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Data Visualization
Exploring and Explaining with Data

Jeffrey D. Camm James J. Cochran

Wake Forest University University of Alabama

Michael J. Fry Jeffrey W. Ohlmann

University of Cincinnati University of Iowa

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 This is an electronic version of the print textbook. Due to electronic rights restrictions,
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 Data Visualization: Exploring and © 2022 Cengage Learning, Inc.
Explaining with Data, WCN: 02-300
First Edition
Unless otherwise noted, all content is © Cengage.
Jeffrey D. Camm, James J. Cochran,
Michael J. Fry, Jeffrey W. Ohlmann
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 Brief Contents
ABOUT THE AUTHORS xi
PREFACE xiii

Chapter 1 Introduction 2
Chapter 2 Selecting a Chart Type 26
Chapter 3 Data Visualization and Design 76
Chapter 4 Purposeful Use of Color 128
Chapter 5 Visualizing Variability 174
Chapter 6 Exploring Data Visually 226
Chapter 7 Explaining Visually to Influence with Data 284
Chapter 8 Data Dashboards 322
Chapter 9 Telling the Truth with Data Visualization 360

References 397
Index 399
 Contents
ABOUT THE AUTHORS xi
PREFACE xiii

Chapter 1 Introduction 2
1.1 Analytics 3
1.2 Why Visualize Data? 4
Data Visualization for Exploration 4
Data Visualization for Explanation 7
1.3 Types of Data 8
Quantitative and Categorical Data 8
Cross-Sectional and Time Series Data 9
Big Data 10
1.4 Data Visualization in Practice 11
Accounting 11
Finance 12
Human Resource Management 13
Marketing 14
Operations 14
Engineering 16
Sciences 16
Sports 17
Summary 18
Glossary 19
Problems 20

Chapter 2 Selecting a Chart Type 26

2.1 Defining the Goal of Your Data Visualization 28
Selecting an Appropriate Chart 28
2.2 Creating and Editing Charts in Excel 29
Creating a Chart in Excel 30
Editing a Chart in Excel 30
2.3 Scatter Charts and Bubble Charts 32
Scatter Charts 32
Bubble Charts 33
2.4 Line Charts, Column Charts, and Bar Charts 35
Line Charts 35
Column Charts 39
Bar Charts 41
2.5 Maps 42
Geographic Maps 42
Heat Maps 44
Treemaps 45
vi Contents

2.6 When to Use Tables 47

Tables versus Charts 47
2.7 Other Specialized Charts 49
Waterfall Charts 49
Stock Charts 51
Funnel Charts 52
2.8 A Summary Guide to Chart Selection 54
Guidelines for Selecting a Chart 54
Some Charts to Avoid 55
Excel’s Recommended Charts Tool 57
Summary 59
Glossary 60
Problems 61

Chapter 3 Data Visualization and Design 76

3.1 Preattentive Attributes 78
Color 81
Form 81
Length and Width 84
Spatial Positioning 87
Movement 87
3.2 Gestalt Principles 88
Similarity 88
Proximity 88
Enclosure 89
Connection 89
3.3 Data-Ink Ratio 91
3.4 Other Data Visualization Design Issues 98
Minimizing Eye Travel 98
Choosing a Font for Text 100
3.5 Common Mistakes in Data Visualization Design 102
Wrong Type of Visualization 102
Trying to Display Too Much Information 104
Using Excel Default Settings for Charts 106
Too Many Attributes 108
Unnecessary Use of 3D 109
Summary 111
Glossary 111
Problems 112

Chapter 4 Purposeful Use of Color 128

4.1 Color and Perception 130
Attributes of Color: Hue, Saturation, and Luminance 130
Contents vii

Color Psychology and Color Symbolism 132

Perceived Color 132
4.2 Color Schemes and Types of Data 135
Categorical Color Schemes 135
Sequential Color Schemes 137
Diverging Color Schemes 139
4.3 Custom Color Using the HSL Color System 141
4.4  Common Mistakes in the Use of Color in Data
Visualization 146
Unnecessary Color 146
Excessive Color 148
Insufficient Contrast 151
Inconsistency Across Related Charts 153
Neglecting Colorblindness 153
Not Considering the Mode of Delivery 156
Summary 156
Glossary 157
Problems 157

