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“This book is a fascinating, thought-provoking, and resonance-creating scaffold
for navigating through the complexity and ambiguity of today and the future.”
Renate Motschnig, Vice-dean of Educational Affairs,
University of Vienna, Austria

“For those who are unfamiliar with AI – this is a good introduction, for those
who are already familiar with AI, this is a good refresher and for those who
already use AI, this will provide some helpful, useful tips for you, particularly
in future use. We need to be intelligently prepared for what is to come over the
next few years!”
Michael F. Shaughnessy, Professor of Education,
Eastern New Mexico University Portales,
New Mexico, USA

“Teachers need to be aware of the varied forms of intelligence and the acceptance
that current technical change is rapid, and hence classroom practice needs to
accommodate these changes. I recommend that teacher-trainers should be first
to respond to this challenge!”
Belle Wallace, MEd, MPhil, FRSA

“It is obvious, right from the beginning, that the authors know what they are
talking about. I highly recommend it.”
Dr. Hanna David, Psychologist & Counsellor for Gifted Students,
Emerita Tel Aviv University, Israel

“A must to read for any teachers, educators and administrators. Most definitely
thought-provoking but also a validation of how to create alternative possible
educational futures. I will prescribe the book for the taught Masters (Curriculum
Design) course.”
Dr. Gillian Eriksson, Senior Lecturer, Department
of Learning Sciences and Educational Research,
University of Central Florida, USA
AI AND DEVELOPING HUMAN
INTELLIGENCE

As the relationship between AI machines and humans develops, we ask what it will
mean to be an intelligent learner in an emerging, socio-dynamic learningscape. The
need for a new global view of intelligence and education is the core discussion of this
future-focussed collection of ideas, questions, and activities for learners to explore.
This fascinating guide offers activities to understand what needs to be changed
in our education systems and our view of intelligence. As well as exploring
AI, HI, the future of learning and caring for all learners, this book addresses
fundamental questions such as:

• How do we educate ourselves for an increasingly uncertain future?

• What is the purpose of intelligence?
• How can a curriculum focussing on human curiosity and creativity be
created?
• Who are we and what are we becoming?
• What will we invent now that AI exists?

AI and Developing Human Intelligence will interest you, inform you, and empower
your understanding of “intelligence” and where we are going on the next part of
our journey in understanding what it is to be human now and tomorrow.

John Senior is a visiting researcher at the Institute for Cognitive Neuroscience

and Psychology of the Hungarian Academy researching the relationship between
HI and potential psychodynamic mental health issues of AI machines.

Éva Gyarmathy is a senior researcher at the Institute of Cognitive Neuroscience

and Psychology of the Hungarian Academy researching the challenge of the 21st
century and talents associated with specific learning difficulties, ADHD, and/
or autism.
AI AND DEVELOPING
HUMAN INTELLIGENCE
Future Learning and Educational
Innovation

John Senior and Éva Gyarmathy

First published 2022
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
© 2022 John Senior and Éva Gyarmathy
The right of John Senior and Éva Gyarmathy to be identified as authors
of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with sections 77
and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced
or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other
means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and
recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without
permission in writing from the publishers.
Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks
or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and
explanation without intent to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Senior, John (Educator), author. | Gyarmathy, Éva, author.
Title: AI and developing human intelligence : future learning and
educational innovation / John Senior and Éva Gyarmathy.
Description: Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY : Routledge, [2022] |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2021013973 | ISBN 9780367404864 (hbk) |
ISBN 9780367404888 (pbk) | ISBN 9780429356346 (ebk)
Subjects: LCSH: Intellect—Philosophy. | Learning, Psychology of. |
Learning strategies—Technological innovations. | Education—
Philosophy. | Machine learning—Philosophy.
Classification: LCC BF431 .S4386 2021 | DDC 153.9—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021013973

ISBN: 978-0-367-40486-4 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-0-367-40488-8 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-0-429-35634-6 (ebk)
DOI: 10.4324/9780429356346

Typeset in Bembo
by Apex CoVantage, LLC
CONTENTS

List of figures ix
List of tables x
About the authors xi
Acknowledgements xii
Preface xiii

Introduction: artificial intelligence: the mirror we can climb

through 1

1 Defining the new learning landscape: a humble guide to the

new world 6

2 A brief history of intelligence – artificial and otherwise 74

3 Fluid intelligence, other satellites, and consciousness 143

4 The changing nature of employment and future learning

behaviours 169

5 Included, excluded, extraordinary, efficacious: transitional

and open curriculums 187

6 Accepting change: a brief history of the future 207

viii Contents

7 The mental health of machines 220

8 What needs to be done: the creative being and being creative 242

Afterword: homesick for the old times – yearning

for the future 244

Glossary 246
Index 249
FIGURES

0.1 and 0.2 “For you see, so many out-of-the-way things

have happened lately, that Alice had begun to think that
very few things indeed were really impossible” (Carroll, 2003) 1
1.1 A survival kit for the 21st century 21
1.2 Education 2.0 fails to provide a survival kit for the 21st century 22
1.3 Components of socio-cultural disadvantage 65
1.4 An increase in stimulus richness increases ability diversity 67
2.1 Abilities 88
2.2 Satellites 116
3.1 Maslow’s motivational levels with the inner animals 154
4.1 Work (1852–1865), Ford Madox Brown 169
4.2 Detecting illegality 178
4.3 AI applications to prevent illegality 178
4.4 Work (1852–1865), Ford Madox Brown 184
7.1 DSM5i and DMS5ii 234
TABLES

1.1 Activities in Bloom’s system: the pairs of cognitive levels in an

individual’s development, which can also be identified in
humanity’s development 38
2.1 Emotional intelligence 109
5.1 Connected people 200
5.2 Learning summary 202
5.3 Smart machines topics and themes 204
7.1 Taking care 225
7.2 10 caring tips 226
ABOUT THE AUTHORS

John Senior is an active learner and teacher, creativity consultant, lecturer,

and writer. For over four decades he has worked with and for young, insatiable
learners as a co-learner/mentor. His current research concerns the journey to
understanding the relationship between Human Intelligence and the potential
psychodynamic mental health issues of AI machines. Other interests focus on
the authenticity of being and practical approaches to supporting parents, carers,
schools, and learners who are learning within a time of turbulence.
He is the author/co-author and sometime editor of 17 books, including joint
editorship and contributor to the SAGE Handbook of Gifted Education. He has also
published enrichment programmes and publications supporting home education.
He is an associate language editor and senior reviewer for Gifted Education Inter-
national, a SAGE Journal, and a visiting researcher at the Institute for Cognitive
Neuroscience and Psychology of the Hungarian Academy.

Éva Gyarmathy is a senior researcher at the Institute for Cognitive Neuroscience

and Psychology of the Hungarian Academy. Her research interests focus on mul-
tiple exceptional gifted individuals such as talent associated with specific learn-
ing difficulties, ADHD, autism, and social/cultural differences. She also lectures
in several universities. As a psychotherapist, her work is directed toward the care
of the profoundly gifted and multiple exceptionally talented. She is a consultant
to private schools that serve gifted children and adolescents who could not be
integrated into mainstream schools. She founded the Adolescent and Adult Dys-
lexia Centre and the Special Needs Talent Support Council.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We offer our sincere thanks to those who read, advised, read again, and com-
mented on our ideas and writing. We are extremely fortunate to know so many
people who are happy to speak truthfully. Special thanks to Zsófi Gyamarthy for
her invaluable observations and helping us pull the reins in on some of our wilder
thinking. Likewise, our deep thanks to Sarah Philo for her astute observations,
keen eye, and keener intelligence. Thanks also to Bruce Roberts at Taylor &
Francis for commissioning this book and for his thoughtful patience and support,
and to Molly Selby (also at Taylor & Francis), who worked harder than anybody
to produce this readable, organised, and forensically edited book. All thinking
errors, misconfigurations, wild thoughts (and f lashes of light!), or otherwise lay
at our feet.
We also acknowledge a special thanks to Platyhelminth, the Flatworm, and
the Stromatolites-Cyanobacteria partnership, without whom this book would
not have been possible.
PREFACE

To say we live in a complex, changing, and challenging world cannot be disputed.

How we manage the challenges of change is important and something we can
control. Artificial intelligence (AI) and human intelligence (HI) are at the centre
of successfully managing change in a positive, compassionate, ethical, and humani-
tarian way. This book explores some ideas to do with our understanding of what it
means to be intelligent now and in a possible future. The amount of information
regarding AI can be overwhelming. We hope we discuss in this book ideas that
will interest you, inform you, and empower your understanding of what has led us
to our present understanding of ‘intelligence’ and where we are going on the next
part of our journey in understanding what it is to be human now and tomorrow.
In fact, we hope we have written a guidebook for exploring AI, HI, and the future
of learning and caring for all learners. A guidebook is always useful.

AI is taking over a great deal of what has previously been viewed as the
human domain. As a result, the evidence that we need to change the way we
view intelligence and the way we design our education system is increas-
ingly compelling. We need to act on this evidence and use our human
ingenuity to re-imagine our education system to enable us to remain the
smartest intelligence on the planet.
(Luckin, 2018)

What follows is a brief guide to the historical development and changing defini-
tions of what was and is now understood by the word and concept of “intelli-
gence.” The discussions within this book focus on what intelligence will become
in future decades. Are we ready for a quantum leap in our understanding of what
it is to be an intelligent human being in an AI world leading to deep learning
and a host of innovation?
xiv Preface

AI and machine learning are also explored, as is the likelihood of machines

evolving and self-developing mental health issues which will need more atten-
tion in the nearing future of autonomous-acting intelligent machines. AI think-
ing at its core is essentially human.

