also had pensions then:
Robert Brocke, alias Brooke (who succeeded Abbot Edie as Dean),
£66 13s. 4d.; John Rudde, £15; Roger Bulle (? Ball) and John Jermy,
alias Heron, £6 13s. 4d. There are “annuities” also to twenty-five
others, two of £5, one of £4, one of £3 6s. 8d., two of 53s. 4d., one of
50s., and three of 40s., and so on to 20s., but none of the names are
the same as appear in Valor Ecclesiasticus, though John Moseley
(20s.) may be the son of Richard Mosley, bailiff of Findern and
Stapenhill, who received 13s. 4d. in 1535.
Ecclesiastics who proved compliant were often well rewarded, as
we have seen in the case of David Pole of Calwich. The Abbot of
Burton became the dean of the collegiate church which took the
place of the Abbey for a few years. At the suppression of Forde
Abbey the Abbot, who had been the royal “Reformator and
Inquisitor” of Croxden and many other Cistercian houses, received
“fourtie wayne lodes of fyre wood to be taken yerely during his lyfe
owte of suche woods being no parte of demaynes of the said late
howse as the officers of the Kings courte of the augmentacions or
there deputies for the tyme there shall appoynte and assigne ...
lxxxli.”[208]
It would be deeply interesting if we could trace the after history of
the rank and file of the ejected monks, nuns, and friars.
Unfortunately, the materials are of the scantiest.
If the history of the dissolution of the religious houses in France in
our own days in any way reproduces that of the dissolution in
England in the sixteenth century, many of the religious were obliged
to take up secular employment. Did the friars of Stafford[209] make
their purchases with the object of carrying on business? Besides “ii
brasse pottes” in the kitchen, they bought out of their brewhouse “iii
leads”—i.e., pans, “one to brue [brew] in,” and “ii to kele [cool] in”
(i.e., “coolers”); besides “fates” (which Cowell’s Interpreter explains
as the vessels, each containing a quarter, used to measure malt), a
“bultyng hutch” or sifting tub, and “a knedyng troughe.” The prospect
for the nuns must have been terrible.[210] They received very small
pensions. They were turned adrift in a world whose moral sense had
been shaken by the accusations lately brought against the inmates
of the religious houses, and among people whose betters were
described by Legh[211] as living “so incontinently having their
concubines openly in their houses, with five or six of their children,
putting from them their wyfes, that all the contrey therewith be not a
littill offendyd, and takithe evyll example of theym.” The last Abbot of
Rocester appears to have continued to live near his destroyed
house, if the entry in the earliest volume of the Rocester parish
registers—“1576, Aug. 14, Willm. Grafton, prs.... sep.”—records his
burial. The last Prior of Trentham was Thomas Bradwall, and a
“Thos. Bradwall, s. of John B.,” was buried at Trentham on March
13th, 1567.
Thomas Whitney, the last Abbot of Dieulacres, continued to live
in the town of Leek, in Milne Street. In 1541 he was one of the
witnesses to the Crown sale of Swythamley, etc., to William Traford
of Wilmslow.[212] He made his will in 1558[213] and in it expressed a
desire to be buried in Westminster Abbey.
Ample provision was also made for the lay officials: the laity, at all
events, were to have no grievances. Of course the chief stewards
took care to be compensated. The chief steward of Burton Abbey
was George, Earl of Huntingdon, and his annual fee was £6 13s. 4d.;
in Mary’s reign his successor, Francis, was in receipt of £3 6s. 8d. At
the dissolution of Dieulacres “my lord of Darby, Stuard of the Seid
monastery,” whose fee had not been allowed by the Commissioners
of Valor Ecclesiasticus, received a pension of £2. William Davenport
lost £1 6s. 8d. and received £4;[214] John Cordon, 13s. 4d. and £1;
Humfry Whitney, £2 and £3 6s. 8d. Besides these, two other bailiffs,
a forester and two stewards, and eleven other men, received “fees
and annuities.”