Chapter 5 Visualizing Variability 174

5.1 Creating Distributions from Data 176
Frequency Distributions for Categorical Data 176
Relative Frequency and Percent Frequency 179
Visualizing Distributions of Quantitative Data 181
5.2  Statistical Analysis of Distributions of Quantitative
Variables 193
Measures of Location 193
Measures of Variability 194
Box and Whisker Charts 197
5.3 Uncertainty in Sample Statistics 200
Displaying a Confidence Interval on a Mean 201
Displaying a Confidence Interval on a Proportion 203
5.4 Uncertainty in Predictive Models 205
Illustrating Prediction Intervals for a Simple Linear
Regression Model 205
Illustrating Prediction Intervals for a Time Series Model 208
Summary 211
Glossary 211
Problems 213

Chapter 6 Exploring Data Visually 226

6.1 Introduction to Exploratory Data Analysis 228
Espléndido Jugo y Batido, Inc. Example 229
Organizing Data to Facilitate Exploration 230
viii Contents

6.2 Analyzing Variables One at a Time 234

Exploring a Categorical Variable 234
Exploring a Quantitative Variable 237
6.3 Relationships between Variables 242
Crosstabulation 242
Association between Two Quantitative Variables 247
6.4 Analysis of Missing Data 256
Types of Missing Data 256
Exploring Patterns Associated with Missing Data 258
6.5 Visualizing Time-Series Data 260
Viewing Data at Different Temporal Frequencies 260
Highlighting Patterns in Time Series Data 262
Rearranging Data for Visualization 266
6.6 Visualizing Geospatial Data 269
Choropleth Maps 269
Cartograms 272
Summary 273
Glossary 274
Problems 275

Chapter 7 Explaining Visually to Influence with Data 284

7.1 Know Your Audience 287
Audience Member Needs 287
Audience Member Analytical Comfort Levels 289
7.2 Know Your Message 292
What Helps the Decision Maker? 293
Empathizing with Data 294
7.3 Storytelling with Charts 300
Choosing the Correct Chart to Tell Your Story 300
Using Preattentive Attributes to Tell Your Story 304
7.4  Bringing It All Together: Storytelling
and Presentation Design 306
Aristotle’s Rhetorical Triangle 307
Freytag’s Pyramid 308
Storyboarding 311
Summary 313
Glossary 313
Problems 314

Chapter 8 Data Dashboards 322

8.1 What Is a Data Dashboard? 324
Principles of Effective Data Dashboards 325
Applications of Data Dashboards 325
Contents ix

8.2 Data Dashboards Taxonomies 327

Data Updates 327
User Interaction 327
Organizational Function 328
8.3 Data Dashboard Design 328
Understanding the Purpose of the Data Dashboard 329
Considering the Needs of the Data Dashboard’s Users 329
Data Dashboard Engineering 330
8.4 Using Excel Tools to Build a Data Dashboard 331
Espléndido Jugo y Batido, Inc. 331
Using PivotTables, PivotCharts, and Slicers to Build
a Data Dashboard 332
Linking Slicers to Multiple PivotTables 343
Protecting a Data Dashboard 346
Final Review of a Data Dashboard 347
8.5  Common Mistakes in Data Dashboard Design 348
Summary 349
Glossary 349
Problems 350

Chapter 9 Telling the Truth with Data Visualization 360

9.1 Missing Data and Data Errors 363
Identifying Missing Data 363
Identifying Data Errors 366
9.2 Biased Data 369
Selection Bias 369
Survivor Bias 372
9.3 Adjusting for Inflation 374
9.4 Deceptive Design 377
Design of Chart Axes 377
Dual-Axis Charts 381
Data Selection and Temporal Frequency 382
Issues Related to Geographic Maps 386
Summary 388
Glossary 389
Problems 389