Reference
Luckin, R. 2018. Machine Learning and Human Intelligence: The Future of Education for the
21st Century. London: UCL IOE Press. ISBN: 978-1782772514.
INTRODUCTION
Artificial intelligence: the mirror we can climb
through

FIGURE 0.1 (ON LEFT) AND FIGURE 0.2 (ON RIGHT): “For you see, so many out-of-the-
way things have happened lately, that Alice had begun to think that very few things
indeed were really impossible” (Carroll, 2003)

With new knowledge come new thinking and new solutions to problems we did
not realise existed. With new knowledge come new challenges and definitions.
The identity and inf luence of artificial intelligence (AI) is accelerating and will
accelerate our understanding of what it is to be human and how we will need
to develop if machines also start developing independently. With new knowl-
edge come new perceptions and insights into how we learn and how we teach,
DOI: 10.4324/9780429356346-1
2 Introduction

how we can envision the future and become active partners with AI in creating
the future. Never has the future held greater challenges than the time we are
living in. In the past we have had epidemics, financial collapse, religious and
moral earthquakes, war and unrest, unspeakable wrongs to fight against, and the
overarching problem of human ignorance. The future informed by work done
today – if general purpose artificial intelligence (GPAI) becomes possible and is
created – will mean there is no need to assume there would only be one solution
to fit all challenges, as GPAI would be capable of enormous calculation intel-
ligence. Already today, even recourse to only special AI can help us overcome
problems and shape the future. AI does not need to repeat the mistakes of the
primate, Homo sapiens.
In this book we look at what it is to be intelligent, what it means to challenge
accepted views of how we should learn and teach in the world of an advancing
technology that is working at speeds we can hardly manage to understand. We
seek to explore and contribute to the reduction of uncertainty in the whole of
society by a careful examination of how intelligence is developed and enriched
through, in part, determining a holistic curriculum delivered through a holistic
pedagogy.
Developing learning represented by artificial intelligence + human intelli-
gence will maximise our intellectual, commercial, and physical survival chances
as we manage and respond to the emergent developments, dangers, and chal-
lenges of AI.

The world is far from finished. There are new additions and old errors
everywhere that must be considered in ever-changing pictures of the
world. We are reduced to fragmentary knowledge sufficient to provide
practical but partial anchorages. The study of epistemology is a prescrip-
tion for humility.
(Viney and Douglas, 2017)

We must learn from our mistakes to survive and to improve our lives and the
experience of being human.
Artificial intelligence offers an opportunity to see things differently, to act
differently, and perhaps most importantly to frame an understanding of what it
will mean to be human in a world of intelligent machines – at all times bearing
in mind that GPAI may achieve an independent learning state sooner than we
think.
And that is why you should read this book. It is a book of fact and fiction,
nightmares and dreams, possibilities, and opportunities – it does not seek to be
a scientific work or a strictly pedagogic guide. It is a book for the present and a
modest guidebook for the future of learning and what it will mean to be a learner
in the age of AI. Our view of intelligence is that it is going to move from the
stage of the adolescent narcissist to one whereby informed and mature choices
will need to be actively arrived at. These choices will be decisions that will in
 Introduction 3

turn need to be acted upon as we understand the underlying anxieties and ambi-
tions that underpin our present concepts of what it means to be intelligent.
Artificial intelligence may even be the purpose of the human race. Who is
to say? In this book we aim to promote and inform learners, teachers, and carers
as to the pathways and highways we can choose as individuals within stronger
communities to follow. We can follow on from the work and vision of Augusta
Ada King, Countess of Lovelace, as she explored through the mindset of “poeti-
cal science.” This led her to ask questions about the “analytical engine” through
which she considered how individuals and society related to technology as a col-
laborative tool, presciently saying that machines can only do what we have the
skill to tell them to do.
Our starting point, central to this book and our views as researchers, is one
step in building on the work of the many people of vision. We might at some
point in our future be entering a time when intelligent machines will not need
to be told anything. They will need to have discussions and to continually learn
as humans do. In life we do not start from nothing.
The words of Toff ler are still relevant to our present-day situation and will
remain so for the foreseeable future:

When a society is struck by two or more giant waves of change, and none
is yet clearly dominant, the image of the future is fractured. It becomes
extremely difficult to sort out the meaning of the changes and conf licts
that arise. The collision of wave fronts creates a raging ocean, full of clash-
ing currents, eddies, and maelstroms which conceal the deeper, more
important historic tides.
(Toffler, 1980)

Each chapter is laid out in a similar way. Chapters are brief ly précised; then the
main content of the chapter follows. In many ways this is a practical book seek-
ing to afford informed change, and with this in mind we have included four
sections to support the ideas in each chapter: sample activities/exercises and proj-
ects, link pathways (further discussion points/topics), suggested further reading,
and the references pertinent to the particular chapter. The book is presented so
that chapters are independent of each other while linking in order to present an
overall view of our collective possible futures as we discover how to learn in a
new world.

1 Defining the new learning landscape

• Information and uncertainty
• The third culture
• “Humachine” transformations
2 A brief history of intelligence
3 Fluid intelligence, other satellites, and consciousness
4 Introduction

4 The changing nature of employment and future learning behaviours

5 Included, excluded, extraordinary, efficacious, and invisible learners: transi-
tional and open curriculums
6 Accepting change: a brief history of the future
7 The mental health of machines
8 What needs to be done: the creative being and being creative

Should you see this book as a “serious” book? Yes. Should you see this book as
a little disturbing? Certainly. Most importantly we hope you enjoy this mix of
science and poetical art and find a positive return from considering our ideas and
the presentation of other ideas: a book that is stimulating and a useful prepara-
tion for viewing the place we are now living in and the times we are steering
our lives towards.
We are being driven by many “clashing currents” into changing our views
of the past which in turn inf luences our view of how the future might be. The
forces seeking changes are not all benign or caring of us. Understanding what is
happening in our future world is essential whether we are a learner or a teacher,
and we must recognise that we are both. Inaction is no choice we can make.
We hope you enjoy this book and find it useful in ref lecting on our view of
the past, present, and future mixed-up conceptions of AI and intelligence; what
it means to be both ref lecting upon and living in the present, preparing for the
pedagogy of the future, and learning to live in an ever-developing human, arti-
ficial, synthetically intelligent present.

Enrichment
Questions to ask:

i How would you define intelligence?

Do you believe such a thing as a measurable intelligence exists?
How would you characterise artificial intelligence as a feature of a develop-
ing world?
What is it to be human? What makes us unique?
What is the use of consciousness? What is it for?
ii The periodic table, also known as the periodic table of elements, is a tabu-
lar display of the chemical elements arranged by atomic number, electron
configuration, and recurring chemical properties. The organization of the
periodic table can be used to derive relationships between element proper-
ties, and also to predict chemical properties and behaviours of undiscovered
or newly synthesised elements. How could a periodic table of intelligences
be created? What common criteria could be assigned to intelligences? How
many types of intelligence could exist? If not a periodic table of intelligence,
could a periodic table of ideas be created, showing what does exist and the
blank spaces of ideas that should exist?
 Introduction 5

Link pathways
What connects Lewis Carroll, Countess Lovelace, Alvin Toff ler, Isaac Asimov,
and George Polya?

References
Carroll, Lewis. 2003. Alice’s Adventures in Wonderland and Through the Looking Glass.
London: Penguin Classics. Illustrated. ISBN-13: 978-0-141-43976-1.
Toff ler, Alvin. 1980. The Third Way. London: William Collins Sons & Co Ltd. ISBN:
000-21184-7.
Viney, W., Woody, William Douglas. 2017. Neglected Perspectives on Science and Reli-
gion: Historical and Contemporary Relations. Abingdon, UK: Routledge. ISBN:
978-1-138-28476-0.

Suggested further reading

Alison, Gopnik, Meltzoff, Andrew, Kuhl, Patrick. 1999. How Babies Think. London:
Weidenfeld & Nicholson. ISBN: 0-297-84227-7.
Lovelace, Ada King. 1992. Ada the Enchantress of Numbers: A Selection from the Letters of
Lord Byron’s Daughter and Her Description of the First Computer. Mill Valley, CA: Straw-
berry Press. ISBN: 978-0-912-64709-8.
Macfarlane, Bruce. 2017. Freedom to Learn: The Threat to Student Academic Freedom and
Why It Needs to Be Reclaimed. London: Routledge. ISBN: 978-0-415-72916-1.
Polya, George. 1945. How to Solve It. London: Pelican Books. ISBN: 0-14-012499-3.
Wooldridge, Michael. 2020. The Road to Conscious Machines: The Story of AI. London:
Pelican Press. ISBN: 978-0-241-39674-2.
1
DEFINING THE NEW LEARNING
LANDSCAPE
A humble guide to the new world

Information and uncertainty – the struggles

of education at level 2
The digital generation is us – all of us. Generations who previously would have
been labelled as digital immigrants are more similar to those called digital natives
than their earlier selves. Predigital fossils have not changed, though, of course.
The old adage is true in this respect, too: “The stones remain.” And there will
be many who will remain strangers to the digital present and future. We always
need to remember that, for many, change is difficult to accommodate, and we
must take this into account as the realisation of the future accelerates.
However, those who are alive to change and learning and not made of stone
have spent so much active time in the age of info-communication that their
neurological systems have adopted to the ways of this age. The human spirit,
on the other hand, especially in a defensive mode, does not succumb so easily
to novelty, and it will vigorously resist change and the uncertainty caused by
change. Many people are still waiting for a new culture to pop into existence,
which would finally bring some stability again.
This new culture is in the making. This is the good news. The bad news
(but each can label “good” and “bad” as they see fit) is that the core essence
of this new culture is change. As such, the most important component of our
psychological survival gear is the acceptance of uncertainty. It will not be easy,
but, coupled with our other values necessary for survival, we are facing a huge
opportunity for development.
The general direction of historical development is clear, as are the new
challenges of change, and answers to these challenges. They have already
appeared in accordance with a series of levels familiar from several domains
of human activity. Such challenges signal a change between these levels and

DOI: 10.4324/9780429356346-2
 Defining the new learning landscape 7

inter-relationships and have invariably brought revolutionary changes in all

eras and all arenas.
However, the stimuli bearing change have not yet reached the response
threshold of the educational system. It has either been sedated with particularly
strong tranquilisers, or the system itself is too unwieldy and requires a bigger
scale of destruction in order for the mummies of education to be uncovered
and put in a museum and for the pyramids to be filled with content adapted to
change.