At Stafford Lord Ferrers, the High Steward, was pensioned (40s.)
with thirteen other lay officials, including Richard Torner, baker.
Rewards were given to twenty-nine “servants,” of whom seven were
also pensioned. There were four “plough-drivers” who received 1s.
8d. each, and six women. John Coke, the bailiff of Dudley, held his
office by an appointment for life, and at the Dissolution the terms of
the agreement were carefully respected, for the grant of the priory
and its possessions to Sir John Dudley in March, 1541, was
expressly charged with the annual payment of John Coke’s fee of
£2. In 1541 there are records of the half-yearly payments (on April
20th and October 4th) to Nicholas Whitney, of Dieulacres, and his
wife Mary. The payment appears again in 1542.
The lesser “servants,” labourers, “launders and pore
bedewomen,” and the like, were paid off with lump sums, and no
further responsibility in their case remained.
Of course many of the bailiffs and stewards continued in their old
posts under the new owners. The Dissolution was the reverse of a
loss to them. But they had to find sureties and guarantees for their
honesty. For instance, Humphrey Whitney, of Middlewich, bailiff of
“Wycch,” is noted in 1541 as finding sureties to the amount of £120;
Roland Heth, of Tutbury, bailiff of Wetton, etc., 100 marks, and of
Elkeston, 40 marks; Geoffrey Legh, of Berreston, Salop, bailiff of
Great Gate, £120; and William Davenport, bailiff of Abbots Frith, etc.,
£200. An interesting entry of the same date shows Sampson
Erdeswick, of Sandon, becoming sureties for Robert Harcourt, bailiff
of lands which had belonged to Ronton Abbey, for 200 marks.[215]
Even if it were intended that the pensions and annuities should
be loyally paid the charge was a wise one to incur. It saved
appearances by appearing to respect “vested interests”; it effectually
prevented agitation against the Government by any who desired to
retain their pensions; and it was a charge which would steadily
decrease and eventually disappear in the ordinary course of nature.
But it is to be feared that the pensioners were by no means
loyally treated as time went on. In a few months a tenth part of all
pensions was deducted as a royal subsidy, and two years later a
fourth. John Scudamore had the collection of the former sum, and in
his “Declaration of Receipts”[216] payments are found from the
following: Brewood—Isabel Launder and her three nuns; Croxden—
John Orpe and ten others; Dieulacres—Thomas Whitney and others;
Hulton—Edward Wilkyns and eight others; Rocester—William
Grafton and others; Ronton—Thomas Allen and the curate of
Elynhall; Stone—“two curates of Stone”; Trentham—Thomas
Bradwall; Tutbury—Roger Hilton and six others. Unfortunately the
leaf is mutilated so that the other names in the case of Dieulacres
and Rocester are missing.
Moreover, there was unseemly delay in paying the pensions.
Receipts dated May, 1541, appear for half-year’s pensions due the
previous Lady-Day[217] signed by the following monks of Croxden:
Robert Clerke (£10 13s. 4d.), Robert Cade, John Orpe, William
Beche, John Thornton, and Richard Meyre. Poor Thomas Whitney,
the late Abbot of Dieulacres, had great difficulty in obtaining his
pension regularly, and became involved in debt in consequence. We
find him writing as follows to Scudamore in December, 1540:[218]
“Upon the letter to my brother to appear before Mr. Auditor and you
at Burton-upon-Trent the 13th of this December I prepared to come
thither. Coming to Leke on Saturday night I heard you were departed
towards Lichfield and Worcestershire, and considering the danger by
evil weather and floods I thought best to send my brother after you
and spare myself; and I trust you will be good to me for my pension
due at Michaelmas last. I had to borrow £8 of my said brother: I beg
you to repay him and deliver the rest to my servant, Richard Day. Also
I beg you to send by Richard Day the pensions of my poor brethren
that are not able to come for them, and let me have letters to the
bailiffs to pay my pension regularly.”
