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BIRMINGHAM—MUMBAI

Graph Data Science with Neo4j

Copyright © 2023 Packt Publishing

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, without the prior written
permission of the publisher, except in the case of brief quotations embedded in
critical articles or reviews.

Every effort has been made in the preparation of this book to ensure the accuracy
of the information presented. However, the information contained in this book is
sold without warranty, either express or implied. Neither the author, nor Packt
Publishing or its dealers and distributors, will be held liable for any damages
caused or alleged to have been caused directly or indirectly by this book.

Packt Publishing has endeavored to provide trademark information about all of the
companies and products mentioned in this book by the appropriate use of capitals.
However, Packt Publishing cannot guarantee the accuracy of this information.

Publishing Product Manager: Ali Abidi

Senior Editor: Nathanya Dias

Technical Editor: Rahul Limbachiya

Copy Editor: Safis Editing

Project Coordinator: Farheen Fathima

Proofreader: Safis Editing

Indexer: Hemangini Bari

Production Designer: Shankar Kalbhor

Marketing Coordinator: Vinishka Kalra

First published: January 2023

Production reference: 1310123

Published by Packt Publishing Ltd.

Livery Place

35 Livery Street

Birmingham

B3 2PB, UK.

ISBN 978-1-80461-274-3

www.packtpub.com

Contributors

About the author

Estelle Scifo is a Neo4j Certified Professional and Neo4j Graph Data Science
certified user. She is currently a machine learning engineer at GraphAware where
she builds Neo4j-related solutions to make customers happy with graphs.

Before that, she worked in several fields, starting out with research in particle
physics, during which she worked at CERN on uncovering Higgs boson properties.
She received her PhD in 2014 from the Laboratoire de l’Accélérateur Linéaire
(Orsay, France). Continuing her career in industry, she worked in real estate,
mobility, and logistics for almost 10 years. In the Neo4j community, she is known
as the creator of neomap, a map visualization application for data stored in Neo4j.
She also regularly gives talks at conferences such as NODES and PyCon. Her
domain expertise and deep insight into the perspective of a beginner’s needs make
her an excellent teacher.
There is only one name on the cover, but a book is not the work of one
person. I would like to thank everyone involved in making this book a reality.
Beyond everyone at Packt, the reviewers did an incredible job of suggesting
some very relevant improvements. Thank you, all!
 I hope this book will inspire you as much as other books of this genre have
inspired me.

About the reviewers

Dr. David Gurzick is the founding chair of the George B. Delaplaine Jr. School of
Business and an associate professor of management science at Hood College. He
has a BS in computer science from Frostburg State University, an M.S. in computer
science from Hood College, a PhD in information systems from the University of
Maryland, Baltimore County, and is a graduate of Harvard’s business analytics
program. As a child of the internet, he grew up on AOL and programmed his way
through dot.com. He now helps merge technology and business strategy to enable
innovation and accelerate commercial success as the lead data scientist at
Genitive.ai and as a director of the Frederick Innovative Technology Center,
Inc (FITCI).

Sean William Grant is a product and analytics professional with over 20 years of
experience in technology and data analysis. His experience ranges from geospatial
intelligence with the United States Marine Corps, product management within the
aviation and autonomy space, to implementing advanced analytics and data
science within organizations. He is a graph data science and network analytics
enthusiast who frequently gives presentations and workshops on connected data.
He has also been a technical advisor to several early-stage start-ups. Sean is
passionate about data and technology, and how it can elevate our understanding
of ourselves.

Jose Ernesto Echeverria has worked with all kinds of databases, from relational
databases in the 1990s to non-SQL databases in the 2010s. He considers graph
databases to be the best fit for solving real-world problems, given their strong
capability for modeling and adaptability to change. As a polyglot programmer, he
has used languages such as Java, Ruby, and R and tools such as Jupyter with
Neo4j in order to solve data management problems for multinational corporations.
A long-time advocate of data science, he expects this long-awaited book to cover
the proper techniques and approach the intersections of this discipline, as well as
help readers to discover the possibilities of graph databases. When not working,
he enjoys spending time with friends and family.
Table of Contents

Preface
Part 1 – Creating Graph Data in Neo4j

Introducing and Installing Neo4j

Technical requirements
What is a graph database?
Databases
Graph database
Finding or creating a graph database
A note about the graph dataset’s format
Modeling your data as a graph
Neo4j in the graph databases landscape
Neo4j ecosystem
Setting up Neo4j
Downloading and starting Neo4j Desktop
Creating our first Neo4j database
Creating a database in the cloud – Neo4j Aura
Inserting data into Neo4j with Cypher, the Neo4j
query language
Extracting data from Neo4j with Cypher pattern
matching
Summary
Further reading
Exercises

Importing Data into Neo4j to Build a Knowledge

Graph

Technical requirements
Importing CSV data into Neo4j with Cypher
Discovering the Netflix dataset
Defining the graph schema
Importing data
Introducing the APOC library to deal with JSON
data
Browsing the dataset
Getting to know and installing the APOC plugin
Loading data
Dealing with temporal data
Discovering the Wikidata public knowledge
graph
Data format
Query language – SPARQL
Enriching our graph with Wikidata information
Loading data into Neo4j for one person
Importing data for all people
Dealing with spatial data in Neo4j
Importing data in the cloud
Summary
Further reading
Exercises
Part 2 – Exploring and Characterizing Graph Data
with Neo4j

Characterizing a Graph Dataset

Technical requirements
Characterizing a graph from its node and edge
properties
Link direction
Link weight
Node type
Computing the graph degree distribution
Definition of a node’s degree
Computing the node degree with Cypher
Visualizing the degree distribution with NeoDash
Installing and using the Neo4j Python driver
Counting node labels and relationship types in
Python
Building the degree distribution of a graph
Improved degree distribution
Learning about other characterizing metrics
Triangle count
Clustering coefficient
Summary
Further reading
Exercises

