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Design and Analysis of Security
Protocol for Communication
 Scrivener Publishing
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Publishers at Scrivener
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Design and Analysis of Security
Protocol for Communication

Edited by
Dinesh Goyal, S. Balamurugan,
Sheng-Lung Peng and O.P. Verma
This edition first published 2020 by John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, USA
and Scrivener Publishing LLC, 100 Cummings Center, Suite 541J, Beverly, MA 01915, USA
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10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
 Contents

Preface xiii
1 History and Generations of Security Protocols 1
Bright Keswani, Poonam Keswani and Rakhi Purohit
1.1 Introduction 2
1.2 Network Security 2
1.3 Historical Background of Network Security
and Network Timeline 4
1.4 Internet Architecture and Security Aspects 5
1.4.1 IPv4 and IPv6 Architecture 6
1.4.1.1 Structure of IPv4 6
1.4.1.2 IPv6 Architecture 7
1.4.2 Attack Through IPv4 8
1.4.2.1 Internet Attacks Common Methods 8
1.4.2.2 Internet Security Technology 10
1.4.3 IPv6 IP Security Issues 11
1.5 Different Aspects of Security of the Network 12
1.6 Evolution of Security Protocols for Network 13
1.6.1 Understanding the Key Components
of Network Security 13
1.6.2 A Deep Defense Strategy 14
1.6.3 How Does the Next Generation Network
Security System Work Best 15
1.7 Network Security Protocols 17
1.7.1 Application Layer 17
1.7.1.1 Good Privacy (PGP) 17
1.7.1.2 Email/Multipurpose Security (S/MIME) 18
1.7.1.3 HTTP Secure (S-HTTP) 18
1.7.1.4 Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTPS)
in Secure Sockets Layer 19
1.7.1.5 Secure E-Commerce (SET) 19
1.7.1.6 Kerberos 19
v
vi Contents

1.7.2 Transport Layer 20

1.7.2.1 Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) 20
1.7.2.2 Transport Layer Security (TLS) 21
1.7.3 Network Layer 21
1.7.3.1 Internet Protocol Security (IPSec) 22
1.7.3.2 Virtual Private Network (VPN) 23
1.7.4 Data Link Layer 24
1.7.4.1 Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) 24
1.7.4.2 Remote Authentication User Service (RADIO) 24
1.7.4.3 Terminal System Access Control Access
Control Equipment (TACACS +) 25
1.8 Current Evolution of Red Security 25
1.8.1 Hardware Development 25
1.8.2 Software Development 27
1.9 Future Security Trends 27
References 27
2 Evolution of Information Security Algorithms 29
Anurag Jagetiya and C. Rama Krishna
2.1 Introduction to Conventional Encryption 30
2.2 Classical Encryption Techniques 31
2.2.1 Substitution Based 32
2.2.1.1 Caesar Cipher 32
2.2.1.2 Monoalphabetic Cipher 32
2.2.1.3 Playfair Cipher 33
2.2.1.4 Polyalphabetic Cipher 35
2.2.2 Transposition Based 36
2.2.2.1 Simple Columnar 36
2.2.2.2 Rail Fence Cipher 37
2.3 Evolutions of Modern Security Techniques 38
2.3.1 Stream Cipher Algorithms 38
2.3.1.1 One Time Pad (OTP) 40
2.3.1.2 RC-4 41
2.3.1.3 A5/1 43
2.3.2 Block Cipher Algorithms 44
2.3.2.1 Feistel Cipher Structure 46
2.3.2.2 Data Encryption Standard (DES) 48
2.3.2.3 Triple Data Encryption Standard (TDES) 56
2.3.2.4 International Data Encryption
Algorithm (IDEA) 58
2.3.2.5 Blowfish 60
2.3.2.6 CAST-128 62
 Contents vii

2.4 Conclusion 66
References 67
Practice Set 67
Review Questions and Exercises 70
3 Philosophy of Security by Cryptostakes Schemes 79
Hemant Kumar Saini
3.1 Philosophy of Public Key Cryptosystems
(p-k Cryptography) 79
3.2 RSA Algorithm 81
3.3 Security Analysis of RSA 84
3.4 Exponentiation in Modular Arithmetic 85
3.5 Distribution of Public Keys 87
3.6 Distribution of Secret Keys Using Public Key Cryptosystems 89
3.7 Discrete Logarithms 91
3.8 Diffie–Hellman Key Exchange 91
3.9 Review Exercise 93
References 94
4 Zero-Share Key Management for Secure Communication
Across a Channel 95
P. R. Mahalingam and K. A. Fasila
4.1 Introduction 95
4.2 Background 96
4.3 Zero-Share Key Management System 98
4.4 Simulation 100
4.5 Complexity and Analysis 103
4.6 Conclusion and Future Trends 106
References 107
5 Soft Computing-Based Intrusion Detection System
With Reduced False Positive Rate 109
Dharmendra G. Bhatti and Paresh V. Virparia
5.1 Introduction 109
5.1.1 Soft Computing for Intrusion Detection 111
5.1.2 False Positive 112
5.1.3 Reasons of False Positive 113
5.2 Existing Technology and Its Review 115
5.3 Research Design 118
5.3.1 Conceptual Framework 118
5.3.2 Preprocessing Module 121
5.3.3 Alert Monitoring Module 123
viii Contents

5.4 Results With Implications 124

5.4.1 Preprocessing Module Benchmark 126
5.4.2 Alert Monitoring Module Benchmark 129
5.4.3 Overall Benchmark 130
5.4.4 Test Bed Network Benchmark 131
5.5 Future Research and Conclusion 133
References 135
6 Recursively Paired Arithmetic Technique (RPAT): An FPGA-
Based Block Cipher Simulation and Its Cryptanalysis 141
Rajdeep Chakraborty and J.K. Mandal
6.1 Introduction 141
6.2 Recursively Paired Arithmetic Technique (RPAT) 142
6.2.1 An Example of RPAT 144
6.2.2 Options of RPAT 145
6.2.3 Session Key Generation 146
6.3 Implementation and Simulation 147
6.4 Cryptanalysis 150
6.5 Simulation Based Results 152
6.6 Applications 152
6.7 Conclusion 153
Acknowledgment 153
References 153
7 Security Protocol for Multimedia Streaming 155
N. Brindha, S. Deepa and S. Balamurugan
7.1 Introduction 156
7.1.1 Significance of Video Streaming 156
7.2 Existing Technology and Its Review 162
7.3 Methodology and Research Design 166
7.4 Findings 167
7.5 Future Research and Conclusion 169
References 169
8 Nature Inspired Approach for Intrusion Detection Systems 171
Mohd Shahid Husain
8.1 Introduction 171
8.1.1 Types of Intrusion Detection Systems 172
8.2 Approaches Used for Intrusion Detection Systems 173
8.2.1 Intrusion Detection and Prevention Systems 173
8.2.2 Performance Criteria of Intrusion Detection Systems 174
8.3 Intrusion Detection Tools 175
 Contents ix

8.4 Use of Machine Learning to Build Dynamic IDS/IPS 176

8.5 Bio-Inspired Approaches for IDS 178
8.6 Conclusion 179
References 181
9 The Socio-Behavioral Cipher Technique 183
Harshit Bhatia, Rahul Johari and Kalpana Gupta
9.1 Introduction 183
9.2 Existing Technology 184
9.3 Methodology 186
9.3.1 Key Arrangement 187
9.3.2 Key Selection 188
9.3.3 Mathematical Operations 189
9.3.4 Algorithm 191
9.3.5 Encryption Operation 192
9.3.6 Decryption Operation 193
9.3.7 Mathematical Modeling 201
9.4 Conclusion: Future Scope and Limitations 205
References 208
10 An Energy Efficient Scheme for Real-Time Transmissions
Using Mobile Coordinated Wireless Sensor Network 211
E. Udayakumar, S. Balamurugan and P. Vetrivelan
10.1 Introduction 212
10.2 System Design 212
10.3 Results and Discussion 217
10.4 Conclusion 220
References 221
11 Intrusion Detection Strategies in Smart Grid 223
P. Ponmurugan, C. Venkatesh, M. Divya Priyadharshini
and S. Balamurugan
11.1 Introduction 224
11.2 Role of Smart Grid 224
11.3 Technical Challenges Involved in Smart Grid 225
11.4 Intrusion Detection System 228
11.5 General Architecture of Intrusion Detection System 229
11.6 Basic Terms in IDS 230
11.7 Capabilities of IDS 231
11.8 Benefits of Intrusion Detection Systems 231
11.9 Types of IDS 232
x Contents

11.10 IDS in a Smart Grid Environment 234

11.10.1 Smart Meter 235
11.10.2 Metering Module 235
11.10.3 Central Access Control 236
11.10.4 Smart Data Collector 236
11.10.5 Energy Distribution System 237
11.10.6 SCADA Controller 237
11.11 Security Issues of Cyber-Physical Smart Grid 237
11.12 Protecting Smart Grid From Cyber Vulnerabilities 239
11.13 Security Issues for Future Smart Grid 241
11.14 Conclusion 242
References 242
12 Security Protocol for Cloud-Based Communication 247
R. Suganya and S. Sujatha
12.1 Introduction 248
12.2 Existing Technology and Its Review 249
12.3 Methodology (To Overcome the Drawbacks of Existing
Protocols) 250
12.4 Findings: Policy Monitoring Techniques 250
12.5 Future Research and Conclusion 252
Reference 253
13 Security Protocols for Mobile Communications 255
Divya Priyadharshini M., Divya R., Ponmurugan P.
and Balamurugan S.
13.1 Introduction 256
13.2 Evolution of Mobile Communications 258
13.3 Global System for Mobiles (GSM) 260
13.4 Universal Mobile Telecommunications System (UMTS) 262
13.5 Long Term Evolution (LTE) 263
13.6 5G Wireless Systems 266
13.7 LoRA 269
13.8 5G Integrated With LoRA 270
13.9 Physical Layer Security and RFID Authentication 271
13.10 Conclusion 271
References 272
14 Use of Machine Learning in Design of Security Protocols 277
M. Sundaresan and D. Boopathy
14.1 Introduction 278
14.2 Review of Related Literature 281
 Contents xi

14.3 Joint and Offensive Kinetic Execution Resolver 283

14.3.1 Design of JOKER Protocol 285
14.3.2 Procedure 288
14.3.3 Procedure 290
14.3.4 Simulation Details and Parameters 291
14.3.4.1 Packet Delivering Ratio Calculation 291
14.3.4.2 Packet Loss Ratio Calculation 291
14.3.4.3 Latency (Delay) Calculation 291
14.3.4.4 Throughput Calculation 292
14.4 Results and Discussion 292
14.5 Conclusion and Future Scope 295
References 295
15 Privacy and Authentication on Security Protocol
for Mobile Communications 299
Brajesh Kumar Gupta “Mewadev”
15.1 Introduction 300
15.2 Mobile Communications 301
15.3 Security Protocols 303
15.4 Authentication 306
15.5 Next Generation Networking 310
15.6 Conclusion 314
References 315
16 Cloud Communication: Different Security Measures
and Cryptographic Protocols for Secure Cloud Computing 317
Anjana Sangwan
16.1 Introduction 317
16.2 Need of Cloud Communication 318
16.3 Application 321
16.4 Cloud Communication Platform 322
16.5 Security Measures Provided by the Cloud 322
16.6 Achieving Security With Cloud Communications 324
16.7 Cryptographic Protocols for Secure Cloud Computing 326
16.8 Security Layer for the Transport Protocol 327
16.9 Internet Protocol Security (IPSec) 329
16.9.1 How IPsec Works 330
16.10 Kerberos 332
16.11 Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) 338
16.11.1 Authentication 338
16.12 WiFi Protected Access (WPA) 339
xii Contents

16.13 Wi-Fi Protected Access II and the Most Current

Security Protocols 340
16.13.1 Wi-Fi Protected Access 341
16.13.2 Difference between WEP, WPA:
Wi-Fi Security Through the Ages 341
16.14 Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) 341
16.15 Wi-Fi Protected Access (WPA) 342
16.16 Conclusions 342
References 343
Index 345
 Preface