Any personal debts which could be fastened on the monks were
looked after with relentless persistence: so late as 1542 we find the
last Abbot of Hulton being harassed about arrears he still owed.
On the other hand, the debts owing from the monastic estates
were slow in finding payment. Dieulacres owed Elizabeth Alenn £22
at its dissolution, and in 1541 and 1542 instalments were still being
paid. Such a mode of payment was disastrously slow and
unsatisfactory. Henry Hargreaves, of Luddington, to whom
Dieulacres owed £29 0s. 4d., and who came first on the list of
creditors drawn up by Legh and Cavendish, apparently died without
receiving his money, and at the end of 1541 Laurence Hargreaves
was glad to compound the old debt for the sum of £20. In the same
month Peter Bonye accepted £14 6s. 8d. in discharge of the £20
which was still owing to him from Tutbury Priory. We can well
understand that every obstacle would be put in the way of the
proving of claims. Richard Corveysor had a patent for £1 6s. 8d. a
year granted to him by the Abbot of Dieulacres before the
Dissolution, but he did not manage to get it allowed till 1542.[219]
Indeed a keen eye to business was possessed by all the officials
concerned, and every care was exercised to make as much as
possible out of the monastic property. Just as old debts were often
compounded by the acceptance of smaller sums, no doubt in despair
caused by long delay, so payments for work done on the estates
were often made at less than their proper amount. John Pratye had a
lease for two years of Heath Mill (apparently formerly the property of
Trentham Priory) and, in 1538, he sent in an account for repairs
done, showing payments to various workmen, who are named,
amounting to £16 7s. 8d. The bailiff was Robert Whyttworth, and
although he passed the account and signed it as correct, John
Pratye is found offering to take £10 down in discharge of it. The
document affords an interesting illustration of the way the monastic
estates were managed when they passed into the hands of the
Crown.[220]
There being such difficulty in obtaining the payment of money
legally due within anything like reasonable time, it is not surprising to
find that speculators arose and did a brisk business. The abuse
became so marked that in Edward VI’s reign Parliament had to pass
an Act (2–3 Edward VI, Cap. VII) “against the craftie and deceitful
buying of Pensions from the late Monasteries,” but without much
success in providing a remedy.
Of course the Dissolution entailed a very large material loss to
the Church. The gross total income of the monasteries in
Staffordshire, as given in Valor Ecclesiasticus, was £1,874 0s. 1½d.
—an estimate, as we have seen, which was probably below the
mark. If it be said that the monks took but little share in the spiritual
life of the people and did but little practical work for the Church, we
may at least take into consideration the amount they received from
tithes, glebe, and voluntary offerings from parishes. They received,
as we have seen, £543 6s. 5d. from this source and paid out £19 7s.
10d. Of the former sum practically nothing reverted to its original
use, so that, even if the latter continued to be paid, the Church,
though it might be no worse off in the matter of tithes than it was
before, was at any rate no better. The benefices decreased in value.
Ellaston was valued by Strete before the suppression of Calwich at
£13 6s. 8d.;[221] in Valor Ecclesiasticus it stands at £4 9s. 2d.[222]
The Bishop of the Diocese lost £94 6s. 8d. in fees and the
Archdeacons £10 13s. 4d. The fees paid to the King amounted to
£10 9s. 7d., and would, of course, continue under the new owners.
The total amount of wealth brought to the Royal Treasury is quite
incalculable. Besides the whole annual income of the monasteries,
there was the value of the contents of the houses, plate, furniture,
stores, grain, cattle, etc. The former was enormous, but the latter
was no despicable figure. We have figures of some of the sales at
the Dissolution:
Goods Sold Plate Lead Bells
£ s. d.
Brewood Nunnery 7 6 1
St. Thomas’s Priory 87 9 6 28½oz. £40 £54
Dieulacres Abbey 63 14 10 117oz. £720 £37 10s.