Information networks
Human information networks exist and have always existed, because the transfer
of information belongs to and is enlivened through human social behaviour and
has a defining impact on human development.
According to evolution scientist Robin Dunbar (2004), everything started
with social grooming. On observing the social behaviour of primates, he
concluded that this social cohesion activity is very demanding, and as a result,
the brain is capable of handling only a limited number of social relationships.
Based on the brain capacity of different species, he calculated the approximate
size of their communities. In the case of humans, this number is around 150
people. Grooming such a great number of individuals would be, however,
time-consuming, and so in the case of humans, the role of social groom-
ing has been taken over by talking and gossip as a means of building social
cohesion.
This helped considerably in our rise and our development.
The ancestor of the internet was a merely virtual (although we shall pass
over what we mean and understand as to exactly what is real) network transfer-
ring information, and it worked well in smaller communities. Humans, how-
ever, strived to expand their communication in both space and time, and they
experimented with different mediums. Smoke signals, cave drawings, then later
recorded linguistic speech (pictographs, pictographic writing), phonological
representations, and alphabetic writing were a big step forward in knowledge
sharing.
Printing brought about a revolutionary change, and subsequently the spread
of electronic communication tools and digital technologies meant that info-
communication became extremely fast and rich, bringing with it a number of
social and developmental changes. Even gossip did not remain what it used to be.
It developed with the technologies of the 21st century, which shows that gossip
does indeed fill an important role in humanity’s life.
Gossip plays a vital community- and culture-forming role, not to mention that
people are also informed of important things through gossip. Gossip used to be
the news. The appearance of printing brought on an enormous change, and pub-
licly available information came into being. Gossip became the antithesis of this.
8 Defining the new learning landscape

As printing became widespread, gossip as information took on a negative

connotation, because in many respects what it conveys is unreliable and ines-
sential, and it is often used for manipulative purposes. Today, now that we have
technologically surpassed printing and the internet has opened up the way for
information at a hitherto unseen level, information very much resembling gossip
is beginning to increasingly appear on this pinnacle of information tools: infor-
mation on the internet is often unreliable, inessential, and often serves manipula-
tive purposes. Gossip has become globalised.
With the appearance of the internet, it seemed at the beginning that human
knowledge would finally expand and would be unstoppable. However, as the
internet became widespread, its content slipped out from under the control of the
small class of “literates.” Information generated by the users mirrors these users,
and so the greater the masses that use the internet, the more its content mirrors
the intellectual content of humanity.
The internet is a storehouse of the information generated by humans, rather
than of humanity’s knowledge. The first step in learning to use new tools is to
learn how they work and how they can be used. The second step is to understand
what it is that it creates and how it creates it. We have taken the first step, even if
somewhat hesitatingly, but not the second one, and we should be cautious as to
the next steps we take, as it is dangerous to proceed without understanding what
it is we are proceeding to.
The internet bombards us with data, information, knowledge, and wisdom,
but it would be good to know which is which.

The road from information to knowledge and, hopefully,

beyond
The words data, information, understanding, and knowledge are often used synony-
mously, even though there are vital differences between them. Russell Ackoff
(1989) analysed very precisely the various elements in communication. Since then,
many have been trying to develop his system, but the following captures its essence:

• Data: a description of the world in symbols; facts

• Information: processed, transferred data, knowledge, or opinion; answers
“who,” “what,” “when,” and “where” questions
• Knowledge: processed, applied data and information; a model of the world;
answers “how” questions
• Understanding: involves further processing; answers “why” questions
• Wisdom: evaluation of the processed material

A piece of data is about unprocessed facts. It may be mistaken, but it is never

false (though it can be falsely conveyed). At that point, however, it is information
and not a piece of data obtained through direct experience.
 Defining the new learning landscape 9

Information already represents interpretation and opinion, and of course,

like data, can also be mistaken, but processing allows for conscious or uncon-
scious deception as well.
Knowledge arises from the processing of information. Following appro-
priate processing, useful knowledge comes into existence. Knowledge pres-
ents a limit to the ability of answering questions. If processing remains at the
level of memorisation, a more generalised application of knowledge is not
possible.
Understanding is the cognitive and analytical processing of knowledge. The
difference between knowledge and understanding is the same as the difference
between memorisation and learning. This is a conceptual difference that the
word learn actually fails to highlight sufficiently. If someone has learned some-
thing, then they are able to apply that piece of knowledge, while if they merely
memorised it, then they will not be able to apply it due to lack of processing,
because processing is what leads to understanding and therethrough to solutions
beyond mere factual knowledge.
Computers are able to process data and create information for us. Signifi-
cantly, artificial intelligence can no longer only memorise things; it is also able
to learn things. This way, a machine may be able to learn more efficiently than a
student who is compelled by education to stick to factual knowledge.
Wisdom is the highest level of processing and synthesis, a level at which
the mind creates new connections based on knowledge and based on the eval-
uation and deliberation of the understanding of this knowledge. This is a cre-
ative level, a level at which elements of earlier categories are evaluated along
moral and human values, as well, whereby a higher-level understanding can
emerge.
The first four categories relate to the past and are concerned with what has
been and what can be known or understood from what has been. The fifth cat-
egory, wisdom, looks at the future, and in fact creates ideas that constitute the
future. However, this level is out of reach without a command of the previous
levels of processing.
Many are of the opinion that artificial intelligence is incapable of reaching
this level because of its lack of conscious experience. However, if artificial
intelligence develops at an exponential rate as reckoned by Ray Kurzweil
(2005) and many others, then it could reach the capacity of the human brain
within a few decades, and since it is able to learn, it will also acquire expe-
rience. The question is at which point we can regard this as a conscious
experience.
Artificial intelligence has already crossed some boundary lines that we set
with a human brain socialised in the past. One such line is creativity. Machines
have been able for some time to write Bach chorales, and anyone today can cre-
ate artistic pictures with basic mobile applications. Artificial intelligence can also
write movie scripts and beat not only the best chess players but also Go masters,
10 Defining the new learning landscape

even though this game requires a lot of intuition. Artificial intelligence is also
capable of producing formulas in organic chemistry.
Technology and the propagation of information both develop exponentially –
that is, their development accelerates. Information f loods us, and we have to
learn to process it very soon. To achieve this, it can help if we understand the
general tendencies of development processes, and if learning/teaching progresses
to the levels currently dictating cultural and social changes.

The ladder of development

There are several segments of our collective and individual lives whose devel-
opment catalyses significant changes in human history. Such segments include
technology, information dissemination, and education. Technology has primar-
ily affected the development of humanity at the level of ecology, while dissemi-
nation of information did so at a mental level.
The role of education is to impart the most important abilities and knowledge
in a given culture, and education fulfils its function when it meets the techno-
logical and information dissemination challenges of the relevant culture. We
need to respond not to the tools provided by our culture but to the problems
posed by our culture.
Revolutionary changes involve fundamental level shifts which entail signifi-
cant changes in the socio-cultural environment, and such turning points are as a
result not hard to identify.
The instrument of the information explosion at the end of the 20th century
was the internet. It developed within a very short time span and very clearly
right in front of our eyes, and it has been progressing from Web 1.0 towards
Web 4.0.
Each developmental stage of the internet has brought massive changes in
human communication, which in itself makes the internet an important object
of study. Here, however, the focus of our study is not merely the effect of the
development of the internet. Instead, this quickly developing tool will be used to
illustrate the stages of development through the different versions of the internet,
adopting even the version designations 1.0–4.0.
The short history of the internet through its stages is as follows:

Web 0.0: 1969 – ARPANET and other internal information networks are
its precursors.
Web 1.0: 1991 – The World Wide Web becomes a public network of infor-
mation; information becomes publicly accessible.
Web 2.0: 2003 – Social network; interactive; human links become wide-
spread and common; users generate data.
Web 3.0: 2006 – Intelligent network; it adapts data coming from the users
to user needs; content becomes personalised.
 Defining the new learning landscape 11

Web 4.0: 2012 – Artificial intelligence becomes part of the network; a col-
laboration of machines and humans; a comprehensive organising force
arises.

The different steps in the development of the internet are thus as follows:

1 Precursor, initiative
2 Appears and becomes accessible
3 Spreads and becomes widespread and mainstream
4 Becomes differentiated and personalised
5 Reaches the level of synthesis and becomes comprehensive

This trend fits all other forms of development as well, irrespective of how big a
time interval the development takes up. The stages we observe through the tran-
sition stages of the internet – an important and quickly developing tool – apply
equally to technology, information transfer, and education.
The cases of industrial revolutions, revolutions of the media, and the evolution of
education would be entirely parallel, although in the latter case, we can hardly talk
about revolutions’ more restrained evolution. But the stages do support one another:

Precursors
Industry 0.0: 13th century – Technological innovations; the use of the
force of nature during the first stages of “mechanisation;” the windmill
and the water mill appear.
Media 0.0: 11th to 15th century – Codex-copying monks and (later) secu-
lar copying workshops would be involved in replication.
Education 0.0: 11th to 15th century – The foundations of today’s educa-
tion were laid in medieval monasteries, where even poorer children had
the opportunity to study.
It becomes accessible:
Industry 1.0: end of the 18th century – The steam engine makes it pos-
sible for humanity not to rely on animal power; mechanisation becomes
available.
Media 1.0: middle of the 15th century – Books need no longer be copied
by hand; the printing press makes books, and so information is more
accessible.
Education 1.0: middle of the 18th century – Schooling begins, and educa-
tion becomes available to everyone.

It becomes widespread:

Industry 2.0: beginning of the 20th century – Mass production spreads;

assembly line production.
12 Defining the new learning landscape

Media 2.0: beginning of the 20th century – Massive spread of information;

the radio, the printing industry, the telephone, television, and other cul-
tural instruments make information available to the masses.
Education 2.0: beginning of the 20th century – Mass education emerges,
compulsory schooling.

It becomes personal:

Industry 3.0: first decade of the 21st century – Digital solutions, production
of more personalised products, nanotechnology, and 3D printing begin.
Media 3.0: first decade of the 21st century – Information belongs to every-
one; personal information now also appears in the media.
Education 3.0: first decade of the 21st century – Digital solutions make
personalised learning possible.

It becomes comprehensive:

Industry 4.0: 2014 – Comprehensive production; the biological, physical,

and digital worlds are interconnected; intelligent products and the means
of production and logistical provision communicate with each other in
production (BMBF, 2014).
Media 4.0: 2020 – Comprehensive media; newspapers and TV channels are
not separate anymore; information is handled by artificial intelligence.
Education 4.0: middle of the 21st century – Learning inheres in every-
thing; students can learn anywhere; the school is electronic and mobile
and is connected to artificial intelligence.