Over the past few decades, digital communication has grown by

leaps and bounds. The expanding use of the internet in our day-to-
day lives has resulted in a six-fold increase in the number of inter-
net users in the past two decades alone, leading to an evolution of
technologies for home use such as Cloud Computing, Artificial
Intelligence, Big Data Analytics and Machine Learning.
Today, 30% of the total business worldwide is done online, with approx-
imately 25% of banking transactions being done exclusively from smart-
phones and laptops at home or the office. Moreover, 50% of the world’s
population is currently using social media as a platform for connecting
with their friends and colleagues; and primary and higher education insti-
tutions are using internet-based education as a tool for enriching students’
knowledge and at the same time keeping track of their academic perfor-
mance. Now even Government agencies are moving to internet platforms,
with most of their services currently available online.
Although this huge volume of internet usage has made life easier for
every individual, insecurity or loss of information continues to be a major
concern. There have been many cases across the globe of breach of infor-
mation or platforms leading to loss of data, money, faith and much more.
Various research scientists have done a lot of work over the past five
to six decades to develop security protocols for ensuring minimization
of breach of data either being stored or under one network. The history
of information security has been quite long and has evolved from the era of
its birth to present date. During this period millions of cryptographic algo-
rithms have evolved, some of which have been quite successful for ensur-
ing many secure communications across the World Wide Web.
The application of security has changed as technology has evolved
from tube computing to palm (nano) computing. Presently, we have
many different security protocols for various types of applications of the
internet like email, web browsing, webchat, video streaming, cloud-based

xiii
xiv Preface

communication, closed group communication, banking transactions,

e-commerce and many more both at network level and user end.
Security has evolved to counter many kinds of attacks like intrusion,
manipulation, spoofing and so on, for which techniques like cryptogra-
phy, message digest, digital signature, steganography, watermarking, time
stamping, access control, etc., have been incorporated into various layers of
communication, resulting in protocols like HTTP, SMTP, RTP, RTCP, FTP,
UDP and many more.
The issue with these protocols is that they are not being reviewed from
time to time, nor are they being compiled and compared in one place. Our
aim in publishing this book is to combine the analysis and comparison of
various protocols which might act as a Mobile Communication Security
Protocol or Multimedia Streaming Security Protocol. Therefore, this book
discusses and analyzes some of the security protocols available for commu-
nication in various application areas.
The 16 chapters of this book are well placed to illustrate the security
protocols for communication. Following is a brief synopsis of each chapter:

• Chapter 1 gives a detailed history of communication and the

evolution of its protocols; and relates the evolution of secu-
rity and the need for it in communication protocols.
• Chapter 2 discusses the evolution of various information
security algorithms, from basic models to complex informa-
tion security algorithms currently in use.
• Chapter 3 digs further into security algorithms by focus-
ing on the philosophy of security by cryptostake schemes, a
model for public key cryptographic techniques.
• Chapter 4 introduces a new technique for key management
of security algorithms being implemented over a communi-
cation channel.
• Chapter 5 introduces a soft computing-based intrusion
detection system with reduced false positive rate, which
helps in intrusion detection in a communication channel,
even if the signature of the intruder is not available.
• Chapter 6 proposes a new simple cipher, namely recursively
paired arithmetic technique (RPAT): A field-programmable
gate array (FPGA)-based block cipher simulation and its
cryptanalysis.
• Chapter 7 reviews security protocols like RTP, RTMP, UDP,
etc., for multimedia communication over a channel; it
 Preface xv

attempts to analyze the performance of these protocols on

the basis of delay as parameter.
• Chapter 8 presents the concept of a new dimension in intru-
sion detection, i.e., a nature-inspired approach, and justifies
the approach by comparing the benefits of using the same
against that of a host-based intrusion detection system.
• Chapter 9 presents a secure and efficient symmetric key
technique that harnesses the readily available social profil-
ing information of the sender for encryption and decryption
of the data, blending the social behavior of the sender with
the cryptography.
• Chapter 10 discusses the enhancement of security in a wire-
less network by providing an energy efficiency scheme for
real-time transmissions using mobile access coordinated
wireless sensor network.
• Chapter 11 introduces the concept of smart grid and the
significant role that intrusion detection plays in it. Also
addressed are the various threats to security and detection
of intrusion frameworks in smart grid.
• Chapter 12 provides a glance into security protocols for
cloud-based communication.
• Chapter 13 provides a detailed review of security protocols
for mobile communications.
• Chapter 14 introduces a new dimension of advanced tech-
nologies in the design of security protocols using machine
learning.
• Chapter 15 discusses privacy and authentication of security
protocol for mobile communications.
• Chapter 16 discusses cloud communication and the dif-
ferent security measures and cryptographic protocols for
secure cloud computing.

Communication has become a lifeline for the current era, and secure
communication is blood in the veins of that lifeline. Currently very few
books are available on the security protocols of different communication
models like wireless communication, cloud-based communication, multi-
media communication, MANET (infrastructureless) communication, etc.
By providing this book to an audience working in the domains of network
security, we have attempted to cover the history of the evolution of com-
munication protocols and also provide some new techniques for security
xvi Preface

of communication channels with the use of tools like machine learning

and nature-inspired algorithms.
We thank all the authors for contributing to our book with their valu-
able knowledge. We hope this book will prove to be a good resource for
the intended audience to access all relevant technologies on one platform!!

Dinesh Goyal
S. Balamurugan
Sheng-Lung Peng
O.P. Verma
December 2019
 1
History and Generations of
Security Protocols
Bright Keswani1†, Poonam Keswani2* and Rakhi Purohit3‡
1
Department of Computer Applications, Suresh Gyan Vihar University,
Jaipur, India
2
Akashdeep PG College, Jaipur, India
3
Global Institute of Technology, Jaipur, India

Abstract
For personal computers, organizations and military users, network security has
become more important. Due to the recent arrival of the internet in network, and
security now a key issue, the safety record maybe availability as well all people
understand very good requirements security technologies in communications.
Knowing the attack method can generate enough security. Many companies
testing protection auto using some techniques of the network internet through
download programs firewalls and some mechanisms encryption in itself company
origin it has a special internal network known as “Intranet” to maintain in contact
internet access from outside also safe from any threatening state. All the security
of the network is huge as well in stage specific development for evaluation. It is a
theme that consists of date summary for the security that shows in internet assets
security, as well development internet current techniques security. To understand
the ongoing investigation, understand previous for the internet, and level his from
weak points from attacks, and also methods attack different via network internet
known, as well security technologies what they are very mission a lot they are need
as well to be reviewed and analysis.

Keywords: Network security, security protocols, attacks collective,

security techniques

*Corresponding author: poonamkeswani777@gmail.com

†
Corresponding author: kbright@rediffmail.com
‡
Corresponding author: rakhimutha@gmail.com

Dinesh Goyal, S. Balamurugan, Sheng-Lung Peng and O.P. Verma (eds.) Design and Analysis of
Security Protocol for Communication, (1–28) © 2020 Scrivener Publishing LLC

1
2 Design and Analysis of Security Protocol for Communication

1.1 Introduction
Due to advent of the Internet and ever changing network technologies, the
world is increasingly interconnected day by day. There are many personal,
commercial, military, and government information in the creation of
infrastructure networks around the world. Network security has become
very important because intellectual property can be easily accessible via
the efficient use of Internet and related tools. Although there are various
types of networks but two fundamentally different networks, i.e., data net-
works and synchronous networks consisting of switches. The Internet is
seen as a data network. From its current data network, information can
be obtained through special procedures by router-based computers such
as planting in the router “Trojan Horse”. Data is not stored by switches
of a synchronous network; therefore it is not compromised by attackers.
That is why security is emphasized in data networks such as the Internet,
as well as in various aspects of the Internet connection proposed by other
networks.
For clear understanding, this chapter is divided into the following
Sections. Further, each section is discussed in brief.

1. Network Security
2. The History and Security of the Network
3. Common Methods of Attack
4. Network Security Technology
5. Evolution of Network Security Protocols
6. Network Security Protocol

1.2 Network Security

When thinking about network security, we should know that the network
should be a secure place. The network security does not affect the security
of the client computers at any of the point of the connection chain [2].
So, when transferring the data from the communications channel which
does not be attacked, there will be a potential intruder can indicate to a
specific communication channel, which access data and decrypt and also
re-­encrypt the message, which is falsified. The task of repairing a network
is as important as obtaining a computer and encrypting a message.
The system and some network technologies are the key technologies for
various applications in network. Network security is critical for the spe-
cific network and the applications of network [1]. Network security is a
 History and Generations of Security Protocols 3

prerequisite for emerging networks; also it is easy to implement a very

secure approach for networking.
At time of development of secure network, there are some of the factors
considered accordingly, i.e., “Access”, which provide authorized users with
the methods to communicate with specific network; “Confidentiality”, which
ensures that information/data flow on the network will remains private;
“Authentication”, which makes sure that the users of the network are what
they call people; “Integrity”, which feature makes sure that the message is not
modified during transmission, and “Do not repudiate”, which makes sure
that the user does not refute their use of the network [1].
The crimes committed by Kevin Mitnick have fueled the recent interest
in security. Kevin Mitnick committed the greatest cybercrime in the his-
tory of the United States [3]. Losses of property and intellectual property
of several companies amount to $80 million [3]. Since then, information
security has become the focus of attention. The public network is called to
provide personal as well as financial information. Security of such infor-
mation must also evolve due to the development of information which is
available online. Due to an attack Kevin Mitnick, The Company empha-
sizes the security of system. The Internet always works as main part behind
data security.
Development of an effective security plan on the Internet require to address
primarily to understand security issues, about the potential attackers, the
level of security required, and about various factors that make the network
insecure and vulnerable. Following are the steps to learn how to configure
a secure network, the Internet, or other aspects during the search process.
In order to minimize the weaknesses from one device to another, many
products are available which includes various tools for encryption of data
and information, effective mechanisms for user authentication, intrusion
detection and, security management. Companies around the world use a
variety of these tools. The intranet connects and protects The Internet in a
reasonable way. The same structure of the Internet may create weaknesses
in the network. Internet security has greatly improved the development of
new security mechanism and methods for networks including Internet as
well as Intranet access.
It is also necessary to study the types of attacks online so that they can
detect and prevent these attacks. Intrusion detection systems rely on the
most common types of attacks.
Previous Internet protocols were not developed for assurance. In the
TCP/IP communication stack, no security protocol is applied. This led to
an attack on the Internet. Due to advancement in the Internet architecture
information communications became more secure.
4 Design and Analysis of Security Protocol for Communication

1.3 Historical Background of Network Security

and Network Timeline
The Internet was first introduced in 1969, when the Department of Defense
(ARPANET) conducted a network survey. Since the beginning of the year,
ARPANET has been successful. The original design was intended easy access
to remote computers so that scientists to share data and, it will become one
of the most popular email for ARPANET to become a high-speed digital
communication, which can be used to research various topics of interest and
discuss. Collaboration in international network work is the first of many
rules for entities that operate a growing network. He was the first president of
INWG of Winton Joseph and became known as the “father of the Internet.”
In the 1980s, TCP/IP was created by Bob Kent and Winton Joseph who
were the main members of the TCP/IP team. TCP/IP is the general lan-
guage for all computers to connect to the Internet. The loose network that
makes the ARPANET known as today’s “Internet”. During 1980s, this kind
of boom appeared in the computer industry. Combining low-cost desktops
with powerful servers allows companies to communicate with their cus-
tomers and business partners with the use of Internet.
In 1990, due to advent of World Wide Web [WWW] the Internet made
accessible to everyone. Netscape Navigator and Microsoft Internet Explorer
like search engines came into existence. Many important events have con-
tributed to the development of computer security and networks. The timeta-
ble can be started in advance in 1930 to invent a Polish programmer’s jigsaw
machine in 1918 to convert simple information into cipher text. In 1930,
the shocking mathematician Alan Turing broke the Enigma code. Make sure
the connection is very important to the images of World War II. In 1960, it
was launched by many students at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology
(MIT) and the Department of Defense in the term “piracy”, which is a pop-
ular electronic data and information exchange pipeline [3]. Telnet protocol
was developed in 1970s. This led to the widespread use of data networks,
initially limited to government contractors and academic researchers [3]. In
the 1980s, online piracy and cybercrime began to emerge. After nine days
of carnival, the authorities conducted an accidental search and penetrated
into a highly confidential system. The 1986, Act of Fraud and Abuse was
created, and computer crime Ian Murphy stole information from military
computers. After graduation, Robert Morris was judged to launch more than
6,000 weak computers connected to the Internet. In the 1990s, the Internet
became public and security issues increased dramatically. Today, about 950
million people worldwide use the Internet [3]. On any given day, there are
approximately 225 important security violations [3]. These security breaches
 History and Generations of Security Protocols 5

can also result in significant financial losses. For large organizations and the
average user, priority should be given to investing in appropriate security.
In 1975, the first malware was invented by two researchers who started
the Xerox Company. It is called a “Worm” and looks for a lazy computer
processor as an attempt to improve it. The creators of the simple diagnos-
tic tool inadvertently created the first malware and created terms that are
commonly used in multiple malware applications.
Many important events have contributed to the birth and development
of computer security and networks. The program began in the 1930s, when
Polish programmers invented a machine in 1918 to convert simple encrypted
text messages. In 1930, the shocking mathematician Alan Turing broke the
Enigma code ensuring that contact was crucial during the Second World War.
In 1960, he created the term “hacker” for many students at the
Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) and launched the Arpanet
Department of Defense, which is popular as a channel for electronic
exchange of data and information [3]. This paves the way for today’s carrier
network called the Internet. In 1970, the Telnet protocol was developed.
This led to the widespread use of data networks, initially limited to govern-
ment contractors and academic researchers [3].
In the 1980s, online piracy and cybercrime began to emerge. After 9 days
of carnival, the authorities conducted an accidental search and penetrated
into a highly confidential system. The 1986 Act of Fraud and Abuse was
created, and computer crime Ian Murphy stole information from military
computers. After graduation, Robert Morris was judged to launch more
than 6,000 weak computers connected to the Internet. The Emergency
Response Team (CERT) alerts computer users to cyber security issues
based on concerns that Morris may repeat.
In the 1990s, the Internet became public and security issues increased
dramatically. Today, about 950 million people worldwide use the Internet
[3]. On 1 day, there were about 225 major security incidents [3]. These
security breaches can also result in significant financial losses. For large
organizations and the average user, priority should be given to investing in
appropriate security.