References  397

Index 399
 About the Authors
Jeffrey D. Camm is Inmar Presidential Chair and Senior Associate Dean of Business
Analytics in the School of Business at Wake Forest University. Born in Cincinnati, Ohio,
he holds a B.S. from Xavier University (Ohio) and a Ph.D. from Clemson University. Prior
to joining the faculty at Wake Forest, he was on the faculty of the University of Cincinnati.
He has also been a visiting scholar at Stanford University and a visiting professor of business
administration at the Tuck School of Business at Dartmouth College.
Dr. Camm has published more than 45 papers in the general area of optimization applied
to problems in operations management and marketing. He has published his research in
Science, Management Science, Operations Research, INFORMS Journal on Applied
Analytics, and other professional journals. Dr. Camm was named the Dornoff Fellow of
Teaching Excellence at the University of Cincinnati, and he was the 2006 recipient of the
INFORMS Prize for the Teaching of Operations Research Practice. A firm believer in prac-
ticing what he preaches, he has served as an operations research consultant to numerous
companies and government agencies. From 2005 to 2010 he served as editor-in-chief of the
INFORMS Journal on Applied Analytics (formerly Interfaces). In 2016, Professor Camm
received the George E. Kimball Medal for service to the operations research profession, and
in 2017 he was named an INFORMS Fellow.

James J. Cochran is Associate Dean for Research, Professor of Applied Statistics, and
the Rogers-Spivey Faculty Fellow at The University of Alabama. Born in Dayton, Ohio, he
earned his B.S., M.S., and M.B.A. from Wright State University and his Ph.D. from the Uni-
versity of Cincinnati. He has been at The University of Alabama since 2014 and has been a
visiting scholar at Stanford University, Universidad de Talca, the University of South Africa,
and Pole Universitaire Leonard de Vinci.
Dr. Cochran has published more than 50 papers in the development and application of
operations research and statistical methods. He has published in several journals, including
Management Science, The American Statistician, Communications in Statistics—Theory and
Methods, Annals of Operations Research, European Journal of Operational Research, Jour-
nal of Combinatorial Optimization, INFORMS Journal on Applied Analytics, and Statistics
and Probability Letters. He received the 2008 INFORMS Prize for the Teaching of Opera-
tions Research Practice, 2010 Mu Sigma Rho Statistical Education Award, and 2016 Waller
Distinguished Teaching Career Award from the American Statistical Association. Dr. Cochran
was elected to the International Statistics Institute in 2005, named a Fellow of the American
Statistical Association in 2011, and named a Fellow of INFORMS in 2017. He also received
the Founders Award in 2014 and the Karl E. Peace Award in 2015 from the American Statis-
tical Association, and he received the INFORMS President’s Award in 2019.
A strong advocate for effective operations research and statistics education as a means
of improving the quality of applications to real problems, Dr. Cochran has chaired teaching
effectiveness workshops around the globe. He has served as an operations research consul-
tant to numerous companies and not-for-profit organizations. He served as editor-in-chief of
INFORMS Transactions on Education and is on the editorial board of INFORMS Journal on
Applied Analytics, International Transactions in Operational Research, and Significance.

Michael J. Fry is Professor of Operations, Business Analytics, and Information Systems

(OBAIS) and Academic Director of the Center for Business Analytics in the Carl H. Lindner
College of Business at the University of Cincinnati. Born in Killeen, Texas, he earned a B.S.
from Texas A&M University and M.S.E. and Ph.D. degrees from the University of Michigan.
He has been at the University of Cincinnati since 2002, where he served as Department Head
from 2014 to 2018 and has been named a Lindner Research Fellow. He has also been a visit-
ing professor at Cornell University and at the University of British Columbia.
xii About the Authors

Professor Fry has published more than 25 research papers in journals such as Opera-
tions Research, Manufacturing and Service Operations Management, Transportation Sci-
ence, Naval Research Logistics, IIE Transactions, Critical Care Medicine, and Interfaces.
He serves on editorial boards for journals such as Production and Operations Management,
INFORMS Journal on Applied Analytics (formerly Interfaces), and Journal of Quantitative
Analysis in Sports. His research interests are in applying analytics to the areas of supply chain
management, sports, and public-policy operations. He has worked with many different orga-
nizations for his research, including Dell, Inc., Starbucks Coffee Company, Great American
Insurance Group, the Cincinnati Fire Department, the State of Ohio Election Commission, the
Cincinnati Bengals, and the Cincinnati Zoo and Botanical Gardens. In 2008, he was named a
finalist for the Daniel H. Wagner Prize for Excellence in Operations Research Practice, and
he has been recognized for both his research and teaching excellence at the University of
Cincinnati. In 2019, he led the team that was awarded the INFORMS UPS George D. Smith
Prize on behalf of the OBAIS Department at the University of Cincinnati.