It is not hard to see that education lags significantly behind in terms of devel-
opment trends. In a very few countries, personalised education that is assisted
with solutions from digital technology is the norm, but in several countries,
the central goal is still the mass education of version 2.0, with a single central
curriculum and uniform implementation, all the while level 5.0 is soon on
the horizon when it comes to the web and industry. Level 5 is pushing at the
classroom door.
The consequences of this lag can be seen in the increasing lack of skilled
workers at a time of considerable unemployment levels. With the develop-
ment of the industry, several professions are lost, but several professions are
also created. The new professions, however, require level 3.0 or even level 4.0
know-how.
Education, owing to its own lack of progress, is preparing students for a much
lower level than the current level of the industry, or even the level of information
processing in the media – that is, information transfer. As a result, the genera-
tions of the future continue to remain vulnerable even in an area crucially inf lu-
encing human society, namely, information management.
 Defining the new learning landscape 13

Education at level 2.0

Education fails to find its place. It got stuck in the 20th century and is a source of
failure after failure. At present, the system cannot even handle student 3.0. Cer-
tificates and waivers that document this are currently issued to children in the
form of diagnoses. Such documents – issued by experts – state that the student
needs to receive personalised education. As such, the recommendations in the
diagnoses issued to children describe exactly what education should be imple-
mented at a system-wide level.
At a 3.0 level, personal modalities take centre place, and diversity appears as a
value. This is the most direct task in front of education.
This is the major attitude change that is necessary; the rest will follow as edu-
cation is able to embrace and assimilate change. We can start by acknowledging
that even teachers are diverse, and not everyone uses Facebook or has a smart
phone in their pocket. And if virtuosos of info-communication, well-versed in
all aspects of web 4.0, decry teachers who do not use digital technologies, they
immediately prove that they are themselves stuck at level 2.0 just as much as the
one who decries the children immersed in digital technologies.
The measure of an efficient teacher is engaging in teaching activities stem-
ming from the children’s interests, rather than the use of technological tools. The
latter is automatically a part of learning.
Children mirror human culture because they are socialised in the given cul-
ture. In other words, their brains are wired by culture, and so they are the ones
who signal changes best. Currently, they are signalling that they are develop-
ing in diverse ways and at different paces in the stimulus environment at hand.
This developing diversity is also inventing the future delivery and curriculum of
future learning.
In earlier cultures, a relatively homogeneous and restricted spectrum of stim-
uli was the norm. The info-communication space started to open up in the 20th
century, but it was still a slow business and the “media” worked in a more limited
way than today: books, radio, television. Although toys and travel opportunities
became widespread, the opportunities of children for autonomous, self-directed
learning experiences were much more limited than today.
In the age of info-communication, the environment becomes significantly
richer in stimuli. Children’s brains can pick and choose from a much greater spec-
trum of stimuli than before. However, it is not primarily the quantitative increase
in stimuli that is responsible for the change, but the fact that children are in the
position to acquire personalised and large quantities of information and knowledge
independently, without the mediation of adults. As a result, their environment
is automatically more individually tailored, and consequently, their abilities and
affinities find the stimuli necessary for their development sooner. And in absence
of guidance, they do so even at the expense of neglecting certain other areas.
The developing brains are able to independently satisfy their interests and
desire for experience with information already at preschool age, while of course
14 Defining the new learning landscape

potentially omitting a lot of activities that used to be commonplace, and this may
lead to deficits.
As soon as humanity was freed from the constraints of information scarcity, its
diversity manifested itself. A homogeneous education that only takes the average
into consideration cannot be successful in such a diversifying world.
The stimulus environment, which from today’s perspective used to be very
limited, channelled development in a single direction, and whatever lay outside
the expectations of school and education seemed irrelevant owing to the illusion
of homogeneity. Segregation, the “Taygetos,” ostensibly solved the situation.
As the stimulus environment became richer, however, differences came to
light, which were identified as “heterogeneity” by the system. The problem now
concerns great masses and cannot be ignored any longer. The crowd shoved to
the side will form a dark mass when they grow up, and in absence of a leash this
mass will break loose in a realm of wide new opportunities, and then in absence
of independent thinking can be easily put on the leash of any ideology and
exploited to any end.
Integration as a solution is rather mixed. It counts as an important step for-
ward that it is now an essential goal for “heterogeneity” not to remain uncatered
to. But integration is not the real solution, because the idea behind it is that we
simply squeeze the individual back into the system that rejected them in the
first place. A methodological reform is missing. New methods have begun to be
introduced at local levels in several places, often driven by teacher ambitions, but
a system-level change is lacking.
The real solution would be to ensure the conditions for inclusion. Once diver-
sity is acknowledged and identified as a benefit, the system will not simply toler-
ate but value individual ways and solutions, and it can proceed to level 3.0 using
personalised education.
Today, change is at a critical point where it is no longer possible to ignore
what we have already acknowledged in other areas: nature favours diversity, and
individual paths are of value.
Diversity is also a key issue in information management, but the most impor-
tant thing is for us to understand the significance of information and information
processing in an information space that has rapidly opened wide up.

Information processing and uncertainty

Now that we are so far along our journey into the information age, it is high
time (in fact, maybe we’re already somewhat late) to recognise information and
different ways of processing it, to understand and make others understand what
is what, and what has what value.
According to the information theory of Claude Shannon (1948), the infor-
mation content of a certain quantity of data depends on the extent to which it
lowers uncertainty. The more probable an event, the lower its news value and
the less it lowers uncertainty. An improbable event, on the other hand, has big
 Defining the new learning landscape 15

informational content. This is why it is more interesting news if the postman bit
the dog than if the dog bit the postman.
Looking at the psychological aspect, we see that news plays a role in survival,
because it informs us of some hitherto unknown danger or some hitherto unrec-
ognised opportunity. Each new phenomenon is thus interesting to us in two
respects, and we can learn from it in either way. Learning, in turn, is an instru-
ment of our survival.
Translating this back into the domain of information, the result of a situa-
tion whose outcome is up to chance is uncertain. Once the situation is resolved,
this uncertainty disappears. The original uncertainty can be measured with the
amount of information we gained on the resolution of the situation.
Uncertainty is lack of information, and the reverse is also the case; that is,
information results in a reduction in uncertainty. Doing the math, we get the
result: people are more receptive to extreme news, because it is less probable and
so the information content is bigger.
People’s attention is easily captured with sensational news, even if it is false.
And in the info-communication age, any kind of news can be generated very
quickly.
When we check and process a piece of news, we lower the informational
value of the news because its novelty decreases: once we link it to known facts,
it becomes more organised.
Weaver and Shannon introduced into information theory the concept of
entropy. Entropy is a level of uncertainty which is measured by the information
necessary to cancel it. In other words, entropy is missing information, and so an
infinite number of possibilities means full freedom and full uncertainty. (This
is why many people do not care for freedom – and excessive freedom is indeed
dangerous, being a demanding chaos itself.)
The value of information is highest when there are an infinite number of
choices. If the situation is highly organised, randomness is of a lesser degree; pos-
sibly there is not even any choice – in this case, the value of information and the
level of entropy is low.
Translating this into problems of psychology, it is exceedingly difficult to
choose between two similar things, be they good or bad. The choice will be
random, because we lack information based on which to choose among the
alternatives, so there is as little opportunity for conscious decision as when
there are no choices. (Cf. in a dictatorship, news does not have informational
value.)
The more a system is constrained by rules, the smaller the role information
has, and the less chance there is to tackle new phenomena, whereby learning
remains at a lower level. In an open world, however, information is incredibly
important, because we have a choice; we can make decisions and we need to
deliberate things, whereby our uncertainty is high, as is our opportunity to learn.
The biggest danger, however, is not when uncertainty is high, but when
information is sparse and/or unprocessed. (Too much information therefore leads
16 Defining the new learning landscape

to high entropy just as much as lack of information, because it is impossible to

process it, and as a result it fails to become information.)
It is especially catastrophic to be socialised in a highly regulated system while
belonging to an open world, because we then cannot learn to select and consider
information relevant to our decisions and to choose from among alternatives.
By the 21st century, the concept of information has gotten inextricably linked
to technology. Computers can convey and store information and are also capable
of generating new information. They make data processing significantly easier
for us, thereby reducing entropy and uncertainty.
Machines help in processing enormous amounts of data, but they do
not solve everything. For the time being, cognitive processes are necessar-
ily applied to enhance information processing, and cognitive development
remains – for the immediate future – indispensable. Our task is to edu-
cate towards a higher-level thinking, understanding, synthesis, deliberation,
evaluation, and therethrough critical thinking, developing both intelligence
and wisdom.

A survival kit for the 21st century

Based on the foregoing, the main problem of the present developmental crisis
emerges in the form of uncertainty. The mainstreamness of developmental stage
2.0 still offers a sense of security to many: uniformity, uniform education, uni-
forms, and marches. The negative connotation in the word deviance hints at the
point of view of a past era.
In contrast, level 3.0 is about differentiation. Diversity, however, also leads to
uncertainty. We can see that change is accelerating, and its acceleration itself is
accelerating, that is, its acceleration is exponential. The move from one stage to
the next is happening within a single lifetime – see the history of the internet –
something for which the human psyche and society is not prepared. Changes also
increase uncertainty. The most important task in order to tackle the challenges
is therefore to manage uncertainty.
Society, and especially its “antechamber,” education, needs to prepare chil-
dren for the 3.0 world of the 21st century, rather than the 2.0 world of the 20th
century. We are now past the 24th hour, and are very much late, which can
prove fatal. Therefore, we need to prepare at least a survival kit for the 21st
century.
The complete kit contains the following:

• Acceptance of uncertainty
• Co-operation
• Harmony
• Autonomy
• Critical thinking
• Attitude of carpe diem
 Defining the new learning landscape 17

The pedagogies of the 20th century that are to this day still called “alternative”
place these values in the foreground. In the 21st century, alternative pedagogies
will be the alternatives of pedagogy.
The components of the survival kit are not independent of each other; they
form a whole, and so the effect is greatest if all components are present.

Acceptance of uncertainty
Certainty offers a sense of security. Humans strive towards this in every possible
way, and this is what often causes their downfall. This is especially true in situa-
tions where the solution lies not in certainty, but in managing uncertainty. Based
on the foregoing, it is evident that while uncertainty may be reduced in several
ways, it cannot be eliminated completely and shows a propensity for resilience.
The primary direction of development and learning is the acceptance of
uncertainty. All other components of the survival kit serve this goal.