1.4 Internet Architecture and Security Aspects

Fear of Internet security vulnerabilities has led companies to use private
networks or protected internal networks. Security mechanisms in multiple
layers of the Internet Protocol suite allow for logical protection of packet
data sent over the network [11].
6 Design and Analysis of Security Protocol for Communication

Analyze existing and new versions of the Internet Protocol to determine

security risks. Although there may be security in the protocol, some attacks
cannot be protected. Analyze these attacks to determine other security
mechanisms that may be needed.
The Internet security architecture is called the Internet Safe security
standard [19]. IPsec IP security covers next-generation IP (IPv6) (current
version) (IPv4) although the development of new technologies such as
IPsec does not seem to be sufficient to overcome the most common flaws
on the Internet. A visual representation of IPsec provides a secure con-
nection. IPSec is a peer-to-peer protocol that includes partial code and
another part of decryption. The two parties share the key or key. IPSec can
be used in two modes, transport mode and tunneling.

1.4.1 IPv4 and IPv6 Architecture

IPv4 was designed in 1980 to replace the NCP protocol in ARPANET. Twenty
years later, IPv4 has many limitations [6]. IPv6 defect protocol design IPv4
is required. IPv6 is not a complete IPv4 packet protocol; instead, it is a new
design. Internet protocols are designed to be very broad and cannot be
fully covered. A key part of the security architecture is discussed in detail.

1.4.1.1 Structure of IPv4

The agreement contains several aspects that can cause problems when in
use. Not all of these issues are related to security. It is worth noting that
there is a full understanding of the Internet Protocol and its shortcomings.
The reasons for the protocol issue are:

1. Address space
2. Routing
3. Configuration
4. Security
5. Quality of service

The IPv4 structure contains a 32-bit wide address [6]. This limits the
maximum number of computers that can connect to the Internet. A 32-bit
address can provide up to 2 billion computers connected to the Internet.
No other issues are expected when the protocol is created. It facilitates
malicious code distribution in IPv4 address space [5].
Routing is a problem with this protocol because the size of the routing
table is constantly increasing. The maximum theoretical size input for the
Global Positioning Table is 2 million [6]. Some methods have been used to
 History and Generations of Security Protocols 7

reduce the number of entries in the routing table. This is useful in a short
amount of time, but major changes are required to resolve this issue.
A TCP/IP IPv4-based network is required to provide users with some
data to configure the network. Some of the required information is the IP
gateway, subnet mask and DNS server [4]. The simplicity of network config-
uration is not clear in the IPv4 protocol. The user can request the appropriate
network configuration from the central server [6]. This is very useful.
For many of today’s attacks, insecurity leads to the IPv4 protocol [9].
There is a mechanism to ensure IPv4, but not necessarily. IPsec is a specific
protocol protection mechanism. Load the packet with encryption protec-
tion space. It provides confidentiality and ipsec integrity and authentica-
tion. This protection does not take into account pirate experts who can
crack the encryption method and obtain the key.
When creating the Internet, QoS is based on the QoS of information
sent over the network. The delivery of the original message is primarily
dependent on the text. With the expansion of the Internet and the develop-
ment of technology, other forms of communication have begun to spread
on the Internet. For standard text, the quality of service for transmitting
video and music is different. This protocol does not include QoS features.
Dynamics vary depending on the type of data being sent [6].

1.4.1.2 IPv6 Architecture

In the development of IPv6, various aspects of the Protocol have been high-
lighted IPv4 address. It should be improved. Development efforts include
the following areas:
1. Routing and addressing
2. Multi-protocol architecture
3. Safety Engineering
4. Traffic control
Extend the IPv6 address space by accepting a 128-bit address. The proto-
col uses a 128-bit address and supports up to three and four 10^38 devices.
In this protocol, the use of address bits is less efficient because it simplifies
the addressing configuration. The routing system is more efficient IPv6 and
provides a smaller global routing table. The host configuration has also
been simplified. The host can be configured automatically. This new design
allows users and network administrators to easily configure.
The security architecture of the IPv6 protocol was born. Of great inter-
est is that IPsec is integrated into the IPv6 protocol. IPsec IPv4 and IPv6
have the same function. The only difference is that IPv6 can use security
8 Design and Analysis of Security Protocol for Communication

mechanisms along the way [6]. IPv6 addresses the issue of quality of service.
IP allows special handling of certain packets with higher quality of service.
You must confirm this after verifying IPv6. Its security features are not nec-
essarily more secure than IPv4. Better security, not overall improvement.

1.4.2 Attack Through IPv4

Computer security has four main characteristics. The approach mentioned
earlier is slightly different, but he rethinks comfort and attention. These secu-
rity features are confidential, complete, private, and usable. Confidentiality
and integrity remain the same. Availability means that authorized employees
have access to computer assets [8]. Privacy is the right to protect personal
secrets [8]. There are four attack methods associated with these four security
features. Table 1.1 shows the attack methods and solutions.
A brief discussion of common attack techniques and security techniques
will be provided. Not all methods are discussed in the table above. The cur-
rent understanding of the techniques used to handle attacks is to understand
the research and development of current secure hardware and software.

1.4.2.1 Internet Attacks Common Methods

There are several common methods of Internet attack. Some attacks gain
system knowledge or personal information, such as spyware and phishing.

Table 1.1 Attack methods and security technology.

Computer security Technology for
attributes Attack methods internet security
Privacy Email bombing, IDS, Firewall, anti-
Spamming, Hacking, malware software,
Virus, Worms, IP IPSec and SSl.
Spoofing and DoS.
Integrity Trojans, Virus, Worms, IDS, Firewall, Anti-
IP Spoofing and DoS. Malware Software,
IPSec and SSl
Confidentiality DoS, Eavesdropping, IDS, Firewall, Crypto­
Phishing and IP graphic Systems,
Spoofing IPSec and SSL
Availability DoS, Email, Bombing, IDS, Anti-Malware
Spamming and Software and
System Boot Record Firewall.
Infectors
 History and Generations of Security Protocols 9

Attacks can also interfere with the intended function of the system, such
as viruses, worms, and Trojan horses. Another form of attack is the con-
sumption of system resources, which may be the result of a denial of service
attack. There are other forms of network intrusion, such as ground attacks,
bomb attacks, and tear gas attacks. These attacks are not known in the name
of two attacks, but they are used in some way even if they are not mentioned.

1.4.2.1.1 Listen Closely

Unauthorized interception of communications is known as illegal listen-
ing. Passive listening means that a person secretly listens to only network
messages. Active spies, on the other hand, mean that intruders listen to
certain content and listen to traffic. This can cause message distortion.
Sensitive information can be stolen in this way [8].

1.4.2.1.2 Virus
A virus is a self-replicating program that uses file transfer and transmission
[8]. Once the file is opened, the virus will be activated within the system.

1.4.2.1.3 Worm
Worms are considered viruses because they are repeated, but worms do
not need files that allow them to spread [8]. There are two main types of
worms and network identification worms and worms. A large number of
email viruses use email as a means of infecting other computers. Network-
sensitive worms are a major problem on the Internet. The target worm
identifies the target network and once the worm reaches the target host, it
is infected by a Trojan horse or other worm.

1.4.2.1.4 Trojan Horse

Trojan horses seem to be benign to users, but in reality they have some
malicious targets. Trojan horses usually carry some goods, just like viruses.

1.4.2.1.5 Phishing
Phishing is an attempt to obtain confidential information from individuals,
groups, or organizations. Deceive fraudulent users in detection. Personal
information such as credit card numbers, online banking vouchers and
other confidential information.
10 Design and Analysis of Security Protocol for Communication

1.4.2.1.6 IP Spoofing Attack IP

It means that the address reflects the trusted address of the computer
accessing other computers. The identity of intruders is hidden by a variety
of means, making detection and prevention difficult and unable to delete
fake IP (IP) packets by the use of current IP technology.

1.4.2.1.7 Denial of Service

A denial of service is considered an attack when a system that receives a
large number of requests cannot reconnect with the applicant. The system
then consumes resources waiting for the exchange to complete. Finally, the
system is unable to respond to other unanswered requests.

1.4.2.2 Internet Security Technology

While information can be accessed and transmitted over the Internet,
online threats will remain a major problem in the world. They developed
various security and exploration measures to address these attacks.

1.4.2.2.1 Encryption System

Encryption is a useful tool widely used in current security architectures,
including the use of code and passwords to transform information into
model data to understand it.

1.4.2.2.2 Firewall
A firewall is a mechanism for controlling model boundaries or protecting
perimeters. The goal of the firewall is to avoid traffic from outside, but it
can also be used to avoid traffic from inside. The firewall is the first line of
defense against hackers. It is a system designed to prevent unauthorized
access or access from a private network. The firewall can be implemented
in hardware or software, or a combination of the two.

1.4.2.2.3 Intrusion Detection System

An intrusion detection system is an additional measure to prevent intru-
sion into a computer. It can be an IDS system, which is software and hard-
ware that detects attacks. IDS products are used to monitor connections
and determine if an attack has been initiated. Some IDS systems only mon-
itor and alert attacks, while others try to block attacks.
 History and Generations of Security Protocols 11

1.4.2.2.4 Software Methods and Anti-Malware

Viruses, worms, and Trojan horses are examples of malware or mal-
ware. Special anti-software tools are used to detect and process infected
systems.

1.4.2.2.5 Secure Sockets Layer (SSL)

Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) is a set of protocols that is a standard way to
achieve a high level of security between a web browser and a website. SSL
is designed to create a secure tunnel or tunnel between a web browser and
a web server to protect any information shared in a secure tunnel. SSL uses
a certificate to provide client authentication for the server. The client sends
the certificate to the server for identification.