Using Graph Algorithms to Characterize a Graph

Dataset

Technical requirements
Digging into the Neo4j GDS library
GDS content
Installing the GDS library with Neo4j Desktop
GDS project workflow
Projecting a graph for use by GDS
Native projections
Cypher projections
Computing a node’s degree with GDS
stream mode
The YIELD keyword
write mode
mutate mode
Algorithm configuration
Other centrality metrics
Understanding a graph’s structure by looking for
communities
Number of components
Modularity and the Louvain algorithm
Summary
Further reading

Visualizing Graph Data

Technical requirements
The complexity of graph data visualization
Physical networks
General case
Visualizing a small graph with networkx and
matplotlib
Visualizing a graph with known coordinates
Visualizing a graph with unknown coordinates
Configuring object display
Discovering the Neo4j Bloom graph application
What is Bloom?
Bloom installation
Selecting data with Neo4j Bloom
Configuring the scene in Bloom
Visualizing large graphs with Gephi
Installing Gephi and its required plugin
Using APOC Extended to synchronize Neo4j and
Gephi
Configuring the view in Gephi
Summary
Further reading
Exercises
Part 3 – Making Predictions on a Graph

Building a Machine Learning Model with Graph

Features
Technical requirements
Introducing the GDS Python client
GDS Python principles
Input and output types
Creating a projected graph from Python
Running GDS algorithms from Python and
extracting data in a dataframe
write mode
stream mode
Dropping the projected graph
Using features from graph algorithms in a scikit-
learn pipeline
Machine learning tasks with graphs
Our task
Computing features
Extracting and visualizing data
Building the model
Summary
Further reading
Exercise

Automatically Extracting Features with Graph

Embeddings for Machine Learning
Technical requirements
Introducing graph embedding algorithms
Defining embeddings
Graph embedding classification
Using a transductive graph embedding algorithm
Understanding the Node2Vec algorithm
Using Node2Vec with GDS
Training an inductive embedding algorithm
Understanding GraphSAGE
Introducing the GDS model catalog
Training GraphSAGE with GDS
Computing new node representations
Summary
Further reading
Exercises

8
Building a GDS Pipeline for Node Classification Model
Training
Technical requirements
The GDS pipelines
What is a pipeline?
Building and training a pipeline
Creating the pipeline and choosing the features
Setting the pipeline configuration
Training the pipeline
Making predictions
Computing the confusion matrix
Using embedding features
Choosing the graph embedding algorithm to use
Training using Node2Vec
Training using GraphSAGE
Summary
Further reading
Exercise

Predicting Future Edges

Technical requirements
Introducing the LP problem
LP examples
LP with the Netflix dataset
Framing an LP problem
LP features
Topological features
Features based on node properties
Building an LP pipeline with the GDS
Creating and configuring the pipeline
Pipeline training and testing
Summary
Further reading

10

Writing Your Custom Graph Algorithms with the

Pregel API in Java
Technical requirements
Introducing the Pregel API
GDS’s features
The Pregel API
Implementing the PageRank algorithm
The PageRank algorithm
Simple Python implementation
Pregel Java implementation
Implementing the tolerance-stopping criteria
Testing our code
Test for the PageRank class
Test for the PageRankTol class
Using our algorithm from Cypher
Adding annotations
Building the JAR file
Updating the Neo4j configuration
Testing our procedure
Summary
Further reading
Exercises

Index

Other Books You May Enjoy

Preface
Data science today is a core component of many companies and organizations
taking advantage of its predictive power to improve their products or better
understand their customers. It is an ever-evolving field, still undergoing intense
research. One of the most trending research areas is graph data science (GDS),
or how representing data as a connected network can improve models.

Among the different tools on the market to work with graphs, Neo4j, a graph
database, is popular among developers for its ability to build simple and evolving
data models and query data easily with Cypher. For a few years now, it has also
stood out as a leader in graph analytics, especially since the release of the first
version of its GDS library, allowing you to run graph algorithms from data stored in
Neo4j, even at a large scale.

This book is designed to guide you through the field of GDS, always using Neo4j
and its GDS library as the main tool. By the end of this book, you will be able to
run your own GDS model on a graph dataset you created. By the end of the book,
you will even be able to pass the Neo4j Data Science certification to prove your
new skills to the world.
Who this book is for
This book is for people who are curious about graphs and how this data structure
can be useful in data science. It can serve both data scientists who are learning
about graphs and Neo4j developers who want to get into data science.

The book assumes minimal data science knowledge (classification, training sets,
confusion matrices) and some experience with Python and its related data science
toolkit (pandas, matplotlib, and scikit-learn).
What this book covers
Chapter 1, Introducing and Installing Neo4j, introduces the basic principles of
graph databases and gives instructions on how to set up Neo4j locally, create your
first graph, and write your first Cypher queries.

Chapter 2, Using Existing Data to Build a Knowledge Graph, guides you through
loading data into Neo4j from different formats (CSV, JSON, and an HTTP API). This
is where you will build the dataset that will be used throughout this book.

Chapter 3, Characterizing a Graph Dataset, introduces some key metrics to

differentiate one graph dataset from another.

Chapter 4, Using Graph Algorithms to Characterize a Graph Dataset, goes deeper

into understanding a graph dataset by using graph algorithms. This is the chapter
where you will start to use the Neo4j GDS plugin.

Chapter 5, Visualizing Graph Data, delves into graph data visualization by drawing
nodes and edges, starting from static representations and moving on to dynamic
ones.

Chapter 6, Building a Machine Learning Model with Graph Features, talks about
machine learning model training using scikit-learn. This is where we will first use
the GDS Python client.

Chapter 7, Automating Feature Extraction with Graph Embeddings for Machine

Learning, introduces the concept of node embedding, with practical examples
using the Neo4j GDS library.