Jeffrey W. Ohlmann is Associate Professor of Business Analytics and Huneke Research

Fellow in the Tippie College of Business at the University of Iowa. Born in Valentine,
Nebraska, he earned a B.S. from the University of Nebraska and M.S. and Ph.D. degrees
from the University of Michigan. He has been at the University of Iowa since 2003.
Professor Ohlmann’s research on the modeling and solution of decision-making prob-
lems has produced more than two dozen research papers in journals such as Operations
Research, Mathematics of Operations Research, INFORMS Journal on Computing, Trans-
portation Science, and European Journal of Operational Research. He has collaborated with
organizations such as Transfreight, LeanCor, Cargill, the Hamilton County Board of Elec-
tions, and three National Football League franchises. Because of the relevance of his work
to industry, he was bestowed the George B. Dantzig Dissertation Award and was recognized
as a finalist for the Daniel H. Wagner Prize for Excellence in Operations Research Practice.
 Preface
D ata Visualization: Exploring and Explaining with Data is designed to introduce best
practices in data visualization to undergraduate and graduate students. This is one
of the first books on data visualization designed for college courses. The book contains
material on effective design, choice of chart type, effective use of color, how to explore
data visually, how to build data dashboards, and how to explain concepts and results
visually in a compelling way with data. In an increasingly data-driven economy, these
concepts are becoming more important for analysts, natural scientists, social scientists,
engineers, medical professionals, business professionals, and virtually everyone who
needs to interact with data. Indeed, the skills developed in this book will be helpful to
all who want to influence with data or be accurately informed by data.
The book is designed for a semester-long course at either the undergraduate or graduate
level. The examples used in this book are drawn from a variety of functional areas in the
business world including accounting, finance, operations, and human resources as well as
from sports, politics, science, medicine, and economics. The intention is that this book will
be relevant to students at either the undergraduate or graduate level in a business school as
well as to students studying in other academic areas.
Data Visualization: Exploring and Explaining with Data is written in a style that does
not require advanced knowledge of mathematics or statistics. The first five chapters cover
foundational issues important to constructing good charts. Chapter 1 introduces data visual-
ization and how it fits into the broader area of analytics. A brief history of data visualization
is provided as well as a discussion of the different types of data and examples of a variety of
charts. Chapter 2 provides guidance on selecting an appropriate type of chart based on the
goals of the visualization and the type of data to be visualized. Best practices in chart design,
including discussions of preattentive attributes, Gestalt principles, and the data-ink ratio, are
covered in Chapter 3. Chapter 4 discusses the attributes of color, how to use color effectively,
and some common mistakes in the use of color in data visualization. Chapter 5 covers the im-
portant topic of visualizing and describing variability that occurs in observed values. Chapter
5 introduces the visualization of frequency distributions for categorical and quantitative vari-
ables, measures of location and variability, and confidence intervals and prediction intervals.
Chapters 6 and 7 cover how to explore and explain with data visualization in detail with
examples. Chapter 6 discusses the use of visualization in exploratory data analysis. The ex-
ploration of individual variables as well as the relationship between pairs of variables is con-
sidered. The organization of data to facilitate exploration is discussed as well as the effect of
missing data. The special considerations of visualizing time series data and geospatial data
are also presented. Chapter 7 provides important coverage of how to explain and influence
with data visualization, including knowing your message, understanding the needs of your
audience, and using preattentive attributes to better convey your message. Chapter 8 is a
discussion of how to design and construct data dashboards, collections of data visualizations
used for decision making. Finally, Chapter 9 covers the responsible use of data visualization
to avoid confusing or misleading your audience. Chapter 9 addresses the importance of
understanding your data in order to best convey insights accurately and also discusses how
design choices in a data visualization affect the insights conveyed to the audience.
This textbook can be used by students who have previously taken a basic statistics course
as well as by students who have not had a prior course in statistics. The two most techni-
cal chapters, Chapters 5 (Visualizing Variability) and 6 (Exploring Data Visually), do not
assume a previous course in statistics. All technical concepts are gently introduced. For
students who have had a previous statistics class, the statistical coverage in these chapters
provides a good review within a treatment where the focus is on visualization. The book of-
fers complete coverage for a full course in data visualization, but it can also support a basic
statistics or analytics course. The following table gives our recommendations for chapters to
use to support a variety of courses.
xiv Preface

Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter Chapter

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Intro Chart Type Design Color Variability Exploring Explaining Dashboards Truth

Full Data Visualiza-

tion Course • • • • • • • • •
Data Visualization
Course Focused on • • • • • •
Presentation

Part of a Basic Statis-

tics Course • • • • • •
Part of an Analytics
Course • • • • • •

Features and Pedagogy

The style and format of this textbook are similar to our other textbooks. Some of the specific
features that we use in this textbook are listed here.
●● Data Visualization Makeover: With the exception of Chapter 1, each chapter contains a
Data Visualization Makeover. Each of these vignettes presents a real visualization that
can be improved using the principles discussed in the chapter. We present the original
data visualization and then discuss how it can be improved. The examples are drawn
from many different organizations in a variety of areas including government, retail,
sports, science, politics, and entertainment.
●● Learning Objectives: Each chapter has a list of learning objectives of that chapter. The
list provides details of what students should be able to do and understand once they
have completed the chapter.
●● Software: Because of its widespread use and ease of availability, we have chosen
Microsoft Excel as the software to illustrate the best practices and principles contained
herein. Excel has been thoroughly integrated throughout this textbook. Whenever we
introduce a new type of chart or table, we provide detailed step-by-step instructions
for how to create the chart or table in Excel. Step-by-step instructions for creating
many of the charts and tables from the textbook using Tableau and Power BI are also
available in MindTap.
●● Notes and Comments: At the end of many sections, we provide Notes and Comments
to give the student additional insights about the material presented in that section.
Additionally, margin notes are used throughout the textbook to provide insights and
tips related to the specific material being discussed.
●● End-of-Chapter Problems: Each chapter contains at least 15 problems to help the stu-
dent master the material presented in that chapter. The problems are separated into
Conceptual and Applications problems. Conceptual problems test the student’s under-
standing of concepts presented in the chapter. Applications problems are hands-on and
require the student to construct or edit charts or tables.
●● DATAfiles and CHARTfiles: All data sets used as examples and in end-of-chapter
problems are Excel files designated as DATAfiles and are available for download by
the student. The names of the DATAfiles are called out in margin notes throughout the
textbook. Similarly, some Excel files with completed charts are available for download
and are designated as CHARTfiles.
Preface xv

MindTap
MindTap is a customizable digital course solution that includes an interactive eBook,
auto-graded exercises and problems from the textbook with solutions feedback, interactive
visualization applets with quizzes, chapter overview and problem walk-through videos, and
more! MindTap also includes step-by-step instructions for creating charts and tables from
the textbook in Tableau and Power BI. Contact your Cengage account executive for more
information about MindTap.

Instructor and Student Resources

Additional instructor and student resources for this product are available online. Instructor
assets include an Instructor’s Manual, Educator’s Guide, PowerPoint® slides, a Solutions
and Answers Guide, and a test bank powered by Cognero®. Student assets include data sets.
Sign up or sign in at www.cengage.com to search for and access this product and its online
resources.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
We would like to acknowledge the work of reviewers who have provided comments and
suggestions for improvement of this first edition of this text. Thanks to:
Xiaohui Chang
Oregon State University
Wei Chen
York College of Pennsylvania
Anjee Gorkhali
Susquehanna University
Rita Kumar
Cal Poly Pomona
Barin Nag
Towson University
Andy Olstad
Oregon State University
Vivek Patil
Gonzaga University
Nolan Taylor
Indiana University

We are also indebted to the entire team at Cengage who worked on this title: Senior Prod-
uct Manager, Aaron Arnsparger; Senior Content Manager, Conor Allen; Senior Learning
Designer, Brandon Foltz; Digital Delivery Lead, Mark Hopkinson; Associate Subject-Matter
Expert, Nancy Marchant; Content Program Manager, Jessica Galloway; Content Quality
Assurance Engineer, Douglas Marks; and our Senior Project Manager at MPS Limited,
Anubhav Kaushal, for their editorial counsel and support during the preparation of this text.
The following Technical Content Developers worked on the MindTap content for this
text: Anthony Bacon, Philip Bozarth, Sam Gallagher, Anna Geyer, Matthew Holmes, and
Christopher Kurt. Our thanks to them as well.