1.4.3 IPv6 IP Security Issues

From a security perspective, IPv6 has made significant progress in IPv4 IP.
Although IPv6 has a strong security mechanism, it is still weak. There are
still potential security issues with certain aspects of the IPv6 protocol.
The new Internet protocol does not prevent properly configured servers,
poorly designed applications, or protected sites.
Security issues may occur for the following reasons:

1. Problems in the management process

2. Flood problem
3. Liquidity issues

Due to the built-in IPsec function, there is a problem with the spindle
operation [7]. The extension header avoids some of the common sources of
attack caused by head operations. The problem is that the steering guide must
be processed through all the stacks, which can result in a long series of steer-
ing heads. A large number of attachments may be confused by a knot, which
is a form of attack if deliberate. Tradition remains a threat to IPv6 security.
When the entire network portion is resolved while searching for a pos-
sible destination with an open service, an attack type called port check [5]
occurs. The IPv6 protocol address space is large, but the protocol is not
threatened by such attacks.
Navigation is a new feature integrated with IPv6. This feature requires
special security measures. Network administrators should be aware of
these security requirements when using IPv6 Mobility.
12 Design and Analysis of Security Protocol for Communication

1.5 Different Aspects of Security of the Network

The company currently uses a range of protection, encryption, and authen-
tication mechanisms to create an Internet-connected intranet, but it is also
protected.
An intranet is a dedicated computer network that uses the Internet pro-
tocol [12]. The difference between an intranet and an “external network” is
that the first is usually limited to the employees of the organization, while
the external network is usually available to customers, suppliers, or other
authorized parties.
The company intranet does not require Internet access. This access is
usually done through gateway and user authentication with a secure server,
message encryption, usually using a virtual private network (VPN).
Although the intranet can be quickly configured to share data in a con-
trolled environment, this information is still at risk unless there is strict
security [12]. The downside of intranet networks is that important data
may not reach the people who need it. The intranet has a place in multiple
organizations. However, for a wider range of data exchanges, it is best to
keep the network open and have the following security measures:

1. Detect and report whether the firewall has an intrusion

attempt
2. Check for complex viruses in the firewall
3. Open the rules for additional employee emails
4. Encrypt all communication and data transmission
5. Authenticate by synchronization, password synchroniza-
tion, or security certificate

If the intranet wants to access the Internet, it typically uses a virtual

private network [13, 14]. Interfaces in multiple locations usually work on
separate leased lines, or you can use the updated VPN method. The follow-
ing technologies are different

1. Encryption system
2. Firewall
3. Intrusion detection system
4. Malignant and scanning procedures
5. Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) SSL

The network security zone continues on the same path. Use the same
method and add biometric data. Biometric technology provides better
 History and Generations of Security Protocols 13

authentication than passwords, which can greatly reduce unauthorized

access to the security system. New technologies such as smart cards are
emerging in the field of Internet security research. The sidebar security
network is very dynamic. A new firewall and encryption system is being
implemented.

1.6 Evolution of Security Protocols for Network

The evolution of the network security protocol can be divided into three
age groups [10]:

1. Filter packaging
2. Check the meeting
3. Application control

Although the development of anything is a continuous process, it is not

a matter of cleaning up the next cycle. The spiritual perspective can deter-
mine certain characteristics that people lead in time.
This shows how the basic concepts of the Internet have changed the
security and analysis of the five most advanced Internet security systems
that must work in every network assessment.

1. Next Generation Firewall (NGFW)

2. Secure Web Portal (SWG)
3. Network Access Control (NAC)
4. Malware protection program
5. Secure access to the intermediary (CASB)

There are some network security systems, NGFW, NAC, and SWG,
which have been developed for many years to accommodate the latest
security threats. Other tools, such as sandbox protection and CASB, have
some new concepts in the Public Safety Act.

1.6.1 Understanding the Key Components of Network Security

Traditional firewalls have been the most important and important line of
defense for decades. Most corporate structures require secure servers at the
edge of the core network to connect to other networks, especially if other
networks are managed by a third party or are considered less centralized
and secure.
14 Design and Analysis of Security Protocol for Communication

This typically involves using a firewall to partition Internet connections,

external networks, and remote WAN sites. The original firewall has no state,
which means the firewall has no intelligence to monitor the data flow. As a
result, the first wall of the fire was hit by a suicide bomber, and the attackers
indicated that they were entering the rules allowed by the firewall.
Powerful firewalls are becoming common because they can monitor
and track traffic between two devices that communicate with each other
through a firewall. The state table not only controls the correct transport
stream, but also ensures that the transmitted and received packets are con-
nected to the original device. This is done by examining the network layer,
the packets on OSI Layers 3 and 4, and tracking the IP address data. The
TCP serial number and port number are processed. When transmitting a
confirmed firewall packet, this information falsifies the hardware firewall
to receive more harmful packets in the perimeter.
Although traditional firewalls are only designed to allow certain ports
and protocols, they are not sure whether the visited site is harmful or inap-
propriate. This leaves a big gap, especially in terms of network traffic. The
firewall can only allow or deny any traffic; it cannot selectively or see the
upper layer protocol. This led to the creation of the SWG.
The first generation of SWGs had only one feature: filtering URLs. In
most applications, Web Gateway is used to block access to websites that
are included in a predefined blacklist. The company is responsible for
maintaining SWG manufacturers, usually a blacklist database that is regu-
larly updated on the gateway’s network equipment. The administrator can
choose which blacklist category to apply. There are some blacklist catego-
ries that include sites that include pornography, gambling, and hate groups,
as well as sites that are often referred to as malware.

1.6.2 A Deep Defense Strategy

Over the years, network security systems such as traditional firewalls and
secure web portals have run independently and performed different secu-
rity functions [16]. Although this structure is better than nothing, it only
provides a layer of defense for any threat. In order to add some extra layers
of protection, there are some concepts of deep defense strategies. Our idea
is to implement an interlocking security system to expose risks to multiple
security measures designed to prevent malicious behavior.
Firewalls and traditional security gates are used for the Internet, email,
and intrusion prevention systems (IPS). Protecting the infrastructure
boundaries of an infrastructure company typically involves accessing cloud
resources. All data entering and exiting the network is filtered through
 History and Generations of Security Protocols 15

firewalls and IPS. All traffic and email on the Internet will then be sent to
the relevant security portal for further review to identify possible attach-
ments contained in email attachments and malware.
With proper tuning and maintenance, deep defense engineering strat-
egies using these components provide strong security. However, hackers
began to discover that the network could find cracks between each system
it entered. There are three main reasons for this. First of all, some security
systems are difficult to fully implement. Usually, only some of the security
features available in production are implemented.
Second, the security system cannot be maintained and updated cor-
rectly. For example, you must periodically update your firewall software
to fix newly discovered vulnerabilities. Security portals and databases are
often reviewed and sometimes require manual intervention updates.
Finally, while these systems overlap and provide multiple layers of pro-
tection, they work independently and are not shared and can be used to dis-
cover information between systems that have difficulty detecting threats.

1.6.3 How Does the Next Generation Network Security System

Work Best
The next generation of security tools not only goes deeper into defense
strategies, but goes further with tightly integrated and improved systems.
Integrated with next-generation firewall capabilities to monitor and detect
legacy firewalls, revealing regular IPS functionality by identifying signa-
tures that contain known attack patterns. It is also known as NGFW for
applications that use the firewall feature to check the deep technology
package you are using. This allows the firewall to check the package not
only by loading the subsidiary but also by the application to which the
package belongs. This policy allows NGFW to securely interact with IPS
and web portals by providing multiple layers of protection.
The web security gateway uses standard URL filtering for standards and
direct protection against malware. The SWG acts as an IPS, focusing on
web-based exceptions and virus signatures. When the new company dis-
covers these signatures, it is automatically sent to the SWG device. Another
new feature of most WWG groups is the ability to access global threat sen-
sor networks. The threat of these sensors is typically maintained through
security, identifying new threats and SWG groups locally and globally to
better protect against real-time web threats. This type of security is an
effective blow to increase rescue attacks.
Malware protection is a relatively new security tool for security adminis-
trators in many organizations. A limited number of malware environments
16 Design and Analysis of Security Protocol for Communication

are designed to create an isolated environment simulation test environment

that allows the system to perform multiple tests on suspicious packets. This
approach sets a serious burden and hinders access to the production envi-
ronment. The protective case can detect other tools such as NGFW and
SWG. You can ignore this threat. Some malware installations require a
sandbox filter. All data sandboxes are responsible for repairing suspicious
downloads. In other designs, the limited malware environment relies on
NGFW and SWG to classify the load as suspicious and then move it to the
basement for further testing.
Next-generation networks are also beginning to rely on greater control
over network access than their predecessors. I created a BYOD explosion.
Concerns about cyber security vulnerabilities, rather than security person-
nel in the network, are very serious in identifying, evaluating, approving, and
monitoring personnel who have access to network resources for production.
The NAC user and the correct device must be properly selected before
allowing access to the network. If authenticated, the user or device receives
a user access policy. Access policies provide access to resources that are
accessible in the production network. In addition, you can access and fol-
low resources. This is used to understand potential theft. In fact suspicious
behavior refers to intellectual property or may be another harmful behavior.
The Internet was born in a military and academic environment. In this
environment, users are always reliable and work together to make technol-
ogy mutually beneficial. Therefore, IP and standard IP applications are safe
from the start. Today, unsecure IP is still at the heart of Internet operations,
with a range of long-term IP services such as:

1. Search Name—DNS Domain Name Service

2. File Transfer—FTP (FTP)
3. Email: SMTP Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
4. Web browsing: Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTP)

When the Internet was first developed, the basic technology running on the
Internet was more secure than the trust era. However, the Internet has grown
tremendously, with millions of people, many of whom are unreliable. Internet
crime, corruption, espionage, extortion, etc., are getting bigger and bigger.
Therefore, Internet users must pay attention to managing their data
security needs. Various unwelcome people roam the streets of the Internet
without protection, so they must have strong defenses, valuable data, and
services. Over the years, as the value of data and services on the Internet has
grown, so does the current threat and the network industry has developed
 History and Generations of Security Protocols 17

a range of hardware and security software to address threats for network

security in three eras.

1.7 Network Security Protocols

Due to the advancement and continuous growth of Internet, personal as
well as business communication has increased the need for “Privacy” and
“Information Security” for Eastern digital communication channels [18].
Both are critical to continuing personal communications and e-commerce
that thrive in the Internet world Calls, security and privacy have come
up with many security protocols and standards. These include Secure
Communication Layer SSL Protocol (Transport Layer Security) TLS);
IP Security (IPSec); HTTP Security (S-HTTP), Secure Email (PGP and
S/MIME), DNDSEC, SSH, etc.
We will discuss these protocols and standards in a network protocol
cluster in the following ways:

1.7.1 Application Layer

1. PGP
2. S / MIME
3. S-HTTP
4. HTTPS
5. SET
6. Kerberos

1.7.1.1 Good Privacy (PGP)

The Sensitive communications should not be underestimated. The best
way to protect this type of information so far is to encrypt it. Email and
any other form of communication encryption are critical to everyone’s per-
sonal information. This is where you come from PGP, which is why PGP is
very popular today. Phil Zimmermann is a public key encryption system
for PGP. This feature creates the circle of trust between users. In such circle
of trust, the two primary users are the loops of the public key pairs stored
by each user and using keys in a person’s keychain.
Unlike basic PKI infrastructure keys, such circle contains potential vul-
nerabilities and it can be exploited by hackers. In PGP there is a digital
signature for verifying documents or files. This helps ensure that emails or
18 Design and Analysis of Security Protocol for Communication

files that have just been received from the Internet are secure and will not
change.

1.7.1.2 Email/Multipurpose Security (S/MIME)

Expand Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions/Security Protocol
Multipurpose Internet Mail Extensions (MIME) when adding digital sig-
natures and encryption. MIME is communication protocols for transmis-
sion of multimedia data, which includes sound, images, and video. The
reader must be interested in RFC protocol. MIME returns RFC 1521.
Because web content (files), including hyperlinks to other hypertext links,
describe the protocol message as MIME, you must state any type of rela-
tionship. This is what the MIME server does every time a client requests a
web document. When the web server sends the requested file to the client
browser, it adds a MIME header to the document and moves it. So, online
email consists of following two parts, i.e., the “address” and the “body”. In
“address” part, there is information about MIME type and subtype. The
MIME type describes the type of file that transfers the content type, such
as images, sounds, applications, etc. Subtypes contain certain types of files,
such as jpeg/GIF/tiff.
The development of S/MIME is the most lack of security services.
Add two encryption elements: Encrypt and Encrypt Digital Encryption
S/MIME. It supports three types of encryption algorithms, using common
encryption keys for message navigation: Davey–Holman, RSA, and Triple
DES. Digital signatures generate summary messages for SHA-1 or MD5
decentralized functions.

1.7.1.3 HTTP Secure (S-HTTP)

Secure HTTP (HTTP S-HTTP) is very simple for web development when
developing HTTP. I do not have dynamic graphics. I did not need to
encrypt the hard drive at the time. From end to end, it was developed for
trading.
As the network becomes more popular in the company, users realize
that if HTTP Current still represents the backbone of e-commerce, it needs
additional improvements in encryption and graphics.
Each encrypted file of S-HTTP contains a digital certificate. A secure
connection between the client and the HTTP server, especially business
transactions is done through a various mechanisms to provide security
when separating policies from mechanisms. It consists of a two-part HTTP
 History and Generations of Security Protocols 19

message: the message title and text. This address contains a description of
how the message text (browser and server) is processed in the transaction,
client, and browser. HTTP negotiation will be used to transfer the actual
format of the desired information.
It uses other S-HTTP headers to encrypt digital mail, certificates, and
HTTP authentication, and provides instructions about how to decrypt the
text of the message.