Chapter 8, Building a GDS Pipeline for Node Classification Model Training,

introduces the topic of node classification within GDS without involving a third-
party tool.

Chapter 9, Predicting Future Edges, gives a short introduction to the topic of link
prediction, a graph-specific machine learning task.
Chapter 10, Writing Your Custom Graph Algorithms with the Pregel API in Java,
covers the exciting topic of building an extension for the GDS plugin.

To get the most out of this book

You will need access to a Neo4j instance. Options and installation instructions are
given in Chapter 1, Introducing and Installing Neo4j. We will also intensively use
Python and the following packages: pandas, scikit-learn, network, and
graphdatascience. The code was tested with Python 3.10 but should work with
newer versions, assuming no breaking change is made in its dependencies. Python
code is provided as a Jupyter notebook, so you’ll need Jupyter Server installed and
running to go through it.

For the very last chapter, a Java JDK will also be required. The code was tested
with OpenJDK 11.

Software/hardware covered in the Operating system

book requirements

Neo4j 5.x Windows, macOS, or Linux

Python 3.10 Windows, macOS or Linux

Jupyter Windows, macOS or Linux

OpenJDK 11 Windows, macOS or Linux

You will also need to install Neo4j plugins: APOC and GDS. Installation instructions
for Neo4j Desktop are given in the relevant chapters. However, if you are not using
a local Neo4j instance, please refer to the following pages for installation
instructions, especially regarding version compatibilities:
APOC: https://neo4j.com/docs/apoc/current/installation/

GDS: https://neo4j.com/docs/graph-data-science/current/installation/
If you are using the digital version of this book, we advise you to type
the code yourself or access the code from the book’s GitHub repository
(a link is available in the next section). Doing so will help you avoid any
potential errors related to the copying and pasting of code.

Download the example code files

You can download the example code files for this book from GitHub at
https://github.com/PacktPublishing/Graph-Data-Science-with-Neo4j. If there’s an
update to the code, it will be updated in the GitHub repository.

We also have other code bundles from our rich catalog of books and videos
available at https://github.com/PacktPublishing/. Check them out!

Conventions used
There are a number of text conventions used throughout this book.

Code in text: Indicates code words in text, database table names, folder names,
filenames, file extensions, pathnames, dummy URLs, user input, and Twitter
handles. Here is an example: “Mount the downloaded WebStorm-10*.dmg disk
image file as another disk in your system.”

A block of code is set as follows:

CREATE (:Movie {
id: line.show_id,
title: line.title,
releaseYear: line.release_year
}

When we wish to draw your attention to a particular part of a code block, the
relevant lines or items are set in bold:

LOAD CSV WITH HEADERS

FROM 'file:///netflix/netflix_titles.csv' AS line
WITH split(line.director, ",") as directors_list
UNWIND directors_list AS director_name
CREATE (:Person {name: trim(director_name)})
Any command-line input or output is written as follows:

$ mkdir css
$ cd css

Bold: Indicates a new term, an important word, or words that you see onscreen.
For instance, words in menus or dialog boxes appear in bold. Here is an example:
“Select System info from the Administration panel.”

TIPS OR IMPORTANT NOTES

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Part 1 – Creating Graph Data in Neo4j
In this first part, you will learn about Neo4j and set up your first graph database.
You will also build a graph dataset in Neo4j using Cypher, the APOC library, and
public knowledge graphs.

This part includes the following chapters:

Chapter 1, Introducing and Installing Neo4j

Chapter 2, Using Existing Data to Build a Knowledge Graph

Random documents with unrelated
content Scribd suggests to you:
 Fig. 506.—Cydonia vulgaris.
Longitudinal section of fruit.

Fig. 507.—Longitudinal section of Pear flower.

 2. Malus and Amelanchier (Aronia); carpels free on the ventral
edge; styles united. Malus communis (Apple) the fruit is “umbilicate”
at the base; no sclerenchymatous cells in the pulp; styles united at
the base (Fig. 504 D); leaf-stalk shorter than the blade. Sorbus
(Mountain-ash) differs only in having a 2–3-locular fruit with
extremely thin endocarp. Cymose inflorescences in umbellate
cymes. S. aucuparia has pinnate leaves, S. aria (White-beam) and other species
have simple leaves.—Amelanchier (the Service-tree) has a false divisional wall
springing from the dorsal suture, and more or less projecting into each of the loculi
of the ovary; Raphiolepis (Fig. 504 E) has racemes and a juicy berry; Eriobotrya
japonica (Loquat).
B. Cratægeæ. The endocarp is hard and bony (“drupes,”
generally with several, sometimes, however, with only 1–2 stones,
rarely one multilocular stone; only 1 seed in each of the loculi).—
Cratægus (Hawthorn, May). There are 1–5 stones in the spherical or
ovoid fruit. The disc, found on the apex of the fruit, inside the small,
withered calyx, is small (much less than the transverse section of the
fruit). Shrubs with thorns (branches) and moderately large flowers
borne in corymbs.—Mespilus (Medlar) differs from the last-named
only in having a large disc at the apex of the fruit, inside the large,
leaf-like sepals, i.e. almost equal to the greatest diameter of the fruit.
The flowers are solitary and terminal.—Cotoneaster is chiefly
distinguished from the others by its syncarps, the 2–5 carpels (and
stones) being free from one another, and only united to the
receptacle by a larger or smaller portion of their dorsal surface (Figs.
504 A, B). Small shrubs with leathery leaves, generally covered with
white, felted hairs on the lower surface, and with small flowers; the
fruit is red or black.
Pear, Apple, Mountain Ash and Hawthorn have protogynous flowers which
secrete honey, and are conspicuous to ensure insect pollination.—180 species; in
the northern temperate regions.—Pear and Apple are especially cultivated as fruit
trees in a number of varieties; the Paradise Apple (Pyrus baccata); especially in
southern countries also the Quince (from N. Persia and the Caucasian districts),
Medlar and Amelanchier vulgaris. Malus pumila (Caucasus, Altai) and M.
dasyphylla (Orient, S. Eur.) are regarded as primitive forms of the Apple-tree; M.
sylvestris, which grows wild in European forests, appears to have been less used.
The early Lake-dwellers in Switzerland had the apple-tree both wild and cultivated.
—The original form of the Pear is supposed to be Pyrus achras (Central Asia).—
Many of the species of Cratægus, some with double flowers, and Pyrus
(Chænomeles) japonica, with brilliant red flowers, are cultivated as ornamental
shrubs. Officinal: Quince pips, on account of the mucilaginous testa.—The fruits
contain free organic acids and sugar; prussic acid may be obtained from the
seeds. The wood of the Pear-tree is used in manufactures.