Newcastle--Black 14oz. choir &
Friars cloister
Stafford--Austin Friars 32 6 4 13oz. £8 8s.
„ Grey Friars 34 3 10 16oz. £45 £10
Lichfield--Grey Friars 68 15 0
Croxden Abbey 9 9 8
Rocester Abbey 11 6
Hulton Abbey £19 16s.
Total (of figures shown) 304 6 9 448½ oz. £805 £129
14s.

Besides the above figures we know of much lead at other places.


In 1555 Scudamore was being sued for arrears from the sales of
lead from Croxden, Rocester, Dieulacres, Tutbury, St. Thomas’s, and
Dudley, amounting to close on £500, so that the figure shown in the
above table evidently represents but a small proportion of the total
amount received from this source alone. Of course there were
considerable deductions for rewards and expenses, but the amount
of wealth brought immediately into the Royal Treasury was very
large. And a very short time earlier £400 at least had been paid by
Staffordshire houses for being allowed to continue.
It is noticeable that nothing is said about the monastic libraries.
As a rule, books are almost unmentioned in any of the documents of
the Suppression, so that we might suppose the houses were
destitute of literature. But the scanty survivals are sufficient to show
that the reverse was the fact.
The Annals of Burton are in the British Museum,[223] and so is
the Chronicle of Croxden. Various other books from the monastic
libraries of Staffordshire have also drifted thither, one of which, a
copy of St. Augustine from Burton Abbey, has on the fly-leaf a list of
the books in the Library in the thirteenth century.[224] It shows that
there were then over sixty volumes, many of which contained several
works. These are Commentaries on various books of the Bible, most
of the works of the Fathers, sundry books of Sermons and Homilies,
Lives of various saints, and several editions of Bede’s History, one of
which is in English. There were also copies of the Gospels and of the
Psalms in English, an English Hymnary, and an English Homily
book. Abbot Geoffrey, the sixth Abbot of Burton, wrote the life and
miracles of St. Modwen in a quarto of 167 folios in double columns,
[225] and the first Abbot of Croxden himself copied out the greater
part of the Bible. A later Abbot of Croxden, in the thirteenth century,
bought for the Library an annotated Bible in nine volumes for fifty
marks. Abbot William de Over, who was elected in 1297, much
enriched the Library. It is evident there were books in considerable
numbers in the monasteries, yet they are unmentioned in the records
of the dissolution. Very occasionally we find “old books” sold for
trivial sums, and one or two Missals are mentioned. At Stafford
Robert Dorrington bought two “lots” of “old bokes,” those in the
Library at the Grey Friars (with a coffer) for two shillings, and those
in the vestry for eightpence; the “old bokes in the quyer” at the Austin
Friars sold for sixpence. At Stafford two Missals sold for eightpence
and twelvepence each, and at Lichfield one fetched fourpence.
The books and documents that were important as title-deeds
were of course looked after. The original Chartulary of Burton Abbey
is still in the possession of the Marquis of Anglesey, and that of
Dieulacres is possessed by the Earl of Macclesfield. The
Chartularies of Stone and Ronton are in the British Museum.[226] But
probably the greater part of the books were treated in a manner
similar to that in which Dr. Layton treated the books at the Oxford
colleges, and no doubt the description he gave of the result of his
visit to New College would apply to most of the monasteries: “We
fownde all the gret quadrant court full of the leiffes ... the wynde
blowing them into evere corner.”[227]
As might be supposed from the character of the agents
employed, much of the spoil did not reach the Royal treasure-house
without a good deal of trouble. The lead was to be melted into
“plokes” and sows, weighed, and marked with the King’s marks, and
delivered under indenture to the constables of neighbouring castles,
such as Tutbury. But so long afterwards as the reign of Mary, John
Scudamore was being called upon for the settlement of his accounts.