1.7.1.4 Hypertext Transfer Protocol (HTTPS) in Secure Sockets

Layer
Secure Sockets Layer (SSL) uses HTTPS as a subset of HTTP commonly
used in the application layer. Also known as a protocol that transfers hyper-
text documents to HTTPS (HTTPS) or HTTP-based HTTP protocols.
A web protocol named HTTPS developed by Netscape. To encrypt and
decrypt requests for user/web pages, it is integrated with the browser soft-
ware. Port 443 in place of HTTP 80 port uses by the HTTPS protocol to
interact with lower layer TCP/IP.

1.7.1.5 Secure E-Commerce (SET)

SET is an encryption protocol developed by companies such as Visa,
Microsoft, IBM, RSA, Netscape, and MasterCard. These complex spec-
ifications are contained in three books on book introduction, a highly
specialized system, and a programmer’s guide, giving three formal instruc-
tions to the Convention. The SET sends services for each transaction, i.e.
authentication, confidentiality, message integrity, and SET connection.
Use public key cryptography and certificate signing to identify everyone
involved in the transaction and allow each communication between them
to be private.

1.7.1.6 Kerberos
The Kerberos network authentication protocol is designed to allow users,
clients, and servers to authenticate each other. Verification process is
accomplished by encrypting the keys because some keys are mutually
authenticated over an insecure network connection. After verifying
identity with the client and Kerberos server, the connection between
both the parties can be secure. From this issue, you can communicate
20 Design and Analysis of Security Protocol for Communication

between future encryptions to ensure the privacy and integrity of

your data.
Client/Server Authentication requirements are as follows,

1. Security: Kerberos is no longer powerful enough to prevent

potential spies from seeing it as a weak link.
2. Reliability: The Kerberos server architecture is distributed
in large quantities with the support of other servers. This
means that the Kerberos system is secure, which means a
slight deterioration.
3. Transparency: In addition to providing a password, the user
does not know that the HE will be authenticated.
4. Scalability: Kerberos is accepted. It identifies new clients and
servers.

To meet above mentioned requirements, the stylist came to Kerberos.

It is a trusted external authentication service for arbitration when mutual
authentication occurs between the client and the server.

1.7.2 Transport Layer

These protocols are located below the application layer. The SSET unit IETF
is measured after the consortium Netscape, and the IETF Engineering.
Engineering Working Group IETF is modified by TLS.

1.7.2.1 Secure Sockets Layer (SSL)

SSL is also an encryption system which is used in Internet search engines
like Netscape and Explorer provides an encrypted data path between the
endpoint, client, and server. Data encryption, server authentication, mes-
sage integrity, and authentication over TCP, LDAP, or POP3 clients pro-
vide a secure and authenticated service application layer compete with
S-HTTP.
These giants have many common networks. First, S-HTTP is only avail-
able for the Web protocol. Since the SSL in the network group is smaller
than S-HTTP, it can run on many other network protocols. In addition,
second, in terms of implementation, because SSL is lower than S-HTTP.
Replace applications that require a secure connection, such as a socket
interface. On the other hand, it places the S-HTTT in the previous data in
the named text field in the HTTP header.
 History and Generations of Security Protocols 21

Although SSL was introduced in a wide range of browsers, the Netscape

S-HTTP browser was introduced in a smaller, narrower NCSA interface.
This unfortunate choice condemns the fate of the S-HTTP SSL handshake.
There must be approximately three contact addresses before creating
any TCP connections between the client and the service and working with
SSL. This process is also known as a protocol for linking SSL. During the
connection agreement, the client and server perform the following tasks:
Set the encryption set to use. The server-enforced authentication provides
a server that sends the certificate to the client to verify that the server cer-
tificate is signed by a trusted certificate authority. If necessary, provide the
client with optional client authentication, which sends its own certificate
to the server to verify that the client certificate is signed by a trusted cer-
tificate authority.
When using public key encryption, the primary information is
exchanged after authentication, which causes the client to create a session
key (usually a random number) that is used to negotiate all subsequent
encryption or decryption. The client encrypts the session key using the
commercial server’s public key (from the merchant certificate). The server
retrieves the session key by decrypting the session key using its private key.
Both parties now use this symmetric key for all subsequent connections.

1.7.2.2 Transport Layer Security (TLS)

TLS is the result of the Internet Engineering Task Force (IETF). In 1996,
you were trying to unify secure network communication. In 1999, RFC
2246 formed a new protocol named “Transport Layer Security” [TLS]. It is
responsible for providing security and data integrity in the transport layer
between two applications [4]. “Interoperability” is an additional features
which have been added in the basic version means any party exchanges the
capability parameter TLS without anyone having to understand the imple-
mentation details of TLS to the other party, and “Expandability”, i.e., plan
for future expansion and adapt to new engagements.

1.7.3 Network Layer

1. IP security
2. VPN

Above mentioned protocols are also address Internet communications

security issues. These protocols include IPSec and VPN.
22 Design and Analysis of Security Protocol for Communication

1.7.3.1 Internet Protocol Security (IPSec)

IP Security is the Internet Engineering Task Force Group (IETF) designed
and developed to address the lack of inherent security protocols, authen-
tication, and encryption based on Internet protocols [18]. IPSec is a very
complex set of protocols described in many documents, including RFC
2401 and 2411. Although designed to run on a new version of Internet
Protocol IP Version 6 (IPv6), it is also correctly implemented in the previ-
ous IPv4.
Try to provide IPSec protection by providing the following services at
the network layer:

1. Access Control: Prevent unauthorized access to resources.

2. Security without connection: Make sure that the traffic is not
modified in any way.
3. Confidentiality: Ensure that unauthorized third parties do not
investigate Internet traffic. This requires encrypting the data
fields of all packets IP, TCP, UDP, ICMP, or any other data field.
4. Verification: Especially the verification of key elements, so
when the server receives the target IP for the specific pur-
pose of the data source IP, it can ensure that the IP datagram
is indeed created by the server with the source IP address to
avoid this fake IP address.
5. Copy protection: Make sure that each package is different
between the two.

These goals achieved by the IPSec protocol with dividing it into two pro-
tocols: the header AH authentication protocol i.e. the security of the proto-
col and the protection of the surrounding ESP, which provides the integrity
of the source and data authentication protocol AH, but does not provide
confidentiality. Provide ESP authentication, data integrity, and confidenti-
ality. Any data unit in the source must be protected with AH or ESP. There
are two ways to run IPSec, i.e., Transport and Tunneling. Transport mode
provides host-to-host protection for top-level protocols between IPv4 and
IPv6 hosts. Tunnel mode provides complete IP data mapping protection in
AH and ESP between IPSec gateways because new IP headers have been
added to both IPv4 and YIPv6. Between the two ports, the datagram is
secure and has an IP address. The original is also very safe.
Data units may not be safe abroad. This protection is created when an
IPSec gateway is created. First to encapsulate the data planner (includ-
ing your IP address) into a new set of compelling data that is titled a new
 History and Generations of Security Protocols 23

IP gateway with IP security. At the receiving gateway, the new packet is

unpacked and returned to the original data map.

1.7.3.2 Virtual Private Network (VPN)

VPN private networks add security measures through secure communica-
tion channels, leveraging public communication infrastructure data such
as the Internet. Security measures including encryption are implemented
using a tunneling protocol. There are two types of virtual private networks
(VPNs) [13, 14]. Remote access allows one user to connect to a protected
corporate network and a site that supports connections between two pro-
tected network networks. In any case, VPN technology is available. The
cost of a private leasing company is much lower when using a public infra-
structure such as the Internet.
The two components of a VPN are: These two terms are programs or
devices. It implements encryption, decryption and authentication services.
It also includes information. Tunnel: The endpoint is connected. A tunnel
is a secure connection between an endpoint and a network, such as the
Internet. In fact, this tunnel is actually created from the endpoint.
You must do the following:

1. IP packaging: Includes a TCP/IP packet contained in

another package that contains the IP address of the firewall
or the server acting as a VPN endpoint. This package helps
hide host IP address hosts.
2. Encryption: The data portion of the package. Like SSL,
encryption can be done in transport mode, which encrypts
data as it is created, or encrypts and decrypts data by encrypt-
ing data and headers during transmission.
3. Authentication: Includes the creation of an encrypted
domain that includes authentication of computers and pack-
ets using regular encryption.