Co-operation
A saying attributed to Margaret Mead, the well-known American cultural
anthropologist, encourages that never doubt that a small group of thoughtful,
committed citizens can change the world.
Humans are social beings, and as such, peers and communities have a key role
in tackling challenges. Co-operation does entail some uncertainty, since there
is a need for harmonizing different views and solutions, and everyone needs to
trust both themselves and others as well. Diverse knowledge, diverse ways, and
their sum and synthesis are the solution to the problem. Social situations lower
uncertainty through the reinforcing effects of the group.
The present education system, with its evaluations, ceaseless comparisons, and
competitive milieu, prepares individuals unilaterally for zero sum games whose
goal is to acquire goods and defeat peers. It teaches children that if someone
becomes better, another becomes lesser, even though it has been known for a
long time that this view is false. Through cooperation, everyone may come into
more knowledge and more opportunities. The win/win/win way is when an
optimal common gain is made out of a situation.
Co-operation is an efficient method to find comprehensive, forward-looking,
longer-term solutions, as opposed to competitive situations directed towards
selfishness and quickly reaping rewards.
Scarcity of resources, however, triggers competition, and it takes conscious
effort of will for humans to also think in terms of co-operation for the sake of
greater rewards and survival. It is no coincidence that co-operative techniques –
like the jigsaw technique, the complex instruction programme, and cooperative
learning – are increasingly coming to the forefront. Most efficient of all are the
mixed techniques when, next to joint solutions, value is also placed on individual
effort and excellence.
18 Defining the new learning landscape

A technique that has already been successful in economics, dubbed “co-

opetition” by Adam Brandenburger and Barry Nalebuff (1996), is the combined
use of co-operation and competition. Co-opetition is a typical case of embracing
uncertainty.

Harmony
Harmony offers the tranquillity of balance and a sense of order. Ancient
activities like movement and exercise, arts, and strategic games target the
harmonization of the internal and external worlds of individuals. Sensorimo-
tor activities harmonise the individual’s connection to the physical world.
Arts give form to sensations and feelings. Strategic games help the individual
become organised at a cognitive level with the help of analysis, logic, and
algorithmic thinking. All of this makes the individual’s information process-
ing abilities more efficient.
Congruous, harmonic pieces of information do not cause tension. The brain
perceives orderliness as harmony in the case of musical notes. In the case of noisy,
disturbing, insufficiently congruent stimuli, the brain has a harder time organiz-
ing the signals, and uncertainty increases.
Randomness, disorderliness, and incongruity, however, offer greater freedom
by opening up new possibilities. Uncertainty equals possibility if the neurologi-
cal system and psyche of the individual is prepared for the processing, organisa-
tion, and integration of diversity. Internal harmony is one of the decisive forces
in development.
If we attempt to reduce uncertainty using a huge amount of information and
knowledge, then we make the key task (namely, processing) impossible, even
though processing is what real learning would be.
Learning means shaping information into knowledge, then understanding, and
at the highest level, wisdom. If this is replaced by endless hoarding of information,
then uncertainty, too, remains endless and ingrained in the information age.

Autonomy
Autonomy is the ability of decision and independent action, control over
external forces, and the use of an inner compass guiding the individual
through the making of decisions. In absence of this, the individual is at the
whim of external forces. In the presence of a plurality of forces when values
are changing in the world and humans are exposed to a multitude of effects,
the force called “intrinsic regulation” by Ryan, Deci (2000) has an especially
important role.
We make a number of decisions daily without being conscious that we are
doing so. Autonomy is the most important characteristic of adult life. In the case
of small children, decisions that are natural for adults are made by others: what
they should eat, what they should wear, where and when they should go.
 Defining the new learning landscape 19

Our autonomy should grow as our identity develops, and we should, if the
circumstances are favourable, start making decisions independently and bear-
ing responsibility for them. All the while, we also develop and respect the
autonomy of others. This is what differentiates independence from uncontrolled
self-indulgence.
Children who are trained to obey and who get used to external reinforce-
ments and rewards grow into adults who do not take responsibility and who
perform tasks only when instructed.
This has been known for quite some time, as has the fact that people are
intrinsically motivated to develop. Education and training still use external
rewards for the sake of short-term advantages and a rapid but fake development,
even though every research result points in one direction: although extrinsic
motivation might increase performance in the short term, it can cause irreparable
damages by suppressing intrinsic motivation and therethrough autonomy.
The effect of external control is that we lose our interest and enthusiasm in
activities we used to find interesting. Children draw fewer interesting drawings
when they are rewarded. Rewards result in stereotypical responses, which also
signals a decline in creativity.
Children do not learn from what they are taught but from how they are
taught. The same applies to autonomy. Only an autonomous teacher is able to
raise autonomous children. If teachers have free choice and decision and do not
fall back on external pressure, threats, or rewards, then children in turn learn
autonomous behaviour and are less likely to become uncertain and impression-
able in new situations.

Critical thinking
Acquiring information is becoming increasingly easier; in fact, we are inundated
with information, and it is getting harder to identify “suitable information.” The
place, reliability, relevance, and usability of a piece of information, as well as its
connection to other pieces of information, is more important than any piece of
knowledge.
Amos Tversky and Daniel Kahneman proved experimentally that we are by
far not the rational beings we thought we were. They described 20 types of
cognitive biases which can be inhibited through the use of controlled cognitive
processes.
If we rely on quick, simple, and ostensibly efficient thinking; build on associa-
tions, experience, and impressions; and form our judgements by focusing on a sin-
gle aspect of a situation, we often make serious, systematic, and systematic errors.
Filtering out erroneous, false, and unimportant stimuli is only possible via
deep and thorough processing. We cannot do away with slow but controlled
processing.
Digital tools have begun to pry at the weak points of human communication
already at the level of media 2.0. Technologically assisted social networks enlarge
20 Defining the new learning landscape

the effects of human communities. In a relationship network that is much more

intensive and active than those that came before, all advantages, disadvantages,
and dangers are multiply magnified.
For example, in internet communities, the confirmation bias known as the
“echo chamber” is rooted in our propensity to favour information that supports
our own preconceptions and opinions, and which corroborates us, irrespective of
the truth or falsity of the information. Without thinking, and, in particular, crit-
ical thinking, we are unprepared for the challenges of the info-communication
age – in absence of these, we have been and will be easily impressionable and
easily deceived at all times.
If we teach children to simply take in information and knowledge, then they
are at risk of being blown away by any small breeze like dry leaves off a tree. We
have to be aware, and we have to make children aware that we collect evidence
and retrieve memories in an intuitive and selective way, and that we interpret
information with a bias and make mistaken judgements. Fortunately, however,
all of this is controllable.
Accepting uncertainty is easier if we have an instrument with which to reduce
it. This instrument is a high level of information processing, a level at which
we synthesise and evaluate incoming knowledge. It does not simply mean logi-
cal functioning, but recreating knowledge. Discovering regularities by means
of rules and experience is an individual form of processing, and such an ability
offers some amount of certainty even in uncertain situations.
Teaching children to think critically is a bigger protection for them than any
prohibition, supervision program, or form of threats and deterrents. The world
has opened up, and we cannot protect children from the outside. People can only
conquer chaos with their own internal cognitive strength.

An attitude of carpe diem

The interpretation of the expression “seize the day” depends on the extent to
which one is able to accept uncertainty. We may have many varied different
notions of the future: the world ends, the golden age arrives, spiritual renewal
occurs, the machines take over, humanity dies out, humanity battles with
machines, humanity wins, humanity loses, humanity serves machines or vice
versa, machines and humans merge, and intelligence conjoins. Art is humanity’s
imagination, and it has already lined up all kinds of versions. Even science came
up with a number of directions towards development or catastrophe that human-
ity can willingly or unwillingly explore.
What is important is not what will actually be, but what we think of our own
role and what actions we do now. Basically, any attitude can be justified in any
version of a view of the future.
Carpe diem can be the way to reap the world and the rewards, and the way to
self-development. It can be the way to ensure personal prosperity and the way
towards general spiritual ascent.
 Defining the new learning landscape 21

Carpe diem is about the future because what we do now will be our future.
The education system is naturally definitive for the future. It is definitive
irrespective of whether it ruins the children or supports intellectual develop-
ment. The best-case scenario is obviously the latter one, but an acceptable
outcome would be for the children to be able to escape the system that is
slowly turning into a straight-jacket and/or pre-digital fossil, ossified in the
information age.
Everyone should pause, and take time to ref lect and think about what carpe
diem means for them.

Ecological and mental footprints

The stability and integrity of humanity depends on preserving the balance of
natural systems, the individual, the family, the community, society, the ecosys-
tem, and the ecosphere.
The key word is balance. If forces deviate significantly in any direction, and
if significant deficits arise, then the system collapses. Balancing requires ab ovo,
meaning in this context to work from the beginning, the origin of our beliefs
and thoughts. The term is a reference to one of the twin eggs from which Helen
of Troy was born. In order to survive, we need to learn to balance and apportion
forces, and this is a never-ending task. Anything that lives is in constant motion
and change. Only death is certain.

FIGURE 1.1 A survival kit for the 21st century

22 Defining the new learning landscape

The goal of humans, given their instinctive attitude chained to the physical
world, is a search for certainty, which is paired with a narrowing, convergent
thinking that points in one direction. The instrument of this goal is competi-
tion and hoarding. According to this cognitive schema, the world must be con-
quered, and goods must be obtained to survive. Children must be taught to be
soldiers and learn to obey and receive instructions as in Sparta.
In uncertain situations, some humans will evidently be lost because they are
unable to build up an adult, responsible identity. In absence of a vision of the
future of their own, they rally behind some person or organisation which shows
an appearance of strength and sets up any kind of goal and which seems capable
of obtaining resources. Another way to go is to embrace aimless hedonism, to
reap any possible immediate rewards all at once.
All components of the 21st century survival kit presented here point in an
alternative direction: to strive for balance and reconcile the irreconcilable
( Figure 1.2). This is the essence of creativity.
The instrument for this is co-operation and striving for harmony with the
world, with others and with other selves. All of this is built on the conviction
that solutions exist that cater to the interests of all parties. This attitude helps
children to grow up into responsible individuals.
Students are prepared for the responsibility of free choice already during
their own education. Personalised learning is directed at harmony and cre-
ation. Children’s own education can offer them an opportunity for deliberation

FIGURE 1.2 Education 2.0 fails to provide a survival kit for the 21st century
 Defining the new learning landscape 23

and informed decision making in questions affecting themselves and their

environment, because as long as education takes individual characteristics into
account, children learn to manage diversity and to reconcile the irreconcilable.
As such, creativity will automatically form part of the solution to the problem.
Critical thinking is not learning material; it is a form of learning and the way
to wisdom.
Information is a possibility, and an immeasurable amount of information is an
immeasurable possibility. Our attitudes will determine whether this possibility
mobilises our instinctive survival methods and leads to an immeasurable devasta-
tion of our living space or whether we invest conscious mental effort and thereby
achieve immeasurable spiritual development.