The following letter was addressed to him from Westminster on the
“laste of February,” 1555:[228]
“After our harty comendacyons, theise maye be to advertyse you
that we have perused the indentures made betwyxte Mr. Sheldon and
you, and accordynge to the tenure of the same have charged the
sayed master Sheldon with all the leade, bell metalle, and redy money
mencyoned and conteigned in the sayed indenture, which beynge
deducted oute of youer charge, yett there dothe remayne to be
aunsweryd by you bothe leade and bell metalle as ffollowythe, that ys
to saye for leade att ... Rocestre, vi, ff.; Croxden, xiiii, ff. de.; Delacres,
iiii, ff.; Tuttberye, vi, ff., i, quarter; nuper prioratus canonicorum de
Stafford, xliiii, ff.; ... the celle of Dudley, iiii, ff.; ... ffor the aunswere
whereof we requyer you, by the vertue of the kynge and quenes
majesties comyssyon to us directed, that wythe as convenyente
spede as you may after the receyte hereof sende unto us youre
suffycyente deputie to accoumpte byfore us for the same, so as
hereuppon their majesties may be satisfyed by you of the dett that
shall faul out uppon the same. And bycause we be moche callyd
uppon to reporte youer estate and dett herein, we therefore are
constrayned the more ernestly to calle uppon you, whome we dought
not wylle have such regarde hereunto as bothe their majesties
expectacyon herein may be served (as ys mete), as also for the full
ende of this charge towardes youer selfe, with which as before the
ende ys troublesome and comberous unto you, so will the ende
thereof be to youer quyetnes and comforte. Whereof, for that you are
ouer oulde ffrende and of oulde acquayntaunce, we thought to advyse
you the rather for that commyssyon ys nowe oute for the ende of
those causys, of which you nowe may be dyscharged yf the faulte be
not in youer selfe. We also advertysse you that Mr. Sheldone wylbe no
further charged concernynge the leade and belles within your late
circuyte there thenne ys conteyned in the indentures bytwyxte you
and hym; and therefore you muste aunswere the reste youer selfe,
whereunto we dought not but you wyll have such respecte as we may
receyve youer aunswere withe expedycion.”
It is difficult to make any precise estimate of the numbers affected
by the Dissolution. In the case of houses the deeds of surrender of
which are extant, of course the number of signatories can be
definitely stated. The Suppression papers give some further details.
Valor Ecclesiasticus gives the stewards and bailiffs, etc., but, as we
have seen, cannot be relied upon for completeness. From a
comparison of the available data the following table has been
compiled:
Religious Bailiffs Servants Chief Steward Others
etc.
Brewood 4 7 1 chaplain
Nunnery
Burton Abbey 11 Earl of 1 corrodian,
Huntingdon
1 scholar
Croxden Abbey 13 7
Dieulacres Abbey 13 8 30 Lord Derby 8 bedeswomen
Dudley Priory 2
Hulton Abbey 5 Sir Philip Draycot
Sir Richard
Sutton
Rocester Priory 9 2
Ronton Priory 3 John Harcourt
St. Thomas’s 7 13 16 Earl Ferrers
Priory
Stone Priory 2 Sir Edward
Aston
Trentham Priory 4 William Chetwyn 1 corrodian
Tutbury Priory 9 10 Earl of
Shrewsbury

The recurrence of the same surname among the lists of inmates


and employees of the religious houses is worth noticing. At
Dieulacres the Abbot, Thomas Whitney, had Humfrey Whitney as
bailiff of his lordships and manors in Cheshire, John Whitney as
chamberlain, and two other servants who bore his name and were of
sufficient importance to be pensioned. At St. Thomas’s the Prior,
Richard Whitwell, gave employment to another Richard, an Edward,
and a Katharine, who all bore his surname; William Stapulton and
Thomas Bagley were canons, and Thomas Stapulton and William
Bagley were servants. Among the servants three were named Coke,
two Turner, two Beche or Bech (besides one named Bache), and
three were named Baker.
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