Technical security is divided into three types of VPNs: Trust VP N; VPN

security and hybrid VPN.
Trusted VPN: In these VPNs, customers rely on VPN providers to pro-
tect their privacy and security while maintaining the integrity of their
components. This security depends on trust.
Secure VPN: Virtual Private Network (VPN) not only provides virtual
security, so there are still security issues in VPN. To solve these prob-
lems, any other data encrypted by the Internet source or mobile traffic is
Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents
The Cossacks did not know our exact hiding-place, and one of the
Tartars had led them in a wrong direction. As we were already
considered as Mahometans, no Tartar would betray us, unless it were
that man who had been in Warsaw, and who was an object of
contempt with the people of the village on account of his dissolute
and drunken habits.
“Our fierce hunger appeased, our spirits and courage revived, and
we decided to continue our march at once. The Tartars advised us
not to cross the Arpatschai, which was too closely guarded by the
Russian frontier piquets, but to move more northwards, across the
mountains of Achalziche, in which direction we should find it far
easier to reach Turkish territory. We bade them a grateful farewell.
But with the first beam of morning we heard the wild hurra of the
Cossacks and saw them in the distance, galloping, accompanied by a
number of Tartar horsemen, to cut us off from the valley. We drew
back amongst the bushes, and fired a full volley at the nearest group
of horsemen, as it tried to force its way into the thicket. Two
Cossacks and a Tartar fell, and the rest took to a cowardly flight. We
retreated forthwith to the mountain summits whence we had so
recently descended, and did not even wait to search the fallen men.
Soon a single horseman rode towards us, waving a green branch. We
recognised one of the Tartars who had brought us food. He said that
the Mollah was at the old place in the wood, and wished to speak
with us. We had nothing more to fear from the Cossacks. They took
us to be twice as numerous as we really were, had returned to their
post and sent to Gumri for reinforcements, which could not arrive
before evening. Observing that we harboured mistrust, the man
offered to remain as a hostage. I and three of my comrades went to
the appointed place. The others remained on the mountain, with the
Tartar in custody. The Mollah was really waiting for us, with two of
the men who had accompanied him the previous evening. We
learned, to our astonishment, that the Tartar whom we had shot was
the same old soldier who had been at Warsaw and had spoken Polish
to us. We held this to be a judgment of God. For, notwithstanding his
oath, the man had betrayed our hiding-place to the Russians, who
were already aware of our vicinity. The other villagers had been
compelled to mount and follow the Cossacks, but, at the first volley,
gladly joined the latter in their flight.”
 The Mollah gave the unfortunate Poles directions as to the road,
and as to how they should act if they fell into the hands of the Pasha
of Kars, who was well disposed towards Russia, and might deliver
them up through fear or greed of gain. All that day they toiled over
the rude mountain peaks, and next morning they were so lucky as to
kill a wild goat; but on those barren heights not a stick of wood was
to be found, and they had to eat the flesh raw. After a few hours’ rest
they continued their arduous journey. It was bitterly cold, the snow
fell in thick flakes, and a cutting wind beat in their faces. Towards
evening, guided by a light, they reached the wretched huts of some
poor Russian frontier settlers, who were cooking their food over fires
of dried cow-dung. From these people they obtained meat and drink,
gave them the few kopeks they had left, which they knew would not
pass current in Turkey, and departed, their flasks filled with brandy,
and bearing with them the best wishes of their poor but hospitable
entertainers. Their march next day was through a dense fog, which
covered the high ground. They could not see ten paces before them,
and risked, at every step, a fall over a precipice. On the other hand,
they flattered themselves that they could pass the frontier—there
marked by the mountain chain—unseen by the Russian troops. To
guard against smuggling and the plague, as well as against military
desertion and the flight of the natives into Turkey, the frontier line
had latterly been greatly strengthened. But, once on the southern
slope of the mountains, the fugitives had been assured, they would
meet no more Cossacks and would be on Turkish ground.
Accordingly they gave themselves up to unbounded joy at being out
of Russia and of danger.
“How great was our horror,” continued Saremba, “when, on
descending into the valley, the fog lifted, and we found ourselves
close to a post of Cossacks. It was too late to retreat. We marched
forward in military order, keeping step as upon parade. The
stratagem succeeded. The Cossack sentinel took us for a Russian
patrol. We surrounded the house, made prisoners of the sentry and
of seven half-drunken Cossacks, and learned from them that in the
fog we had missed our way over the frontier. The piquet was thirty
men strong, but two and twenty had marched that very day on patrol
duty. The report of our flight had been received from Gumri, as well
as information that the Cossacks should be reinforced by a
detachment of infantry. The sentry had taken us for this expected
detachment. We were well pleased with the issue of our adventure.
The contents of the Cossacks’ larder revived and strengthened us,
and we packed the fragments of the feast in our knapsacks. We also
took their horses, and finally, at their own request bound them hand
and foot; for, now that they were sober, they trembled for the
consequences of having allowed themselves to be surprised and
unresistingly overpowered. They anticipated a severe punishment,
and consulted together how they should best extenuate their fault.
The dense morning fog was a good circumstance to plead, and so was
our superiority of numbers, and also the expectation of a Russian
infantry piquet from Gumri. But when all was said, the poor fellows
were still pretty sure to get the stick. At their request we fastened the
door of the piquet-house before marching away with our booty. That
afternoon we crossed the mountains, and reached, without further
adventure, a Turkish military post.”
The sufferings and disasters of these fourteen hardy Poles were not
yet at an end. After their arms had been taken from them, their
arrival was reported to the Pasha of Kars, to whom the Russian
commandant at Gumri forthwith sent a threatening letter,
demanding the bodies of the fugitives. Four days of anxious suspense
ensued, during which orderlies rode to and fro, carrying the
correspondence between the Pasha and the commandant, and at last
the Poles were told that their only chance to avoid being delivered up
was instantly to become Mahometans. In this perplexity they
accepted the secret offer of the son of a Lasistan bey to aid their flight
into the Pashalik of Trebizond. They started in the night with a
caravan of armed mountaineers. On the first day they were divided
into two parties, which were separated from each other. On the
second day, four, out of the six who were with Saremba, disappeared,
although they entreated to be left together. Finally, when Saremba
awoke upon the third morning, he found himself alone. Thus torn
from the true and steadfast friends in whose brave companionship he
had faced and surmounted so many perils, his courage deserted him;
he wept aloud, and cursed his fate. There was good cause for his grief
when he came to know all. The rascally Turk who had facilitated
their flight had sold them into slavery. For six months Saremba
toiled under a cruel taskmaster, until fever robbed him of his
strength; when his owner, Ali Bey, took him to Trebizond, where the
Pole had invented the existence of a brother who would pay his
ransom. There he obtained the protection of the French consul, was
forwarded to Constantinople, married a Greek woman, and managed
to eke out an existence. Of the thirteen comrades who had fled with
him from Manglis he had never seen or heard anything, and tears fell
upon the honest fellow’s weather-beaten moustache as he deplored
their probable fate—that of numbers of Polish deserters, who drag
out a wretched existence, as slaves to the infidel, in the frontier
provinces of Asiatic Turkey.
Dr Wagner found his follower’s narrative so striking, and so
illustrative of the characteristics of the inhabitants of the trans-
Caucasian frontier, that he at once wrote it down in his journal; and
he did quite right, for certainly Saremba’s adventures equal, if they
do not exceed, in interest, any of the Doctor’s own.
After Gumysh Haneh, the next town on the road to Erzroum is
Baiburt, once noted for its inhabitants’ fanaticism and hatred of all
Europeans. Poverty, misery, and the visit of the Russians in 1828,
have broken their spirit, and humbled them to the dust. Theirs was
the last effort of resistance against Paskewitch, but all their fierce
fanaticism did not qualify them to cope with the well-drilled Russian
troops. “Is it true,” asked Saremba, with a little irony in his tone, of a
white-bearded Turk, in the expression of whose hard and furrowed
features something of the old spirit was still plainly to be read—“is it
true that the Moskof has come as far as this?” “Geldi!” (he came) was
the old man’s laconic but melancholy reply. At Baiburt the traveller
has a foretaste of the impoverished, decayed, half-ruined towns
which extend thence through the whole of Asiatic Turkey to the
Persian frontier, and to whose deplorable condition Erzroum
constitutes the sole exception. Journeying south-east from Baiburt to
the latter city, the first day’s march brings the traveller, by the usual
caravan road, to no regular halting-place for the night. At Baiburt Dr
Wagner parted from his Turkish travelling companions, and
proceeded with only Saremba and a horse-guide, “a man of most
horrible physiognomy, who professed to be a Turk, but whose long
distorted visage, great crooked nose, bushy brows, dingy complexion,
puffy turban, and ragged clothes, gave him more the look of a Kourd
or Yezidee. The fellow spoke a Turkish,” continues the Doctor, “of
which I understood nothing, and my servant, although well
acquainted with the language of Stamboul, but little. He was very
taciturn, and replied to the questions I occasionally put to him by
croaking out inarticulate guttural sounds, something between the cry
of a screech-owl and the snarl of a jackal. Then he twisted his ugly
face so strangely, and grinned and ground his teeth in so hyena-like a
fashion, that I was reminded of that horrible Texas Bob, whom
Charles Sealsfield, in his Cabin-Book, has so graphically sketched.”
The most unsuspicious and confiding of men, Dr Wagner here
remarks, will become mistrustful, and prone to suspect evil, before
he has been long a resident or rambler in the East, and will acquire a
habit of constant caution and vigilance in a country where all classes,
from the Pasha to the horse-keeper, lay themselves out to plunder
and overreach Europeans. The Doctor had been for three years
wandering in Oriental lands, where he had encountered some perils
and innumerable attempts at imposition. He was much upon his
guard, and kept a sharp eye upon his hyena-looking guide, especially
when the latter, under pretence of conducting him to quarters for the
night, struck off from the road, and led him over crag and fell,
through rain and darkness, into a wild, cut-throat district, where he
every moment expected to be handed over to the gentle mercies of a
band of Kourd brigands. Putting a pistol to the fellow’s ugly head, the
Doctor swore he would shoot him at the first sign of treachery. The
Turk said nothing, but presently—“Here is the village,” he quietly
remarked, as he led the drenched travellers round the angle of a
mass of rock, whence they perceived the lights of the village of
Massat, where Hamilton had passed a night some years previously,
and where they soon were comfortably seated by a fire, and supping
on a very tolerable pilau; whilst Dr Wagner was fain to atone for his
ill-founded suspicions by a double bakshish to his uncouth but
trustworthy guide. The next day, the Doctor, whilst riding over the
mountains with loaded pistols in his belt, and a double gun across
his shoulders, fell over a precipice nearly a hundred feet high. The
soil of a narrow ledge, softened by the rain, had given way under his
horse’s feet. Man and beast rolled over and over five or six times in
the course of the descent. Fortunately there were no rocks in the way
—nothing but soft earth. They reached the bottom bruised and
bleeding, but without broken bones, and were able to continue their
march.
 The journey from Erzroum to Persia, through the Alpine district of
Armenia, is usually made with a caravan or with post-horses—more
rarely in company with a Tartar in the employ of the Turkish
government, who rides courier-fashion, changes his horse every four
or five leagues, goes at a gallop, never rests for more than an hour,
rides many horses to death, and performs the distance from Erzroum
to Tabriz (nearly a hundred leagues) in the extraordinarily short time
of two days and a half. Dr Wagner had no taste for travelling in such
true Tartar fashion. Would he go post? There are no postmasters in
Turkey, nor post-horses, nor posting-stables, nor even postilions,
properly so called. Posting in the East has nothing in common with
European posting. But on presentation of a firman from the Sublime
Porte or the Pasha of the province, every town or village is bound to
supply the traveller with the needful horses, and with a horse-guide,
at moderate charge. The expense is greatly augmented by the
necessity of being accompanied by a Turkish cavass. Without such
escort the journey from Erzroum to the Persian frontier is unsafe,
and, even with it, all danger is not removed; for in the
neighbourhood of the Alpine passes of Armenia lurk the lynx-eyed
Kourds, watching for prey. Less daring and dangerous than they
were, they are still sufficiently audacious. When pursued by the
Pashas—who occasionally make expeditions, at the head of bodies of
the Nizam soldiery, to chastise them, and to wrench from them their
booty—they take refuge upon Persian ground, send a present to the
Sardar of Tabriz, and are suffered to pasture their flocks amongst the
mountains of Azerbijan, until they again give way to their predatory
propensities, and are threatened or pursued by the Persian
authorities. Over the rugged summits of the Agri Dagh they then fly
to Russian territory, where the gift of a horse to the Cossack officer in
command usually procures them tolerance upon the grassy slopes of
Ararat. When driven thence, for a repetition of their lawless raids,
they have still a last refuge in the high mountains of Kourdistan,
where they purchase the protection of a chief, and whose inaccessible
fastnesses defy Turkish pursuers.
“Not long before my departure from Erzroum,” says Dr Wagner,
“Mr Abbott, the English consul at Teheran, had fallen into the hands
of Kourd robbers, and, with his travelling companions, had been
stripped to the shirt, inclusively. It was a serio-comic affair. They
were attacked near Diadin. Mr Abbott, a man of great personal
courage, fired a pistol at the first Kourd who rode at him with his
long bamboo lance, and missed—fortunately for him, for had he
killed or wounded him, his own life would assuredly have paid the
penalty. Two vigorous lance thrusts, which fortunately pierced his
burka, not his body, cast the courageous Briton from his horse. His
Oriental servants and companions had no portion of his combative
spirit, but laid down their arms, terrified by the jackal-like yells and
hideous figures of the Kourds. The robbers were tolerably generous,
after their manner. They took away horses, baggage, and clothes,
stripping their victims stark naked, but they left them their lives. And
if Mr Abbott had a taste of lance staves and horse-whip, that was
only in requital of the pistol-shot. His Armenian servants, who
resisted not, received no injury. Amidst the infernal laughter of the
Kourds, the naked travellers set off for the nearest village, where they
were scantily provided with clothes by compassionate Armenians.
Consul Brant at Teheran made a great noise about this business, and
the Pasha had to make compensation. But the Kourds retreated
southwards to the high mountains, and there, in inaccessible hiding-
places, laughed alike at the British consul’s anger, and at the Turkish
Pasha’s threats.”
With such a warning before him, Dr Wagner preferred adopting
the safest, and at the same time the most convenient, although the
slowest mode of travelling in those regions—namely, per caravan.
Almost weekly a commercial caravan starts from Erzroum for Tabriz.
It consists of from 300 to 900 horses, laden chiefly with English
manufactures, also with Bohemian glass, furs, and cloth from the
Leipzig fair, and even with toys from Nuremberg. If the convoy be
particularly valuable, the Pasha sends with it a cavass, who rides a
head, a horse’s tail at the end of his long lance, as a warning to
predatory Kourds not to meddle with that which is under the high
protection of the muschir of Erzroum. But the caravan’s own
strength is its best protection. There is a man to every three or four
horses, armed with a gun, often with sabre and dagger also; and the
Armenians, although tame enough in general, will fight fiercely for
their goods, or for those intrusted to their care. Of course there is no
security against nocturnal theft, at which the Kourds are as skilful as
North-American red-skins, or as the Hadjouts of the African Metidja.
 A rich Armenian, by name Kara Gos, (Black-eye,) led the caravan
to which Dr Wagner annexed himself. Half the 360 horses
comprising it were his. A considerable rogue was Kara Gos, who
asked the Doctor double the fair price for the use of six horses, a
place under the principal tent, and daily rations from his kitchen.
When the Doctor pointed out the overcharge, Kara Gos turned away
in silence and in dudgeon, and spoke no word to him during the
whole journey. Dr Wagner made his bargain with another Armenian,
one Karapet Bedochil, and the journey was prosperously
accomplished in twenty-seven days from Erzroum to Tabriz. This
was rather slow work—scarcely twelve miles a-day on an average; but
Dr Wagner was well pleased to have leisure during the long hours of
repose—rendered necessary by hot weather and scanty pasturage—to
pursue his geological researches, to go shooting, and to collect rare
insects and beautiful Alpine plants. He took interest, also, in
observing the habits and intelligence of the horses of the caravan.
These were as disciplined as any Russian soldiers, and understood
their duty almost as well as their human masters. When, at two in
the morning, the Karivan-Baschi gave the signal to march, they
responded by a general neighing, snorting, and tinkling of the bells
hung to their necks. Notwithstanding the thick darkness, every horse