Jeffrey D. Camm
James J. Cochran
Michael J. Fry
Jeffrey W. Ohlmann
Chapter 1
Introduction
Contents

1-1 ANALYTICS 1-4 DATA VISUALIZATION IN PRACTICE

Accounting
1-2 WHY VISUALIZE DATA? Finance
Data Visualization for Exploration Human Resource Management
Data Visualization for Explanation Marketing
Operations
Engineering
1-3 TYPES OF DATA Sciences
Quantitative and Categorical Data Sports
Cross-Sectional and Time Series Data
Big Data SUMMARY
GLOSSARY
PROBLEMS

LE A R NI N G O B J E C T I V ES
After completing this chapter, you will be able to

LO 1 D
 efine analytics and describe the different types LO 3 D
 escribe various examples of data visualization
of analytics used in practice

LO 2 D
 escribe the different types of data and give LO 4 Identify the various charts defined in this chapter
an example of each
1-1 Analytics 3

You need a ride to a concert, so you select the Uber app on your phone. You enter the loca-
tion of the concert. Your phone automatically knows your location and the app presents
several options with prices. You select an option and confirm with your driver. You receive
the driver’s name, license plate number, make and model of vehicle, and a photograph of
the driver and the car. A map showing the location of the driver and the time remaining
until arrival is updated in real time.
Without even thinking about it, we continually use data to make decisions in our lives.
How the data are displayed to us has a direct impact on how much effort we must expend
to utilize the data. In the case of Uber, we enter data (our destination) and we are presented
with data (prices) that allow us to make an informed decision. We see the result of our
decision with an indication of the driver’s name, make and model of vehicle, and license
plate number that makes us feel more secure. Rather than simply displaying the time until
arrival, seeing the progress of the car on a map gives us some indication of the driver’s
route. Watching the driver’s progress on the app removes some uncertainty and to some
extent can divert our attention from how long we have been waiting. What data are pre-
sented and how they are presented has an impact on our ability to understand the situation
and make more-informed decisions.
A weather map, an airplane seating chart, the dashboard of your car, a chart of the per-
formance of the Dow Jones Industrial Average, your fitness tracker—all of these involve
the visual display of data. Data visualization is the graphical representation of data and
information using displays such as charts, graphs, and maps. Our ability to process infor-
mation visually is strong. For example, numerical data that have been displayed in a chart,
graph, or map allow us to more easily see relationships between variables in our data set.
Trends, patterns, and the distributions of data are more easily comprehended when data are
displayed visually.
This book is about how to effectively display data to both discover and describe the
information it contains data. We provide best practices in the design of visual displays of
data, the effective use of color, and chart type selection. The goal of this book is to instruct
you how to create effective data visualizations. Through the use of examples (using real
data when possible), this book presents visualization principles and guidelines for gaining
insight from data and conveying an impactful message to the audience.
With the increased use of analytics in business, industry, science, engineering, and
government, data visualization has increased dramatically in importance. We begin with a
discussion of analytics and data visualization’s role in this rapidly growing field.

1-1 Analytics
Analytics is the scientific process of transforming data into insights for making better
decisions.1 Three developments have spurred the explosive growth in the use of analytics
for improving decision making in all facets of our lives, including business, sports, science,
medicine, and government:
●● Incredible amounts of data are produced by technological advances such as point-

of-sale scanner technology; e-commerce and social networks; sensors on all kinds
of mechanical devices such as aircraft engines, automobiles, thermometers, and
farm machinery enabled by the so-called Internet of Things; and personal electronic
devices such as cell phones. Businesses naturally want to use these data to improve
the efficiency and profitability of their operations, better understand their customers,
and price their products more effectively and competitively. Scientists and engineers
use these data to invent new products, improve existing products, and make new
basic discoveries about nature and human behavior.