Family 21. Leguminosæ.

The most characteristic feature is, that the gynœceum is 1-locular
and formed of 1 carpel, the ventral suture of which is turned
posteriorly. The fruit, in most instances, is a pod (legume), which
opens generally along both sutures, the two valves twisting more or
less in opposite directions. In other instances it opens along one suture only,
or as a pyxidium (Red Clover), or it is indehiscent, in which case it is more or less
berry-like (e.g. the Tamarind, Carob-bean), or it is a drupe (e.g. the Tonquin-bean),
or a 1–few-seeded nut (e.g. Melilotus), or a lomentum, which divides transversely
into as many joints as there are seeds (Ornithopus, see Fig. 513).
The inflorescences belong to the centripetal type (i.e. indefinite);
cymes do not occur. The flowers are zygomorphic, with vertical plane
of symmetry, seldom regular; 5-merous with but a few exceptions, ☿,
and slightly perigynous. The following diagram is the most general
(Fig. 511): 5 sepals, with the unpaired sepal median and anterior, 5
petals, 5 + 5 stamens, all in alternating whorls, 1 carpel. The calyx is
most frequently gamosepalous, the gynœceum is narrowed down at
the base to a short stalk and, in the majority, is more or less bent.
The seed is most frequently kidney-shaped, with a smooth, hard and
shining testa, the hilum being very distinct. Endosperm is wanting, or
is reduced to a thin layer, which is of service when the seed swells
during germination. The vegetative parts have these features in
common, namely, the leaves are scattered, stipulate, and almost
always compound. Peculiar sleep-movements and sensitiveness are
found in some, chiefly in the Mimosas. Many, probably all,
Leguminosæ have small tubercles on their roots which are produced
by a kind of bacterium, and assist in the assimilation of free nitrogen.
Spontaneous movements are exhibited by Desmodium gyrans
(Telegraph-plant).
 This family is closely allied to the Rosifloræ, with which it agrees in the
scattered leaves, the presence of stipules, the generally 5-merous and most
frequently perigynous flowers with eucyclic stamens, and the absence of
endosperm. Amygdalaceæ and Chrysobalanaceæ, with solitary carpels, approach
on one side to the Leguminosæ, among which genera with drupes are also found;
Mimosaceæ, with their many stamens, form a connecting link on the other side. In
this respect the Mimosa-genus Affonsea, and certain Cæsalpineæ and Swartzieæ,
are of special interest in having more than one carpel (syncarp), a condition which
is sometimes met with abnormally in other Leguminosæ, as well as in
Amygdalaceæ. About 7,000 species of the Leguminosæ are known.
Order 1. Cæsalpiniaceæ. These are leguminous plants with
straight embryo and a flower which is not papilionaceous and has
not the same æstivation (Figs. 508–510); but in reality there is not a
single characteristic which absolutely distinguishes them from the
Papilionaceæ.—The majority are arborescent; the leaves as a rule
are pinnate or bipinnate. The flower is 5-merous, most frequently
perigynous and slightly zygomorphic; the calyx is free or
gamosepalous, the corolla polypetalous with ascending imbricate
æstivation (i.e. the two lowest petals envelop the lateral ones, and
these again the posterior; Fig. 508); 10 free stamens; fruit various.

Figs. 508–510.—Cassia floribunda.

Fig. 508.—Floral diagram.

 Fig. 509.—Flower.

Fig. 510.—The same in long. sect.