Enrichment
The management of uncertainty is critical for human achievement and well-
being.
Can you identify five areas of uncertainty in your own personal life or the
life of your community and suggest five strategies for reducing uncertainty?
In resolving certainty of the problems you identified, are further uncertainties
created?

Identified uncertainty Certainty solution Solution consequences

Link pathways
What links your ecological footprint, your mental footprint, and your moti-
vation to welcome uncertainty?

References
Ackoff, R. L. 1989. From data to wisdom. Journal of Applied Systems Analysis, 16: 3–9.
BMBF, Bundesministerium für Bildung und Forschung. 2014. Zukunftsbild “Industrie
4.0,” Hightech-Strategie, Berlin.
Brandenburger, A. M., Nalebuff, B. J. 1996. Co-opetition. New York: Currency. In Asgari,
Sadegh, Afshar, Abbas, Madani, Kaveh. 2013. Cooperative game theoretic framework
for joint resource management in construction. Journal of Construction Engineering and
Management, 140 (3). doi:10.1061/(asce)co.1943-7862.0000818.
Dunbar, R. I. M. 2004. Gossip in evolutionary perspective. Review of General Psychology,
8 (2): 100–110.
Kurzweil, R. 2005. The Singularity Is Near. New York: Viking Books.
24 Defining the new learning landscape

Ryan, R. M., Deci, E. L. 2000. Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic
motivation, social development, and well-being. American Psychologist, 55: 68–78.
Shannon, C. E. 1948. A mathematical theory of communication. Bell System Technical
Journal, 27 (3): 379–423.

Recommended further reading

Dunbar, R. I. M. 1996. Grooming, Gossip, and the Evolution of Language. Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press.
Innerarity, Daniel. 2012. The Future and Its Enemies. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
ISBN: 10: 0-8047-7557-5.
Meegan, D. V. 2010. Zero-sum bias: Perceived competition despite unlimited resources.
Cognition, 1: 191. doi:10.3389/fpsyg.2010.00191.
Tversky, A., Kahneman, D. 1974. Judgments under uncertainty: Heuristics and biases.
Science, 185 (4157): 1124–1131.
Ushakov, Y. V., Dubkov, A. A., Spagnolo, B. 2011. Regularity of spike trains and har-
mony perception in a model of the auditory system. Physical Review Letters, 107 (10):
108103.
Weaver, W., Shannon, C. E. 1964. The Mathematical Theory of Communication. Urbana:
University of Illinois Press. 10th printing.

The third culture – a transition culture to the final level

Humanity’s social-cultural and technical-economic development progresses in a
mutually supporting way. If our progress is relatively synchronised, we can talk
about general development. This development is, however, not linear but accel-
erates exponentially. Also, at the point when development reaches the end of a
stage, then, like a snake, it must shed the externals of that stage, recasting itself to
move on to the next one. These changes invariably lead to crises, even given the
most ideal forms of development. And if development is uneven and the develop-
ment of one area lags behind, the crisis will be all the more severe, since a bigger
gap needs to be bridged in order to attain the new stage.
A crisis is followed either by a regression or a revolutionary step forward, and
during a crisis, these alternate in a lesser form as a sort of back-and-forth dither-
ing, a vacillation of being. Such crises are a natural part of development, but they
do involve a big burden on, and perhaps even danger for, the individual and the
community, especially if the crisis is significantly bigger than usual and is global,
and if the extent to which the affected societies and cultures are unprepared for
the change is highly likely to be uneven.
Technology and the natural sciences have run ahead of conventional think-
ing in the last few centuries, while the human mind and the social processes
under its control have lagged behind. The accelerating technological-scientific
development continues to increase dysynchronisation. In many respects, earlier
intellectual values and solutions present hindrances to individual and collec-
tive progress. Human thinking and – not independent of this – education have
especially fallen behind, even though education is of strategic importance in
 Defining the new learning landscape 25

planning the future. By the turn of the 21st century, our world has become
ripe for a significant social-cultural change. It is therefore time to look into
the crystal ball to spot and ride the waves of change before they break over our
head, sweeping us away.

The system of axial crises

For humanity, one of the main areas of coping, and also of development, is
info-communication – that is, the acquisition and transfer of information. It
is no coincidence that it is this area which has undergone the most substantial
development. At the end of the 20th century and beginning of the 21st, human-
ity switched gears in info-communication technology in earnest and changed its
values to a significant degree, which led to a so-called axial crisis. This crisis is
not the first of its kind, though.
A rare event of global collapse in the order of things which leads to a religious-
intellectual renewal is called an “axial moment” in sociology and philosophy.
Not everyone is partial to this term, but it is perhaps one of the best to describe
the phenomenon when changes lead to a general socio-cultural crisis in all areas.
It is not unlike an axis making a turn, dragging everything along with it.
Karl Jaspers (1953), who coined the term, originally described roughly the
last couple of centuries BC as the “axial age,” characterising it as an age when
new ways of thinking emerged in several different regions on Earth. These
are also called “social revolutions.” Irrespective of the terminology used, dis-
tinctly different lists of axial crises have been compiled by historians. From a
psychological point of view, we consider social upheavals as significant if they
correspond to the universal stages of development; we illustrated this earlier
using the stages of the development of the internet. There are of course several
smaller interim crises, but we focus on the moments that substantially changed
humanity’s cognitive functioning. These are built on each other in the way we
discussed before:

1 Precursor, initiative
2 Appears and becomes accessible
3 Spreads and becomes widespread and mainstream
4 Becomes differentiated and personalised
5 Reaches the level of synthesis and becomes comprehensive

Significant socio-cultural revolutions are a part of historical processes and are always
accompanied by a full-scale change in human thinking abilities. Humanity began
forming cultures, developing complex social organisations some 70,000 years ago.
Historian philosopher Yuval Harari describes this cognitive revolution as the first
crisis: this is the point at which humanity’s intersubjective thinking emerged and
made it possible for Homo sapiens to form masses. The next crisis was the agricultural
revolution, which gave rise to conditions necessary to form larger masses: humanity
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 3130-3131 (3046-3047).

J. N. Larned:
Europe,
1087-1088 (1059-1060).

8. THE REFORMATION MOVEMENT IN FRANCE:

M. Creighton:
The Papacy,
1210-1211 (1178-1179).

A. Tilley:
The French Renaissance,
1217 (1185).

G. P. Fisher:
The Reformation,
2513-2514 (2452-2453).

R. Heath:
The Reformation in France,
2514 (2453).

9. THE REVOLT IN THE NETHERLANDS:

J. E. T. Rogers:
The Story of Holland,
2302 (2254).

T. H. Dyer:
Modern Europe,
2302-2303 (2254-2255).

C. Ullmann:
Reformers before the Reformation,
326 (316).
 W. E. Griffis:
Influence of the Netherlands,
326 (316).

D. Campbell:
The Puritan in Holland, etc.,
728-729 (705-706).

G. P. Fisher:
The Reformation,
2303 (2255).

J. L. Motley:
The Dutch Republic,
2303-2304 (2255-2256).

10. GROWTH OF THE LUTHERAN MOVEMENT IN GERMANY

(A. D. 1522-1529):

W. Coxe:
House of Austria,
2515-2516 (2454-2455).

G. P. Fisher:
The Reformation,
2516 (2455).

11. ORIGIN OF THE NAME "PROTESTANT"

(A. D.1529):

P. Bayne:
Martin Luther,
2516-2517 (2455-2456).

12. THE FINAL BREACH; THE "AUGSBURG CONFESSION"

(A. D. 1530):
 J. Michelet:
Life of Luther,
2517 (2456).

J. Alzog:
Manual of Church History,
2517-2518 (2456-2457).

W. Robertson:
Charles V.,
1493-1494 (1460-1461).

J. N. Earned:
Europe,
1086-1087 (1058-1059).

{762}

13. CALVIN, AND HIS ECCLESIASTICAL STATE:

J. Tulloch:
Leaders of the Reformation,
1450 (1417).

R. Heath:
Reformation in France,
2514 (2453).

L. Häusser:
The Reformation,
1451-1452 (1417-1419).

14. THE BEGINNING OF THE COUNTER-REFORMATION

(ABOUT A. D. 1535):

"I intend to use this term Counter-Reformation to denote the

 reform of the Catholic Church, which was stimulated by the
German Reformation, and which, when the Council of Trent had
fixed the dogmas and discipline of Latin Christianity, enabled
the Papacy to assume a militant policy in Europe, whereby it
regained a large portion of the provinces that had previously
lapsed to Lutheran and Calvinistic dissent. … The centre of
the world-wide movement which is termed the
Counter-Reformation was naturally Rome. Events had brought the
Holy See once more into a position of prominence. It was more
powerful as an Italian State now, through the support of Spain
and the extinction of national independence, than at any
previous period of history."
J. A. SYMONDS.

J. A. Symonds:
The Italian Renaissance,
1883-1884 (1843-1844).

A. W. Ward:
The Counter-Reformation,
2518 (2457).

J. A. Symonds;
The Catholic Reaction,
2518-2519 (2457-2458).

15. TWO EFFECTIVE AGENTS OF THE ROMAN CHURCH:

(a) The Council of Trent

(A. D. 1545-1563).

L. Häusser:
The Reformation,
2519-2520 (2458-2459).

L. von Ranke:
History of the Popes,
 2520-2521 (2459-2460).

A. W. Ward:
The Counter-Reformation,
2521 (2460).

J. N. Larned:
Europe,
1092 (1064).

(b) The Society of Jesus (A. D. 1540-).

L. Häusser:
The Reformation,
1928-1929 (1887-1888).

G. B. Nicolini:
History of the Jesuits,
1929 (1888).

L. von Ranke:
History of the Popes,
1931-1932 (1890-1891).

16. PROGRESS OF LUTHERANISM IN GERMANY

(A. D. 1530-1620):

J. N. Larned:
Europe,
1086-1087 (1058-1059).

W. Robertson:
Charles V.,
1493-1494 (1460-1461).

S. A. Dunham:
The Germanic Empire,
 1494-1495 (1461-1462).

S. Baring-Gould:
The Story of Germany,
118-119 (111-112).

17. WAR WITH THE EMPEROR

(A. D. 1546-1561):

C. D. Yonge:
Three Centuries of Modern History,
1495-1496 (1462-1463).

J. Alzog:
Universal Church History,
1496-1497 (1463-1464).

W. Menzel:
History of Germany,
1497-1498 (1464-1465).

18. INTERNAL DISSENSIONS AND THE CATHOLIC REACTION:

W. Zimmerman:
History of Germany,
1498-1499 (1465-1466).

O. Kämmel:
German History,
2521-2522 (3766-3767).

STUDY XXV.
Page references in first 1895 edition in parentheses.