found his right place, his owner, and his groom, and stood
motionless till pack-saddle and bales were placed upon his back. The
load duly balanced, he instantly started off of his own accord. The
march was in file, two abreast. The oldest and most experienced
horse took the lead, seemingly proud of the distinction, and
displaying an instinct almost amounting to reason. No danger was
there of his going astray, or shying at some oddly-shaped rock, dimly
seen through the twilight, or at a corpse upon the road, or even at the
passage of camels, to which horses have a special antipathy. If stream
or torrent barred the way, he halted, unbidden, until the nearest
horseman had sought out a ford, and then calmly entered the water,
his example giving confidence to his followers. These caravan horses
love society, soon attach themselves to their companions, whether
biped or quadruped, but are very inhospitable, and do not easily
admit strange horses to their company. They dislike separation from
the caravan, just as cavalry chargers often object to leave the ranks.
Karapet Bedochil gave up his best and youngest horse to Dr Wagner
for the journey. This was a well-shaped brown mare, of excellent
paces, and easy to govern, so long as her habits were respected. But it
took some time to accustom her to quit the caravan, and carry Dr
Wagner on his rambles off the road.
“To ride in the rank and file of a caravan,” says the Doctor, “is
wearisome enough. When morning dawned, and the first sunbeams
illumined the green Alpine plateau, I loved to ride up some rising
ground by the wayside, to contemplate the landscape, and to enjoy
the picturesque aspect of the Kourd camps, and of the long-line of
the caravan. My horse did not share my enjoyment. Much spurring
did it cost me to habituate him to even a few minutes’ separation
from his friends. Love of society, and aversion to solitude, are
amongst the most striking and affecting characteristics of these
animals. At times I remained behind the caravan, when I found an
interesting spot, where the geological formation or the mountain
vegetation invited to examination and collection. My horse, well
secured near at hand, kept his gaze immovably fixed upon the
vanishing caravan. When the last straggler had disappeared, he still
pricked up his ears so long as he could hear the bells. When these
were no longer audible, he drooped his head, and looked inquiringly
and reproachfully at his botanising rider. If it cost me trouble to
detach him from the caravan, he needed no urging to rejoin it.
Suddenly displaying the fire of the Oriental courser, he galloped with
winged swiftness, till the bells were once more heard, and broke into
loud and joyous neighings on again joining his friends.”
The gregarious and sociable propensities of Armenian horses are a
great obstacle to the designs of the Kourd thieves, who at nightfall
prowl around the camp. To lessen the difficulty they come mounted
upon stolen caravan horses, which they train to the work. A noose is
flung round the neck of a grazing horse, and whilst one thief pulls the
animal along, another drives it with a whip. The Armenian horse-
keepers fire their guns to give the alarm, and mount their best horses
to pursue the marauders. If they overtake them, they at first
endeavour to obtain restitution by fair words or by threats. Only at
the last extremity do they use their firearms, for they have a not
unfounded fear of Kourd vengeance for bloodshed.
Less dreaded, and far less frequent than these depredations, are
attacks upon caravans by wolves. These occur scarcely once in ten
years, and then only in very severe winters, when long frosts keep the
flocks from the pastures. Under such circumstances, the wolves,
spurred by extreme hunger, sometimes overcome their natural
cowardice, and make a dash at a caravan, breaking suddenly into the
column on the march, pulling down horses, and tearing them in
pieces, before there is time to drive them away with bullets. But these
cases are of extremely rare occurrence. It more often happens that, in
summer, a single wolf will sneak down upon the grazing caravan
horses, whose instinct, however, soon detects his approach. They
form a circle, heads inwards and heels out, and if the wolf does not
succeed, at a first spring, in fixing upon one of their throats, his best
plan is to decamp, before he gets shot. The attacks of these wolves
are always nocturnal. From other beasts of prey the caravans
between Erzroum and Tabriz have nothing to fear. The jackals are
weak and timid, and content themselves with dead horses; and bears
are few in number, and confine their feeding to sheep and goats.
Southwards from Tabriz to Teheran, and thence to Ispahan, the
danger increases. Kourds are replaced by Turkomans; wolves by
panthers and tigers. But even from these, so far as Dr Wagner could
gather from repeated conversations with caravan leaders, the peril is
trifling, except far south, towards Shiraz, or eastwards in the deserts
of Khorassan, where tigers are more numerous and aggressive.
Of other animals accustomed to follow caravans, the Doctor
particularly mentions ravens and carrion birds, which in winter
consume the excrement, in summer the carcasses, of horses. In
Armenia and Persia, he recognised an old friend whom he had often
seen hovering over the expeditionary column which he had
accompanied to Constantina. The white-headed vulture (Vultur
fulvus) floated in the air at a prodigious height above the caravan,
and as often as a horse fell dead, dozens of the loathsome birds
lowered their powerful pinions, and sank plumb-down upon the
carrion. The beasts of the caravan, even the dogs, were pretty good
friends with these obscene creatures; or at least, from the force of
habit, usually endured their proximity. Dr Wagner speculates on the
possibility of some eccentric sympathy between the horse and his
future coffin. He often saw the little carrion kite (Cathartes
percnopterus,) when it had gorged itself with the flesh of some dead
animal, settle down, its feathers all puffed out, upon a horse’s back,
there to digest its copious meal—a process which the horse, by his
immobility, seemed studiously to avoid disturbing. Grouped together
in the great heat, from which they sought to shelter their heads
under their neighbours’ bellies, the horses stood, each one with his
plumed and impure rider. “Sometimes,” says the Doctor, “I saw
ravens sitting in the same confidential manner upon the backs of
horses and dromedaries. In North Africa I observed similar intimacy
between kites and cows, ravens and swine. Dr Knoblecher relates
that in the Nile districts of Central Africa he often saw waterfowl,
particularly herons and ibises, sit upon the backs of elephants. Only
to one kind of animal has the Armenian caravan-horse a natural
hatred and strong aversion—namely, to the camel, who, on his side,
detests the horse. Even in caravans composed of both kinds of
beasts, long accustomed to each other’s presence, this antipathy
endures. Horses and camels, if left in any degree to their own free
will, go separately to pasture. Long habit of being together restrains
them from hostile outbreaks, but I never witnessed, during the whole
period of my Oriental travels, an example of even a tolerably good
understanding between them.”
On the 20th of June—so cold a morning, that, in spite of cloak and
mackintosh, Dr Wagner was half-frozen—the caravan reached the
Kourd village of Yendek, and encamped in a narrow valley, the
mountains around which had been reckoned, a few years previously,
amongst the most unsafe in Kourdistan, a caravan seldom passing
unassailed. Towards evening a Kourd chief came into camp. “He
wore no beard, but thick and long moustaches—as formerly the
Janissaries—a huge turban, a short burka, very wide trousers. He
had his horse shod by one of our Armenians, took a fancy to Karapet-
Bedochil’s pocket-knife, and asked him for it as a keepsake. He did
not pay for the shoeing, and rode off, with small thanks, amidst the
courteous greetings of all the Armenians—even of our haughty
Karivan-Baschi. I afterwards laughingly asked the Kadertshi why he
had not demanded payment from the Kourd for the shoes and his
work. ‘Laugh away!’ was his reply; ‘if ever you meet that fellow alone,
you won’t be quite so merry.’ The Kourd, who was armed with
pistols, gun, and sabre, certainly looked the very model of a captain
of banditti.”
Before reaching Persian territory, where the risk from robbers
diminishes, some pack-horses were cleverly stolen by the Kourds;
and two men, who were sent, well mounted, to overtake the thieves
and negotiate for the restoration of the property, returned to camp
despoiled of clothes and steeds. Ultimately, the Pasha of Erzroum
extorted the bales from the Kourds, who are too prudent to drive
things to extremities. But, for the time, Kara Gos had to pursue his
journey minus his merchandise, and greatly cast down at the loss,
which he merited for his griping effrontery, and for the poltroonery
with which, a few days before, he had deviated from his direct road
on the rude demand of some Kourds, who sought to pick a quarrel
with him—a sort of wolf-and-lamb business—for riding through their
pastures. He forgot his loss, however, when reckoning at Tabriz the
full sack of sounding gold tomauns received for carriage of goods;
and in the joy of his heart he even condescended to speak to Dr
Wagner, and to extend to him his forgiveness for having refused to
be imposed upon, so that they parted in amity at last.
Tabriz, in size the second, in population the first city of the Persian
empire, was the limit of Dr Wagner’s travels in an easterly direction.
Thence he made excursions; and finally, turning his steps
southwards, made the circuit of that extremity of Lake Urumia, and
so got back to Bayasid in Turkish Armenia; so that he visited, in fact,
but a nook of Persia—including, however, one of its most important
cities and some rarely-explored districts. His first visit at Tabriz was
to Mr Bonham, the English consul-general, with whom he found a
Maltese physician, Dr Cassolani—then the only European medical
man resident in the place—who offered him, in the kindest manner,
an apartment in his house. Here Dr Wagner interpolates a gentle
stricture on British hospitality in Asia. Mr Bonham, he says, “was
certainly also very obliging, but seemed less hospitable; and although
he had a very roomy house and a very small family, he, like his
colleague, Mr Brant at Erzroum, was not fond of putting himself out
of his way. I confess that I have not formed the most favourable
opinion of English hospitality in the East. My letters from Lord
Aberdeen and Sir Stratford Canning had not the effect which might
have been reasonably expected from the high position of those
statesmen. In Russian Asia, less exalted recommendations generally
procured me a friendly and truly hospitable reception. On better
acquaintance, and after repeated interviews, the dry, thoroughly
English reserve and formal manner gave way, in Mr Bonham, to a
certain degree of amiability. He took a particularly warm interest in
my communications from the Caucasus, and gave me in return
valuable information concerning Persian matters. Mr Bonham was
married to a niece of Sir Robert Peel’s, a beautiful, amiable, and
accomplished lady.”
In Dr Cassolani’s house Dr Wagner made the acquaintance of a
great number of Persians, who besieged the learned hekim for
advice, and he thus had excellent opportunities of noting the
peculiarities of Persian character, manners, and morals. But the most
favourable place for the pursuit of such studies, on a large scale, he
found to be the Tabriz bazaar, which is composed of a number of
bazaars, or spacious halls full of shops. Thither daily repaired Dr
Wagner, escorted by one of Dr Cassolani’s Persian servants, a fellow
of herculean proportions, whose duty it was to open a passage
through the curious crowd which at first thronged round the
European. Here were displayed prodigious masses of merchandise,
chiefly English, only the coarser kinds of goods coming from
Germany and Russia, glass from Austria, amber from
Constantinople. Here were children’s watches from Nuremberg, with
a locomotive on the dial, and the inscription, “Railway from
Nuremberg to Furth;” lithographed likenesses of the Shah of Persia,
taken and printed in Germany; snuff-boxes from Astrakan, with the
Emperor Nicholas’s portrait; and portraits of Benkendorf,
Paskewitch, Neidhard, and other Russian generals distinguished in
recent wars. There were shawls and carpets from Hindostan, and
sabre-blades, of wonderful temper and finish, from Shiraz. Of these
latter Dr Wagner saw some, adorned with beautiful arabesque
designs in gold, and inscribed with passages from the Koran, whose
price was two hundred tomauns, or Persian ducats. Made of strips of
metal, hammered together cold, these excellent blades are the result
of prodigious labour, much time, and great skill. The chief value of
such weapons is usually in the steel, for the hilt and mounting must
be unusually rich to exceed the cost of the blade itself. Hitherto the
armourers of Tabriz, Teheran, and Ispahan have vainly endeavoured
to rival those of Shiraz.
Dr Wagner soon found himself at home in the European circle at
Tabriz, which consists chiefly of the members of the Russian and
English consulates, and of the managers of four Greek commercial
houses, branches of Constantinople establishments. The English
consul-general, as already hinted, lived rather retired, gave a dinner
or two each half-year to the Europeans, and took but small share in
the pleasures and amusements after which most of them eagerly ran.
An old Greek gentleman, named Morfopulo, was the great Lucullus
and Amphitryon of the place. Introduced to him by his Maltese
friend, Dr Wagner was at once cordially invited to a dinner, which
gave him the first idea of the sumptuous manner of living of
Europeans in Tabriz. Nothing was spared; Oriental delicacies were
embalmed and ennobled by the refinements of Western art. There
were fish from the Caspian, game from the forests of Ghilan, grapes
and mulberries from Azerbijan, the most exquisite pasties, and the
cream of the vineyards of Champagne cooling in abundant ice. The
guests were as motley, the talk as various, as the viands. From East
to West, from Ispahan to Paris, the conversation rolled. The Russian
Consul-general sketched the Persian court at Teheran; Dr Cassolani
gave verbal extracts from his life and experience at Erzroum and
Tabriz; an Italian quack, who had just arrived, and who had long led
a roving existence in Asiatic Turkey—professing alternately to
discover gold mines, and to heal all maladies by an infallible elixir—
related his adventures amongst the Kourds; whilst a young Greek
diplomatist, named Mavrocordato—a relation of the statesman of
that name—just transferred, to his no small regret, from Paris to
Tabriz, was eloquent concerning the balls, beauties, and delights of
the French capital.
The domestic arrangements of the European residents in Tabriz
are peculiar, and may possibly account for the limited nature of the
intercourse maintained with them by the gentleman who filled the
post of British consul-general at the time of Dr Wagner’s visit. Some
of the managers of the Greek houses—few of whom remain more
than half-a-dozen years, which time, owing to the profitable nature
of the trade, and especially of the smuggling traffic with the trans-
Caucasian provinces of Russia, usually suffices to make their
fortunes—were married, but had left their wives in Constantinople.
Most of them, as well as the members of the Russian consulate-
general, were bachelors. All, however, whether married or single, had
conformed to the custom of the place, by contracting limited
matrimony with Nestorian women. This Christian sect, numerous in
Azerbijan, entertains a strong partiality for Europeans, and has no
scruple, either moral or religious, in marrying its daughters to them
for a fixed term of years, and in consideration of a stipulated sum.
There is great competition for a new-comer from Europe, especially
if he be rich. The queer contract is known in Tabriz as matrimonio
alla carta. Very often the whole of the lady’s family take up their
abode in the house of the temporary husband, and live at his charges;
and this is indeed often a condition of the bargain. The usage is of
such long standing amongst Europeans in Persia, and especially in
that particular province, that it there scandalises no one. Every
European has a part of his house set aside for the women, and calls it
his harem: the ladies preserve their Persian garb and manner of life,
cover their faces before strangers and in the streets, frequent the
bath, and pass their time in dressing themselves, just like the
Mahomedan Persians. Handsome, but totally uneducated and
unintellectual, they make faithful wives and tender mothers, but
poor companions. When the term stipulated in the contract expires,
and if it be not renewed, they find no difficulty in contracting
permanent marriages with their own countrymen; the less so, that, in
such cases, they take a dowry with them, whereas, in general, the
Nestorian has to purchase his wife from her parents. The children of
the European marriage almost always remain in possession of the
mother; and Dr Wagner was assured that she testifies even stronger
affection for them than for those of her second and more regular
marriage; whilst the stepfather rarely neglects his duty towards
them. “Still more remarkable is it,” continues the Doctor, “that the
European fathers, when recalled to their own country, abandon their
children, without, as it would seem, the slightest scruple of
conscience, to a most uncertain fate, and trouble themselves no
further concerning them. But a single instance is known to me, when
a wealthy European took one of his children away with him. Even in
the case of men otherwise of high character and principle, a
prolonged residence in the East seems very apt gradually to stifle the
voice of nature, of honour, and of conscience.”
Dismissing, with this reflection, the consideration of European
society and habits in Persia, Dr Wagner turns his attention to the
natives, and to an examination of the curious incidents and
vicissitudes of modern Persian history, to which he allots an
interesting chapter—based partly on his many conversations with
British and Russian diplomatic agents, with French officers who had
served in Persia, and with French and American missionaries, partly
on the works of various English travellers—and then commences his
wanderings and explorations in the mountains of Sahant, and along
the shores of Lake Urumiah. In these and other investigations,
occupying his second volume, the length to which our notice of his
first has insensibly extended forbids our accompanying him, at least
for the present. Judging from the great number of books relating to
Western Asia that have of late years been published in this country—
many of them with marked success—the number of readers who take
an interest in that region must be very considerable. By such of them
as read German, Dr Wagner’s series of six volumes will be prized as a
mine of entertainment and information.
 KATIE STEWART.
A TRUE STORY.