 Cassia (Figs. 508–510) is the largest genus (about 200 species);
it has an almost hypogynous, zygomorphic flower with 5 free sepals
and petals; of the 10 stamens the 3 posterior are generally barren,
the others are of very unequal length and open at the apex by pores
(Fig. 509). In some (the Senna group) the fruit is a flat, short, thin,
dehiscing pod; in others (Cathartocarpus) it is round, long, woody or
fleshy, indehiscent, and divided internally by more or less fleshy
transverse walls into as many cells as there are seeds.—The
following also have dehiscent fruits: Bauhinia (often lianes,
tropical climbers with tendrils [stem-structures] and anomalous
stems), Copaifera, Hæmatoxylon (whose pod does not dehisce
along the suture, but laterally), Cercis (simple leaves; the corolla
resembles that of the Papilionaceæ, but the posterior petal is the
smallest, and is enveloped by the 2 lateral ones, which are
enveloped in their turn by the 2 anterior).—Fruit Indehiscent:
Tamarindus indica; the pod is almost round, often a little abstricted
between the seeds; the wall is formed by a thin, brittle external layer,
enclosing an acid pulp; well-developed septa are present, between
the seeds; the most internal layer is parchment-like. Calyx 4-merous
by the coalescence of 2 sepals. Only 3 fertile stamens.—Ceratonia
siliqua (Carob-bean, Locusts); the pod is long, compressed, with
thick sutures, and has a wall, the central part of which is more or less
leathery, fleshy and sweet; there are transverse septa between the
seeds, as in the Tamarind. Embryo greenish in endosperm. The
flower is without a corolla, 5 stamens.—Pterogyne (winged fruit), etc.
—Kramerieæ with Krameria is an anomalous group.
Distribution. 80 genera, with 740 species; almost exclusively in the Tropics.
The Carob-tree and Cercis grow in the Mediterranean basin. The largest and most
widely distributed genus is Cassia, which is found as trees, shrubs, and weeds in
all tropical countries. The order has many important uses to mankind. Medicinal:
the leaves and pods of Cassia acutifolia and angustifolia (officinal, Senna-leaves),
the fruit-pulp of the Cassia-sub-genus, Cathartocarpus. Rhatany root from
Krameria triandra (Peru, officinal). Balsam is extracted from a number of
Copaifera-species (Balsam of Copaiba) from S. Am. (officinal), and from
Hymenæa (Copal balsam), Trachylobium and others. Edible fruits are obtained
especially from the Carob-tree (from the East) and the Tamarind (officinal). The
heart-wood of several species of Cæsalpinia, such as C. brasiliensis (the
Pernambuco-tree), echinata (Red-tree), and sappan, yield dyes; Hæmatoxylon (H.
campechianum, Logwood), Copaifera bracteata (Amarant-tree).—Timber is
obtained from many (Melanoxylon and others). In Europe they are of little
importance as ornamental plants, these being confined principally to the species of
Gleditschia (G. triacantha, from N. Am.) and Cercis (the Judas-tree, C.
siliquastrum, S. Eur.), which are cultivated in gardens; but in tropical gardens
beautiful flowering species, e.g. of Cassia, Poinciana, Brownea, are found, and the
most beautiful of all ornamental plants, the Indian Amherstia nobilis.

Fig. 511.—Diagram of Faba

vulgaris: f the standard; v the wings;
k the keel.
Order 2. Papilionaceæ. The flower (Figs. 511, 512) is strongly
zygomorphic and somewhat perigynous (Fig. 512 B; most frequently
more on one side than the other). The calyx is gamosepalous and
persistent. The polypetalous corolla has descending imbricate
æstivation, the posterior, large leaf, the standard (Figs. 511 f; 512 B’,
e), covering in the bud the two lateral ones, the wings (Figs. 511 v;
512 B’, a), which again cover the two anterior; these are united in the
form of a boat, the keel (k and c); the wings and the two petals of the
keel are very unsymmetrical. That the keel is formed of two petals is
seen by its position (in front of one sepal) and by the two often more
or less free claws. The 10 (5 + 5) stamens (monadelphous) are
either all united into one bundle, or into two bundles (diadelphous),
the posterior one being free (Fig. 512 C). The ovules are curved and
also the embryo (Fig. 512 G), especially the hypocotyl, so that the
radicle assumes a position close to the edge of the thick, fleshy
cotyledons. Endosperm wanting; the cotyledons are very rich in
proteid reserve material. The forms of the fruit and exceptions are
described under the genera.

Fig. 512.—Pisum sativum: A entire flower; B in longitudinal section; C

gynœceum and stamens; D gynœceum; B’ corolla dissected, e standard, a, a
wings, c keel; D seed opened to show the cotyledons (c), the radicle (r), the
plumule (g); E fruit (legume); F seed.
Geocarpic fruits, i.e. those which penetrate the soil during their development
and ripen underground, are found in e.g. Arachis hypogæa (see page 472),
Trifolium subterraneum, Vicia amphicarpæa. Germination takes place in various
ways. In the majority the cotyledons are raised above the ground as green, leaf-
like bodies; in the Vicieæ they remain thick and white, and are always enclosed in
the testa, and are therefore never able to take part in the work of assimilation; in
species of Phaseolus, on the other hand, they are raised well above the ground
and become green, but remain however thick and fleshy.
1, 2. The two groups Podalyrieæ (the majority of the genera are Australian)
and Sophoreæ (Sophora, Edwardsia, etc.), represent the oldest type, as they
have 10 free stamens and so form the transition to the Cæsalpiniaceæ. Nearly all
are trees and shrubs.