THE REFORM MOVEMENT AND RELIGIOUS WARS IN FRANCE.

1. THE COMPARATIVE INDEPENDENCE OF THE GALLICAN
CHURCH:

H. Hallam;
The Middle Ages,
1197 (1165).

H. H. Milman:
Latin Christianity,
1197 (1165).

M. Creighton:
The Papacy,
1210-1211 (1178-1179).

F. P. Guizot:
History of France,
1219-1220 (1187-1188).

W. H. Jervis:
The Church of France,
1220 (1188).

"The long contest for Gallican rights had lowered the prestige
of the popes in France, but it had not weakened the Catholic
Church, which was older than the monarchy itself, and, in the
feelings of the people, was indissolubly associated with it.
The College of the Sorbonne, or the Theological Faculty at
Paris, and the Parliament, which had together maintained
Gallican liberty, were united in stern hostility to all
doctrinal innovations."
G. P. FISHER.

2. BEGINNING OF THE PROTESTANT REFORM MOVEMENT

(ABOUT A. D. 1520):
 A. Tilley:
The French Renaissance,
1217 (1185).

G. P. Fisher:
The Reformation,
2513-2514 (2452-2453).

R. Heath:
The Reformation in France,
2514 (2453).

W. Hanna:
The Wars of the Huguenots,
2292-2293 (2244-2245).

E. de Bonnechose:
History of France,
1225-1226 (1193-1194).

3. THE RISE OF THE HUGUENOTS

(ABOUT A. D. 1560):

L. Häusser:
The Reformation,
1229 (1197).

H. M. Baird:
The Rise of the Huguenots,
1230 (1198).

J. N. Larned:
Europe,
1089 (1061).

4. BEGINNING OF THE CIVIL WARS; THE GUISES, CONDÉS, ET

AL.:
 G. Masson:
The Huguenots,
1230 (1198).

W. Besant:
Gaspard de Coligny,
1230-1232 (1198-1200).

J. N. Larned:
Europe,
1097-1098 (1069-1070).

5. ROCHELLE, AND HENRY OF NAVARRE:

W. Hanna:
The Wars of the Huguenots,
2292-2293 (2244-2245).

W. Hanna:
The Wars of the Huguenots,
1232-1233 (1200-1201).

L. Häusser:
The Reformation,
1233-1234 (1201-2120).

6. THE MASSACRE OF ST. BARTHOLOMEW’S DAY

(A. D. 1572):

J. A. Froude:
History of England,
1236 (1204).

T. Wright:
History of France,
1236 (1204).
7. THE FOURTH AND FIFTH CIVIL WARS
(A. D. 1572-1576):

F. P. Guizot:
History of France,
1236-1237 (1204-1205).

E. E. Crowe:
History of France,
1237-1238 (1205-1206).

S. A. Dunham:
History of Poland,
2615-2616 (2547).

8. THE CATHOLIC LEAGUE AND THE POPE’S BULL

(A. D. 1576):

W. H. Jervis:
The Church of France,
1238-1239 (1206-1207).

G. W. Kitchin:
History of France,
1239 (1207).

9. HENRY OF NAVARRE, AND THE BATTLE OF COUTRAS

(A. D. 1584-1589):

Duc d’Aumale:
Princes of Condé,
1240-1241 (1209).

W. Hanna:
Wars of the Huguenots,
1241 (1209).
V. Duruy:
History of France,
1241-1242 (1209-1210).

"The struggle lasted but an hour, yet within that hour the
Catholic army lost 3000 men, more than 400 of whom were
members of the first families in the Kingdom; 3000 men were
made prisoners. Not more than a third part of their entire
army escaped. The Huguenots lost only about 200 men. … Before
night fell Navarre wrote a few lines to the French King, which
ran thus:

‘Sire, my Lord and Brother,—Thank God,

I have beaten your
enemies and your army.' It was but too true that the poor
King’s worst enemies were to be found in the very armies that
were marshalled in his name."
W. HANNA.

{763}

10. HENRY BECOMES HENRY IV. OF FRANCE; THE BATTLE OF

IVRY
(A. D. 1589):

Henry the Fourth of France,

1242-1243 (1210-1211).

"My friends, if you share my fortune this day, I share yours.

I am resolved to conquer or to die with you. Keep your ranks
firmly, I beg; if the heat of the combat compels you to quit
them, think always of the rally; it is the gaining of the
battle. If you lose your ensigns, pennons, and banners, do not
lose sight of my white plume; you will find it always on the
road of honor and victory.’
HENRY OF NAVARRE.

11. HENRY’S ABJURATION OF PROTESTANTISM

(A. D. 1593):

Duc d’Aumale:
The Princes of Condé,
1244-1245 (1212-1213).

H. M. Baird:
The Huguenots,
1245 (1213).

Sir J. Stephen:
 History of France,
1245 (1213).

12. THE SIEGE OF PARIS; INTERFERENCE OF PHILIP II.

(A. D. 1590-1598):

J. L. Motley:
The United Netherlands,
1243-1244 (1211-1212).

T. H. Dyer;
Modern Europe,
1245-1247 (1213-1215).

13. FROM THE EDICT OF NANTES (1598)

TO ASSASSINATION OF THE KING (1610):

H. M. Baird:
The Huguenots,
1247-1248 (1215-1216).

W. Hanna:
Wars of the Huguenots,
1248 (1216).

A. de Bonnechose;
History of France,
1248 (1216).

"For the benefit of the Protestants the cardinal concession of

the Edict was liberty to dwell anywhere in the royal
dominions, without being subjected to inquiry, vexed,
molested, or constrained to do anything contrary to their
conscience. As respects public worship, while perfect equality
was not established, the dispositions were such as to bring it
within the power of a Protestant in any part of the Kingdom to
meet his fellow-believers for the holiest acts, at least from
 time to time. … Scholars of both religions were to be admitted
without distinction of religion to all universities, colleges,
and schools throughout France. The same impartiality was to
extend to the reception of the sick in the hospitals, and to
the poor in the provision made for this relief. More than
this, the Protestants were permitted to establish schools of
their own in all places where their worship was authorized."
H. M. BAIRD.

14. THE RISE OF RICHELIEU, AND DISTRACTION OF THE

KINGDOM:

Voltaire:
Ancient and Modern History,
1248-1249 (1216-1217).

J. B. Perkins:
France under Mazarin,
1251 (1219).

G. W. Kitchin:
History of France,
1251-1252 (1220).

15. THE HUGUENOT REVOLT

(A. D. 1627-1628):

C. D. Yonge:
France under the Bourbons,
1252-1253 (1220-1221).

A. D. White:
The Statesmanship of Richelieu,
1253 (1221).

R. Heath:
The Reformation in France,
 1253 (1221).

16. ACCESSION OF LOUIS XIV., AND RENEWED PERSECUTION

OF THE HUGUENOTS (A. D. 1661):

J. C. Morison:
Reign of Louis XIV.,
1265 (1233).

S. Smiles:
The Huguenots,
1265-1266 (1233-1234).

17. REVOCATION OF THE EDICT OF NANTES (1685),

AND EXODUS OF THE HUGUENOTS (1681-1688):

A. de Lamartine:
Memoirs of Celebrated Characters,
1269 (1237).

R. L. Poole:
Huguenots of the Dispersion,
1269-1270 (1237-1238).

STUDY XXVI.
Page references in first 1895 edition in parentheses.

SPAIN AND THE NETHERLANDS—THE INQUISITION.

1. CONQUEST OF SPAIN BY THE ARAB MOORS

(A. D. 711-713):

H. Coppée:
Conquest of Spain,
3054 (2974).
 S. A. Dunham:
History of Spain,
3056-3057 (2976-2977).

2. RISE OF THE CHRISTIAN STATES:

H. Coppée:
Conquest of Spain,
3055 (2975).

E. A. Freeman:
Conquest of the Saracens,
3055 (2975).

S. A. Dunham:
History of Spain,
2291 and 3056 (2243, 2976).

E. A. Freeman:
Historical Geography of Europe,
3058 (2977).

3. UNION OF CASTILE AND ARAGON:

E. E. Hale:
The Story of Spain,
3060 (2979).

C. H. Pearson:
English History,
3061-3062 (2980-2981).

H. Hallam:
Middle Ages,
3062-3063 (2981-2982).
4. RISE AND FALL OF THE MOORISH KINGDOM OF GRANADA:

C. M. Yonge:
The Christians and Moors of Spain,
3059-3060 (2978-2979).

H. Coppée:
Conquest of Spain,
3061 (2980).

H. Coppée:
Conquest of Spain,
3063-3064 (2982-2983).

W. H. Prescott:
Ferdinand and Isabella,
3064 (2983).

5. THE EARLY SPANISH CORTES AND THE SANTA HERMANDAD:

W. H. Prescott:
Ferdinand and Isabella,
639-640 (616-17).

H. Hallam:
Middle Ages,
640-641 (617-618).

W. H. Prescott:
Ferdinand and Isabella,
1698-1699 (1659-1660).

6. ESTABLISHMENT OF THE INQUISITION:

J. A. Symonds:
Renaissance in Italy,
1789-1791 (1750-1752).
 J. I. von Döllinger:
The Jews in Europe,
1966 (1925).

H. T. Buckle:
History of Civilization,
2270-2271 (2226-2227).

7. EARLY HISTORY OF THE NETHERLANDS:

J. L. Motley:
Rise of the Dutch Republic,
2298 (2250).

W. T. McCullagh:
The Free Nations,
2298-2299 (2250-2251).

D. Campbell:
The Puritan in Holland, etc.,
2299 (2251).

C. M. Yonge:
Cameos of History.
2300 (2252).

8. RELATIONS WITH BURGUNDY; THE STATES GENERAL:

C. M. Davies:
History of Holland.
2300 (2252).

J. L. Motley:
The Dutch Republic,
2300-2301 (2252-2253).
9. MARRIAGE OF MARY OF BURGUNDY TO MAXIMILIAN OF
AUSTRIA
(A. D. 1477):

Philip de Commines:
Memoirs,
2301 (2253).