PART II.—CHAPTER VIII.

“Leddy Kilbrachmont! Weel, John, my man, she might have done
waur—muckle waur; but I seena very weel how she could have
bettered hersel. A young, wiselike, gallant-looking lad, and a very
decent lairdship—anither thing frae a doited auld man.”
“Weel, wife,” said John Stewart, ruefully scratching his head
—“weel, I say naething against it in itsel; but will ye tell me what I’m
to say to the Beelye?”
“Ay, John, that will I,” returned the house-mother. “Tell him to
take his daughter’s bairn out of its cradle, puir wee totum, and ask
himsel what he has to do wi’ a young wife—a young wife! and a
bonnie lass like our Isabell! Man, John, to think, wi’ that muckle
body o’ yours, that you should have sae little heart! Nae wonder ye
need muckle coats and plaids about ye, you men! for ne’er a spark o’
light is in the hearts of ye, to keep ye warm within.”
“Weel, weel, Isabell; the mair cause ye should gie me a guid dram
to keep the chill out,” said the miller; “and ye’ll just mind ye were airt
and pairt, and thought mair of the Beelye’s bien dwellin’ and braw
family than ever I did; but it’s aye your way—ye put a’ the blame,
when there is blame, on me.”
“Haud your peace, guidman,” said Mrs Stewart. “Whiles I am
drawn away wi’ your reasonings against my ain judgment, as
happens to folk owre easy in their temper, whether they will or no—
I’ll no deny that; but nae man can say I ever set my face to onything
that would have broken the heart of a bairn of mine. Take your dram,
and gang away with your worldly thoughts to your worldly business,
John Stewart; if it wasna for you, I’m sure ne’er a thought of pelf
would enter my head.”
“Eh, guidwife!” It was all that the miller’s astonishment could
utter. He was put down. With humility he took the dram, and softly
setting his glass on the table, went out like a lamb, to the mill.
“Leddy Kilbrachmont! and Janet, the glaikit gilpie, taking up with
a common man!” said Mrs Stewart, unconsciously pushing aside the
pretty wheel, the offering of the “wright” in Arncreoch. “Weel, but
what maun I do? If Isabell gangs hame to her ain house, and Janet—
Janet’s a guid worker—far mair use about a house like ours than such
a genty thing as Bell—Janet married, too—what’s to come o’ me? I’ll
hae to bring hame Katie frae the Castle.”
“Muckle guid ye’ll get of Katie, mother,” said Janet, who, just then
coming in from the garden, with an armful of cold, curly, brilliant
greens, had heard her mother’s soliloquy. “If ye yokit her to the
wheel like a powny, she wadna spin the yarn for Isabell’s providing in
half-a-dozen years; and no a mortal turn besides could Katie do in a
house, if ye gied her a’ the land between this and Kellie Law.”
“And wha asked your counsel?” said the absolute sovereign of
Kellie Mill. “If I’m no sair trysted wi’ my family, there never was a
woman: first, your faither—and muckle he kens about the rule o’ a
household; and syne you, ye taupie—as if Isabell’s providing was yet
to spin! To spin, said she? and it lying safe in the oak press up the
stair, since ever Bell was a wee smout of a bairn. And yours too,
though ye dinna deserve it;—ay, and little Katie’s as weel, as the
bonnie grass on the burnside could have tellt ye twal year ago, when
it was white wi’ yarn a’ the simmer through, spun on a purpose-like
wheel—a thing fit for a woman’s wark—no a toy for a bit bairn. Gae
way wi’ you and your vanities. I would just like to see, wi’ a’ your
upsetting, ony ane o’ ye bring up a family as creditable as your
mother!”
Janet stole in to the table at the further window, and, without a
word, began to prepare her greens, which were immediately to be
added to the other contents of the great pot, which, suspended by the
crook, bubbled and boiled over the fire; for the moods of the house-
mother were pretty well known in her dominions, and no one dared
to lift up the voice of rebellion.
 After an interval of silence, Mrs Stewart proceeded to her own
room, and in a short time reappeared, hooded and plaided, testifying
with those echoing steps of hers, to all concerned, that she had again
put on her high-heeled gala shoes. Isabell was now in the kitchen,
quietly going about her share of the household labour, and doing it
with a subdued graceful gladness which touched the mother’s heart.
“I’m gaun up to Kellie, Bell, my woman,” said Mrs Stewart. “I
wouldna say but we may need Katie at hame; onyway, I’ll gang up to
the Castle, and see what they say about it. It’s time she had a while at
hame to learn something purpose-like, or it’s my fear she’ll be fit for
naething but to hang on about Lady Anne; and nae bairn o’ mine
shall do that wi’ my will. Ye’ll set Merran to the muckle wheel,
Isabell, as soon as she’s in frae the field; and get that cuttie Janet to
do some creditable work. If I catch her out o’ the house when I come
hame, it’ll be the waur for hersel.”
“So ye’re aye biding on at the Castle, Bauby,” said Mrs Stewart, as,
her long walk over, she rested in the housekeeper’s room, and
greeted, with a mixture of familiarity and condescension, the
powerful Bauby, who had so long been the faithful friend and
attendant of little Katie Stewart. “Ye’re biding on? I thought you were
sure to gang with Lady Betty; and vexed I was to think of ye gaun
away, that my bairn liket sae weel.”
“I’ll never lee, Mrs Stewart,” said Bauby, confidentially. “If it hadna
just been Katie Stewart’s sel, and a thought of Lady Anne, puir thing,
left her lee lane in the house, I would as soon have gaen out to the
May to live, as bidden still in Kellie Castle. But someway they have
grippit my heart atween them—I couldna leave the bairns.”
“Aweel, Bauby, it was kind in ye,” said the miller’s wife; “but I’m in
no manner sure that I winna take Katie away.”
“Take Katie away—eh, Mrs Stewart!” And Bauby lifted up her great
hands in appeal.
“Ye see her sister Isabell is to be married soon,” said the important
mother, rising and smoothing down her skirts. “And now I’m rested,
Bauby, I’ll thank ye to take me to Lady Anne’s room.”
The fire burned brightly in the west room, glowing in the dark
polished walls, and brightening with its warm flush the clouded
daylight which shone through the high window. Again on her high
chair, with her shoulders fixed, so that she cannot stoop, Lady Anne
sits at her embroidery frame, at some distance from the window,
where the slanting light falls full upon her work, patiently and
painfully working those dim roses into the canvass which already
bears the blossoms of many a laborious hour. Poor Lady Anne!
People, all her life, have been doing their duty to her—training her
into propriety—into noiseless decorum and high-bred manners. She
has read the Spectator to improve her mind—has worked
embroidery because it was her duty; and sits resignedly in this steel
fixture now, because she feels it a duty too—a duty to the world at
large that Lady Anne Erskine should have no curve in her shoulders
—no stoop in her tall aristocratic figure. But, in spite of all this,
though they make her stiff, and pale, and silent, none of these cares
have at all tarnished the gentle lustre of Lady Anne’s good heart; for,
to tell truth, embroidery, and prejudices, and steel-collars, though
they cramp both body and mind a little, by no means have a bad
effect—or, at least, by no means so bad an effect as people ascribe to
them in these days—upon the heart; and there lived many a true lady
then—lives many a true lady now—to whom devout thoughts have
come in those dim hours, and fair fancies budded and blossomed in
the silence. It was very true that Lady Anne sat there immovable,
holding her head with conscientious firmness, as she had been
trained to hold it, and moving her long fingers noiselessly as her
needle went out and in through the canvass before her—very true
that she thought she was doing her duty, and accomplishing her
natural lot; but not any less true, notwithstanding, that the heart
which beat softly against her breast was pure and gentle as the
summer air, and, like it, touched into quiet brightness by the light
from heaven.
Near her, carelessly bending forward from a lower chair, and
leaning her whole weight on another embroidery frame, sits Katie
Stewart, labouring with a hundred wiles to draw Lady Anne’s
attention from her work. One of little Katie’s round white shoulders
is gleaming out of her dress, and she is not in the least erect, but
bends her head down between her hands, and pushes back the rich
golden hair which falls in shining, half-curled tresses over her
fingers, and laughs, and pouts, and calls to Lady Anne; but Lady
Anne only answers quietly, and goes on with her work—for it is right
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