3. Astragaleæ. Herbs or shrubs, less frequently trees, with

imparipinnate leaves (without tendrils). The flowers are generally
borne in racemes or spikes. Stamens monadelphous or diadelphous.
—Astragalus (Milk-Vetch) has the legume incompletely divided
longitudinally into 2 loculi by a septum formed by the incurved dorsal
suture. Diadelphous.—Glycyrrhiza (Liquorice); Colutea (Bladder-
Senna) from S. Europe; Robinia (the false Acacia) with thorny
stipules; Indigofera (the Indigo plant); Amorpha (which has only one
petal, namely the standard, and the fruit a nut), Caragana, Wistaria
(a climbing shrub), Galega. Carmichælia australis, when old,
produces flat branches with scale-like leaves.
4. Vicieæ. Climbing herbs with paripinnate leaves, the midrib
ending in a point or frequently in a tendril, which generally is
branched, representing lateral veins without mesophyll; stamens
diadelphous; the cotyledons remain underground on germination.—
Vicia (Vetch) has a filamentous style, hairy towards the tip, and a
pod with many seeds; climbing by means of tendrils; the leaves have
many leaflets.—Faba (F. vulgaris, Horse-bean) is erect, without
tendrils; its pod is thick with spongy septa between the seeds.—
Ervum (Lentil) has a pod with only 1–2 seeds, and sweeping hairs
(stylar-brush) on the inner side of the style.—Pisum (Pea; Fig. 512)
has very large stipules, the bent style has a hollow groove on the
anterior side. P. sativum (Common Pea), P. arvense (Grey Pea).—
Lathyrus (Sweet Pea) generally has an angular, winged stem and
most frequently only a few pairs of leaflets. The style is flattened,
with sweeping hairs on the back. In L. aphaca the stipules alone are
developed into foliage-leaves, while the remainder of the leaf is modified into a
tendril.—Cicer has a nearly straight embryo and imparipinnate leaves
with dentate or incised leaflets. C. arietinus (Chick-pea).—Abrus
(precatorius, etc.); the seeds (“Crab’s eyes,” “Paternoster peas,” “Jequirity”) are
scarlet with a black spot round the hilum.
5. Phaseoleæ. Herbs, twining or erect, but not climbing by
tendrils; the leaves are imparipinnate, generally ternate, and bear
small, linear bodies resembling stipules at the base of the stalks of
the leaflets. The inflorescences are most frequently compound,
groups of few flowers being situated on short, nodose, lateral axes
borne on a longer stem. On germination the cotyledons are raised a
considerable distance above the ground, and become greenish, but
do not become leaf-like; in P. multiflorus they remain underground.
Stamens as in the Vetches.—Phaseolus (Kidney-bean): the keel with
the stamen and style is spirally twisted (to the right). Herbs, twining
to the left.—The “Calabar-bean” (Physostigma venenosum), Erythrina, Clitoria,
Glycine, Soja, Mucuna, Apios, Canavalia, Vigna, Dolichos, Cajanus, Rhynchosia,
etc.
6. Trifolieæ (Clovers). Herbs with ternate leaves, the leaflets
are often dentate with the veins prolonged into the teeth; stamens
diadelphous; fruit 1-locular, 1–few-seeded, pyxidium-like, irregularly
dehiscent, or more frequently a nut. The flowers are generally borne
in capitula, racemes, or spikes.—Trifolium (Clover). The corolla is
gamopetalous. The calyx persists, together with the corolla, round
the ripe fruit. The inflorescence is a spike, capitulum or capitate
umbel; the leaves are ternate, and have adnate stipules.—Medicago
(Medick). The corolla falls off after flowering; fruit curved like a sickle
or spirally twisted; it is a nut, and opens with difficulty. Leaves
ternate.—Melilotus (Melilot) has a small, spherical or lanceolate,
thick and wrinkled fruit, which as a rule is indehiscent. The
inflorescence is a raceme, often long, or a spike, sometimes a
capitulum. Leaves ternate.—Ononis (Rest-harrow) differs in having
monadelphous stamens and in being more shrub-like and bushy,
and in having a normal, 2-valved pod, by which characteristic it
approaches the Genisteæ. The flowers are generally rose-coloured,
solitary, or in few-flowered racemes in the leaf-axils. Thorns
(branches) are often present; the leaves are compound with only one
small leaflet (the terminal one), or ternate with adnate stipules.
 7. Loteæ. Herbs with ternate or imparipinnate leaves, with entire
leaflets. In the latter case, when the lowest pair of leaflets is placed
quite close to the sheath, the stalk is wanting, and apparently a
trifoliate leaf with large stipules is developed. Flowers in an umbel or
capitulum. Stamens monadelphous or diadelphous, the filaments
(either all of them, or only the 5 sepal-stamens) are widened at the
top.—Lotus (Bird’s-foot-trefoil) has a long, round pod.—
Tetragonolobus.—Anthyllis (Lady’s-finger); the fruit is a nut, which is
distributed by the wind by means of the membranous, bladder-like
calyx, which completely encloses and falls off with it.
8. Genisteæ. The majority are shrubs or trees with apparently
simple leaves, i.e. compound leaves with only one leaflet (the
terminal leaflet), or ternate leaves; the stipules in most instances are
very small or are entirely wanting; stamens monadelphous.—Genista
(Dyer’s-weed) has apparently simple leaves; the branches often
terminate in a thorn. The strongly-winged stems in G. sagittalis are its most
important organs of assimilation. Bossiæa rufa has flat branches, its leaves being
reduced to small, pointed stipules.—Sarothamnus (Broom) has switch-like,
angular branches and often both the apparently simple and ternate
leaves on the same shoot; style spirally rolled.—Cytisus (Laburnum).
Ulex (Furze; in U. europæus, the seedlings bear a few foliage leaves, but the
leaves succeeding these are modified into thorns); Spartium; Crotalaria, etc.
—Lupinus (Lupin) is allied to this group; it has a thick, often
somewhat fleshy pod, and digitate leaves with adnate stipules.—
Retama.
9. Hedysareæ are especially recognised by having the ovary
divided by transverse septa into as many cells as there are seeds,
the fruit thus becomes a lomentum, dehiscing transversely into nut-
like joints (Fig. 513).—Ornithopus (Bird’s-foot); Coronilla;
Hippocrepis; Onobrychis (Sainfoin) has a fruit with only 1 joint (i.e. a
1-seeded nut); Desmodium; Alhagi; Hedysarum, etc.—Arachis
hypogæa (Earth-nut) has a pod which is abstricted between the
seeds, and is indehiscent, but is not multilocular nor a true
lomentum; it is reticulately wrinkled externally, and ripens
underground; the basal part of the ovary is prolonged after flowering,
attaining a length of several inches, and buries the young fruit in the
soil. The embryo is straight.—Desmodium gyrans is well-known for its motile
leaflets.