C. M. Davies:
History of Holland,
2301-2302 (2254).

10. RISE OF THE AUSTRO-SPANISH DYNASTY:

W. H. Prescott:
Ferdinand and Isabella,
3065-3066 (2984-2985).

J.E.T. Rogers:
The Story of Holland,
2302 (2254).

T. H. Dyer:
Modern Europe,
2302-2303 (2254-2255).

J. Bigland:
History of Spain,
3066 (2985).

T. H. Dyer:
Modern Europe,
3066-3067 (2985-2986).

W. H. Prescott:
Philip II.,
3067 (2986).
11. BEGINNING OF THE REFORMATION IN THE NETHERLANDS:

G. P. Fisher:
The Reformation,
2303 (2255).

J. L. Motley:
The Dutch Republic,
2303-2304 (2255-2256).

{764}

12. THE ACCESSION AND HORRIBLE CHARACTER OF PHILIP II.

(A. D. 1555):

C. M. Davies:
History of Holland,
2304 (2256).

T. C. Grattan:
History of the Netherlands,
2304-2305 (2256-2257).

C. Gayarré:
Philip II.,
2305, 3068 (2257, 2987).

13. PHILIP II. AND THE CATHOLIC REACTION:

G. Procter:
History of Italy,
2520 (2459).

L. von Ranke:
History of the Popes,
2520-2521 (2459-2460).
 O. Kämmel:
History of Germany,
2521-2522.

14. BEGINNING OF ORGANIZED RESISTANCE TO THE TYRANNY

OF PHILIP
(A. D. 1562):

W. H. Prescott:
The Reign of Philip II.,
2305-2306 (2257-2258).

J. L. Motley:
The Dutch Republic,
2306 (2258).

T. C. Grattan:
History of the Netherlands,
2306-2307 (2258-2259).

T. H. Dyer:
Modern Europe,
2307 (2259).

F. Schiller:
The Revolt of the Netherlands,
2307 (2259).

J. N. Larned:
Europe,
1094-1095 (1066-1067).

15. THE DUKE OF ALVA AND HIS COUNCIL OF BLOOD

(A. D. 1567):

L. Häusser:
 The Reformation,
2307-2308 (2259-2260).

J. L. Motley:
The Dutch Republic,
2309-2310 (2261-2262).

16. THE STUPENDOUS DEATH-SENTENCE

(A. D. 1568):

J. L. Motley:
The Dutch Republic,
2310 (2262).

"Upon the 16th February, 1568, a sentence of the Holy Office

condemned all the inhabitants of the Netherlands to death as
heretics. From this universal doom only a few persons,
especially named, were excepted. A proclamation of the King,
dated ten days later, confirmed this decree of the
Inquisition, and ordered it to be carried into instant
execution, without regard to age, sex, or condition. This is
probably the most concise death-warrant that was ever framed.
Three millions of people, men, women, and children, were
sentenced to the scaffold in three lines; and as it was well
known that these were not harmless thunders, like some bulls
of the Vatican, but serious and practical measures which it
was intended should be enforced, the horror which they
produced may be easily imagined."
J. L. MOTLEY.

17. BEGINNING OF THE FORTY YEARS’ WAR

(A. D. 1568):

C. D. Yonge:
Modern History,
2310-2311 (2262-2263).
 J. L. Motley:
The Dutch Republic,
2311-2312
(2263-2264).

A. Young:
History of the Netherlands,
2312-2313 (2264-2265).

18. THE RECALL OF ALVA, AND THE SIEGE OF LEYDEN

(A. D. 1573-1574):

C. M. Davies:
History of Holland,
2313-2314 (2265-2266).

D. Campbell:
The Puritan in Holland, etc.,
729 (706).

19. THE PACIFICATION OF GHENT, AND THE UNION OF BRUSSELS

(A. D. 1575-1577):

T. H. Dyer:
Modern Europe,
2314-2316 (2266-2268).

J. E. T. Rogers:
The Story of Holland,
2316-2317 (2268-2269).

J. L. Motley:
The Dutch Republic,
2317-2318 (2269-2270).

20. THE ASSASSINATION OF WILLIAM OF ORANGE,

AND BIRTH OF THE REPUBLIC (A. D. 1584-1585):
 T. Grattan:
History of the Netherlands,
2318 (2270).

J. L. Motley:
The United Netherlands,
2318-2320 (2270-2272).

"Thus constituted was the commonwealth upon the death of

William the Silent. The gloom produced by that event was
tragical. Never in human history was a more poignant and
universal sorrow for the death of any individual. The despair
was, for a brief season, absolute; but it was soon succeeded
by more lofty sentiments. … Even on the very day of the
murder, the Estates of Holland, then sitting at Delft, passed
a resolution ‘to maintain the good cause, with God’s help, to
the uttermost, without sparing gold or blood.’ … The next
movement, after the last solemn obsequies had been rendered to
the Prince, was to provide for the immediate wants of his
family. For the man who had gone into the revolt with almost
royal revenues, left his estate so embarrassed that his
carpets, tapestries, household linen—nay, even his silver
spoons, and the very clothes of his wardrobe—were disposed of
at auction for the benefit of his creditors."
J. L. MOTLEY.

21. THE DOWNFALL OF ANTWERP

(A. D. 1585):

J. L. Motley:
The Dutch Republic,
125 (118).

G. L. Craik:
History of British Commerce,
3107 (3025).
 J. N. Larned:
The Flemings and Dutch,
3226-3227 (3715-3716).

T. H. Dyer:
Modern Europe,
2320 (2272).

22. THE UNITED PROVINCES AND ELIZABETH OF ENGLAND:

Sir T. E. May:
Democracy in Europe,
2320-2321 (2272-2273).

J. A. Froude:
History of England,
2321-2322 (2274).

C. M. Davies:
History of Holland,
2322 (2274).

23. STEADY DECLINE OF SPANISH POWER, AND DEATH OF PHILIP

II.
(A. D. 1590-1598):

Sir E. Cust:
The Thirty Years’ War,
2322-2323 (2274-2275).

Sir T. E. May:
Democracy in Europe,
2323-2324 (2275-2276).

24. RISE OF DUTCH COMMERCE; THE EAST INDIA COMPANY

(A. D. 1595-1620):
 W. T. McCullagh:
Industrial History,
2324 (2276).

F. H. H. Guillemard:
Malaysia,
2124.

J. N. Larned:
The Flemings and the Dutch,
3226-3228 (3715-3717).

25. JOHN BARNEVELDT, AND THE ARMINIAN CONTROVERSY

(A. D. 1600-1620):

C. M. Yonge:
Cameos from English History,
2324-2326 (2276-2278).

D. Campbell:
The Puritan in Holland, etc.,
729 (706).

26. FINAL ESTABLISHMENT OF PEACE BETWEEN SPAIN AND

THE UNITED PROVINCES
(A. D. 1648):

J. B. Perkins:
France under Mazarin,
2329-2330 (2281-2282).

J. Geddes:
John De Witt,
2330 (2282).

27. PROSPERITY OF THE DUTCH REPUBLIC, WHICH BECOMES

HOLLAND
(ABOUT A. D. 1660):

D. Campbell:
The Puritan in Holland, etc.,
2332-2333 (2284-2285).

O. Airy:
The English Restoration,
2333 (2285).

{765}

STUDY XXVII.
Page references in first 1895 edition in parentheses.

THE THIRTY YEARS’ WAR

(A. D. 1618-1648).

"The Thirty Years’ War was the last struggle which marked the
progress of the Reformation. This war, whose direction and
object were equally undetermined, may be divided into four
distinct portions, in which the Elector Palatine, Denmark,
Sweden, and France played in succession the principal part. It
became more and more complicated until it spread over the
whole of Europe. It was prolonged indefinitely by various
causes.

I. The intimate union between the two branches of the house of

Austria and of the Catholic party,—their opponents, on the
other hand, were not homogeneous.

II. The inaction of England, the tardy intervention of France,

the poverty of Denmark and Sweden, etc. The armies which took
part in the Thirty Years’ War were no longer feudal militias,
 they were permanent armies, and lived at the expense of the
countries which they laid waste."
J. MICHELET.

1. CONDITIONS WHICH LED UP TO THE WAR:

O. Kämmel:
History of Germany,
2521-2522 (3767).

E. L. Godkin:
History of Hungary,
1717, first column, (1678).

W. Zimmerman:
History of Germany,
1498-1499 (1465-1466).

F. Schiller:
The Thirty Years’ War,
301-302 (293).

J. Sime:
History of Germany,
1499-1500 (1466-1467).

J. Michelet:
Modern History,
1500 (1467).

J. N. Larned:
Europe,
1099-1100 (1071-1072).

2. THE PROSTRATION OF PROTESTANTISM

(A. D. 1618-1626):
 F. Kohlrausch:
History of Germany,
1500-1501 (1467-1468).

B. Chapman:
Gustavus Adolphus,
1501-1502 (1469).

S. R. Gardiner:
Thirty Years’ War,
1502 (1469).

W. Coxe:
House of Austria,
1502-1504 (1469-1471).

3. THE SUPPRESSION OF BOHEMIA

(A. D. 1621-1648):

L. Häusser:
The Great Reformation,
302 (293).

J. N. Larned:
Europe,
1100 (1072).

"No succor reached the unfortunate people; but neither did the
victors attain their end. Protestantism and Hussite memories
could not be slain, and only outward submission was extorted.
… But a desert was created; the land was crushed for a
generation. Before the war Bohemia had 4,000,000 inhabitants,
and in 1648 there were but 700,000 or 800,000. In some parts
of the country the population has not attained the standard of
1620 to this day."
L. HÄUSSER.
4. THE RISE OF PRUSSIA:

C. F. Johnstone:
Historical Abstracts,
318 (308).

H. von Treitschke:
History of Germany,
2685-2686 (3768-3769).

5. THE GROWING POWER OF SWEDEN:

T. H. Dyer:
Modern Europe,
2893-2894 (2818-2819).

C. R. L. Fletcher:
Gustavus Adolphus,
2894-2896 (2819-2821).

J. L. Stevens:
Gustavus Adolphus,
2896-2897 (2822).

6. THE SUPREMACY OF WALLENSTEIN

(A. D. 1625-1630):

G. B. Malleson:
Battlefields of Germany,
1504-1505 (1471-1472).

J. Mitchell:
Life of Wallenstein,
1505-1506 (1472-1473).

G. P. R. James:
Dark Scenes of History,
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