Fig. 513.—Hedysarum
coronarium.
10. Dalbergieæ. 25 genera; especially in Tropical America; the majority are
trees, a few shrubs or lianes; the leaves are simple or imparipinnate. The fruit is
indehiscent in all; in some it is a winged, in others a wingless nut (Machærium,
Dalbergia, Centrolobium, etc.), in others, again, a drupe, e.g. in Dipteryx (Tonquin-
bean) and Andira. In some genera the embryo is straight.
Pollination. Especially effected by Bees. The nectar is secreted by a ring or
disc-like portion round the base of the gynœceum or the inner surface of the
receptacle. The flower is constructed with a peculiar mechanism to ensure cross-
pollination by insects. The pollen is shed just before the flower opens, and is
retained in a pouch formed by the keel. An insect visiting the flower uses the wings
and keel for a landing-stage, and in attempting to reach the honey presses down
the wings and the keel which are locked together near the standard; the stylar-
brush by this means is forced through the apical opening of the keel and a little
pollen is thus swept out and deposited upon the abdomen of the visiting insect as
it presses against the apex of the keel; the insect thus carries away pollen and
may effect cross-pollination. In the different flowers this arrangement is modified in
various ways to promote pollination. 5000 species (319 genera); especially in the
Tropics, where many are important forest trees.—The following plants are used
for food: Pisum sativum (W. Asia?) and arvense (Italy); Phaseolus vulgaris
(Kidney-bean, American; Dolichos sinensis was known to the Greeks and Romans
under the name “φασηλος,” “phaseolus”), P. compressus (French-bean), etc.; Faba
vulgaris (Field-bean, Horse-bean; from the Old World); Ervum lens (Lentil, Eastern
Mediterranean); in tropical countries the oil-containing seeds of Arachis hypogæa.
—The following are fodder plants: Vicia sativa, Faba vulgaris, Onobrychis sativa
(Sainfoin), Medicago sativa (Lucerne), and lupulina (Medick), species of Trifolium,
Hedysarum coronarium. Officinal: “Liquorice root,” from Glycyrrhiza glabra (S.
Europe); “Red Sandalwood,” from Pterocarpus santalinus (Tropical E. Asia); Gum
Tragacanth, from Astragalus-species (E. Mediterranean); Balsam of Peru, from
Toluifera pereiræ, and Balsam of Tolu, from Toluifera balsamum. Calabar-beans,
from Physostigma venenosum; Kino, from Pterocarpus marsupium; the pith of
Andira araroba is used under the name of “Chrysarobin.”—Of use technically:
Genista tinctoria (yellow dye) and Indigofera-species (Indigo), the bast of
Crotalaria juncea (Sunn Hemp); the seeds of Dipteryx, which contain Coumarin,
and are highly scented, and Balsam of Myroxylon. Poisonous: the seeds of
Laburnum (Cytisus laburnum), various species of Lathyrus, and Abrus precatorius;
the latter contain two poisonous proteids, paraglobulin and albumose, which
resemble snake-poison in their effects. The following are ornamental plants:
Phaseolus multiflorus (Scarlet runner, from America), Robinia pseudacacia,
Amorpha, Colutea, Coronilla, Indigofera dosua, Wistaria polystachya, Cytisus
laburnum (Laburnum, S. Europe, Orient.) and other species.
Order 3. Mimosaceæ. The flowers are most frequently
hypogynous and regular, the æstivation of the corolla is valvate and,
in the majority of instances, that of the calyx also. The flower is 4-
merous, less frequently 5- or 3-merous.—The flowers are generally
small, but are always borne in compact, round capitula or spikes
(Fig. 514); they are hypogynous or perigynous. The calyx is
generally gamosepalous and the corolla gamopetalous, the latter
being frequently wanting. The stamens are equal or double the
number of the petals (Mimosa, etc., in M. pudica, e.g. S4, P4, A4,
G1) or (in Acacia, Inga, etc.) in a large, indefinite number, free or
monadelphous, often united to the corolla (Fig. 514 b). The colour of
the flower in most cases is due to the long and numerous stamens.
The fruit is various. The embryo is straight as in the Cæsalpiniaceæ.
Entada and many species of Mimosa have a flat, straight, or
somewhat sickle-like pod, which resembles the siliqua of the
Cruciferæ in that the sutures (in this instance, however, dorsal and
ventral suture) persist as a frame, but the intermediate portion
divides, as in the transversely divided siliqua, into as many nut-like
portions as there are seeds. Some species have a pod of enormous
dimensions. The seeds of Entada gigalobium are often carried from
the West Indies to the N. W. coasts of Europe by the Gulf Stream.—
The fruit of Acacia in some species is an ordinary pod, in others it is
transversely divided, or remains an undivided fruit, a nut.—This
order includes both trees and herbaceous plants, which are often
thorny; the leaves are usually bipinnate (Fig. 514) and are sensitive,
and also possess sleep-movements.—Many Australian Acacias
have compound leaves only when young, but when old have
phyllodia, i.e. leaf-like petioles without blades, placed vertically. A
large number have thorny stipules, which in some (Acacia
sphærocephala) attain an enormous size, and serve as a home for
ants, which in return protect their host-plant against the attacks of
other, leaf-cutting ants.
 Fig. 514.—Acacia farnesiana: a inflorescence; b flower.
Other genera besides those mentioned are: Adenanthera,
Desmanthus, Parkia, Inga (with rather fleshy, indehiscent fruit),
Calliandra, etc.
1350 species (30 genera); none natives of Europe, their home being the Tropics
and sub-tropical regions, especially Australia and Africa.—Fossils in Tertiary.—
Gums are found in many species of Acacia, especially the African (Gum arabic)
and Australian, of which some are officinal. The bark, and also the fruits, contain a
large amount of tannic acid and are used as astringents and in tanning (“Bablah” is
the fruits of several species of Acacia). Catechu is a valuable tanning material
extracted from the wood of Acacia catechu (E. Ind). The flowers of Acacia
farnesiana (Fig. 514) are used in the manufacture of perfumes. With us they are
cultivated as ornamental plants, e.g. A. lophantha and many others, in
conservatories.

Family 22. Passiflorinæ.

The flowers are most frequently regular, 5-merous in the three
most external whorls, eucyclic and perigynous or epigynous, less
frequently hypogynous. A characteristic feature is that the ovary is
tricarpellary, unilocular, and with 3 parietal placentæ which
sometimes meet in the central line (Cucurbitaceæ). The styles are
generally free and bifid. To all these characteristics, however, there
are exceptions. The Cucurbitaceæ are sometimes placed among the
Sympetalæ, close to the Campanulinæ, but they are not allied to the Sympetalæ,
from which they differ especially, for instance, in the structure of the ovule. The
position of the Begoniaceæ in this family is also open to doubt.
 Fig. 515.—Passiflora cœrulea (reduced).
Order 1. Passifloraceæ (Passion-flowers). The majority are
herbs which climb by means of tendrils (modified branches) and
have scattered, stipulate leaves, often palminerved and lobed (Fig.
515). The flowers, which are often large and beautiful, are regular, ☿,
with S5, P5, A5, G3; the calyx and corolla are perigynous, and
immediately inside the corolla is the “corona,” consisting of
numerous, tapering, filamentous bodies, or sometimes united in
rings, most frequently petaloid and coloured; the stamens are raised
on a long, round internode above the cup-like receptacle;
immediately above these is the gynœceum with its 3 free styles and
capitate stigmas; the ovary is unilocular with 3 parietal placentæ.
Fruit most frequently a berry. The seeds have an aril.
210 species; especially in Tropical America. Several Passiflora-species are
ornamental plants, and the fruits of some species are edible.
Order 2. Papayaceæ. The best known representative is the
Papaw (Carica papaya), a Tropical American tree whose stem is
usually unbranched, and bears at its summit several large,
palmilobed leaves on long stalks. The stem and leaves have latex.
The large, Melon-like berries are edible, and for this reason it is
cultivated in the Tropics. Flowers unisexual, with slightly different
structure in the ♂-and ♀-flowers, besides intermediate forms. The ♂-
flower has a gamopetalous, the ♀ -flower a polypetalous corolla.—
The milky juice contains a substance with similar action to pepsine.
10 stamens. 5 carpels.
Order 3. Turneraceæ. 85 species; especially in America.
Order 4. Samydaceæ. 160 species; tropical.
Order 5. Loasaceæ. Herbaceous plants seldom shrubs,
sometimes climbing, and nearly always studded with stiff hairs, in
some instances stinging or hooked. The leaves are most frequently
palmilobed and without stipules. The flowers are regular, ☿,
polypetalous, entirely epigynous, with 4–5 sepals, petals and
stamens, or more frequently (by splitting) many stamens, those
which are placed before the sepals being generally barren and more
or less petaloid; carpels most frequently 3, united into an inferior,
unilocular ovary with 3 parietal placentæ, above which the receptacle
is generally more or less prolonged. Fruit a capsule; in Gronovia an
ovary with 1 ovule and fruit a nut.
115 species; principally from S. Am. A number of annuals are often grown in our
gardens: Bartonia aurea (California); Mentzelia; Cajophora; Gronovia.
Order 6. Datiscaceæ. 4 species, especially in the Tropics.—
Datisca cannabina (Asia Minor) resembles the Hemp in external
appearance. The flowers are diœcious, insignificant; ♂ -flowers: a
low, gamosepalous calyx, no corolla, and an indefinite number of
stamens; ♀ -flowers; epigynous; ovary unilocular with free, mostly
bifid, styles, and generally 3 parietal placentæ. In most cases the
ovary is not entirely closed at the top (as in Reseda).
 Fig. 516.—Begonia rex (reduced).
Order 7. Begoniaceæ. This order principally comprises herbs or
under-shrubs with succulent stems (having scattered vascular
bundles in the pith); the leaves are arranged in two rows (a
divergence of 1/2) and are asymmetrical, as a rule more or less
obliquely cordate, or ovate with cordate base (Fig. 516); large,
caducous stipules are present. Inflorescences dichasial, or unipared
scorpioid cymes; the flowers are unisexual; the first ones (the oldest)
are ♂-flowers, while ♀-flowers are found especially on the younger
axes. The ♂ -flowers have most frequently 2 + 2 coloured perianth-
leaves, and many stamens collected into a head in the centre of the
flower; the ♀-flowers are epigynous with 5 coloured perianth-leaves
(placed spirally with a divergence of 2/5) and a trilocular ovary,
bearing 3 bifid styles and 3 wings (the wings usually of unequal
size); in the inner angle of each loculus there is one large projecting
placenta, or two plate-like placentæ (the bent back edges of the
carpels) studded with ovules. Fruit a capsule, with many extremely
small seeds.—Begonia.
420 species; almost all from the Tropics (Am., Asia).—Many species, with
varieties and hybrids, are ornamental plants in houses and conservatories, chiefly
on account of the form, colour and markings of their leaves; but also for their very
beautiful flowers. They reproduce easily by adventitious buds from leaves and
portions of leaves placed on damp soil; some have bulbils. Like the Oxalideæ they
contain an acid sap.

Fig. 517.—Ecballium agreste. Diagram of a ♂-and a ♀-flower.

Order 8. Cucurbitaceæ. The flower is epigynous, and, as a rule,
is also provided with a leaf-like, cup- or bell-shaped receptacle
above the ovary, to which the perianth and stamens are attached;
the flowers are regular, unisexual, with rudiments of the other sex,
and 5-merous: sepals 5, narrow and pointed, with the median sepal
posterior (Fig. 517), petals 5, stamens 5, and carpels 3 (rarely 4–5);
the corolla is gamopetalous in the majority, polypetalous in some;
generally plicate-valvate in the bud. The anthers in the ♂-flowers are
extrorse, and monothecious, i.e. only one half of each of the anthers
of the 5 stamens is developed, the pollen-sac having frequently a
peculiar [**rtilde]-shaped curve (Fig. 518 A, B); the stamens are
either all united into a column (e.g. in Cucurbita), or they are united
in pairs, so that only one remains free (Figs. 517 A; 518 A); in the
latter case there appears to be one small stamen with a ~-shaped,
curved pollen-sac and two larger ones, each with two curved pollen-
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