1
We adopt the definition of analytics developed by the Institute for Operations Research and the Management
Sciences (INFORMS).
4 Chapter 1 Introduction

●● Ongoing research has resulted in numerous methodological developments, including

advances in computational approaches to effectively handle and explore massive
amounts of data as well as faster algorithms for data visualization, machine learning,
optimization, and simulation.
●● The explosion in computing power and storage capability through better computing

hardware, parallel computing, and cloud computing (the remote use of hardware and
software over the internet) enable us to solve larger decision problems more quickly
and more accurately than ever before.
In summary, the availability of massive amounts of data, improvements in analytical meth-
ods, and substantial increases in computing power and storage have enabled the explosive
growth in analytics, data science, and artificial intelligence.
Analytics can involve techniques as simple as reports or as complex as large-scale opti-
mizations and simulations. Analytics is generally grouped into three broad categories of
methods: descriptive, predictive, and prescriptive analytics.
Descriptive analytics is the set of analytical tools that describe what has happened.
This includes techniques such as data queries (requests for information with certain charac-
teristics from a database), reports, descriptive or summary statistics, and data visualization.
Descriptive data mining techniques such as cluster analysis (grouping data points with
similar characteristics) also fall into this category. In general, these techniques summarize
existing data or the output from predictive or prescriptive analyses.
Predictive analytics consists of techniques that use mathematical models constructed
from past data to predict future events or better understand the relationships between vari-
ables. Techniques in this category include regression analysis, time series forecasting,
computer simulation, and predictive data mining. As an example of a predictive model, past
weather data are used to build mathematical models that forecast future weather. Likewise,
past sales data can be used to predict future sales for seasonal products such as snowblow-
ers, winter coats, and bathing suits.
Prescriptive analytics are mathematical or logical models that suggest a decision
or course of action. This category includes mathematical optimization models, decision
analysis, and heuristic or rule-based systems. For example, solutions to supply network
optimization models provide insights into the quantities of a company’s various products
that should be manufactured at each plant, how much should be shipped to each of the
company’s distribution centers, and which distribution center should serve each customer
to minimize cost and meet service constraints.
Data visualization is mission-critical to the success of all three types of analytics. We
discuss this in more detail with examples in the next section.

1-2 Why Visualize Data?

We create data visualizations for two reasons: exploring data and communicating/explaining a
message. Let us discuss these uses of data visualization in more detail, examine the differences
in the two uses, and consider how they relate to the types of analytics previously described.

Data Visualization for Exploration

Data visualization is a powerful tool for exploring data to more easily identify patterns,
recognize anomalies or irregularities in the data, and better understand the relationships
between variables. Our ability to spot these types of characteristics of data is much stronger
and quicker when we look at a visual display of the data rather than a simple listing.
As an example of data visualization for exploration, let us consider the zoo attendance
In chapter 2, we introduce a data shown in Table 1.1 and Figure 1.1. These data on monthly attendance to a zoo can be
variety of different chart types found in the file Zoo. Comparing Table 1.1 and Figure 1.1, observe that the pattern in the data
and how to construct charts
in Excel.
is more detectable in the column chart of Figure 1.1 than in a table of numbers. A column
chart shows numerical data by the height of the column for a variety of categories or time
periods. In the case of Figure 1.1, the time periods are the different months of the year.
 1-2 Why Visualize Data? 5

TABLE 1.1 Zoo Attendance Data

Month Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun
Attendance 5422 4878 6586 6943 7876 17843

Month July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec

Zoo
Attendance 21967 14542 8751 6454 5677 11422

FIGURE 1.1 A Column Chart of Zoo Attendance by Month

Attendance
25000

20000

15000

10000

5000

0
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun July Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec
Month

Our intuition and experience tells us that we would expect zoo attendance to be high-
est in the summer months when many school-aged children are out of school for summer
break. Figure 1.1 confirms this, as the attendance at the zoo is highest in the summer
months of June, July, and August. Furthermore, we see that attendance increases gradually
each month from February through May as the average temperature increases, and atten-
dance gradually decreases each month from September through November as the average
temperature decreases. But why does the zoo attendance in December and January not fol-
low these patterns? It turns out that the zoo has an event known as the “Festival of Lights”
that runs from the end of November through early January. Children are out of school
during the last half of December and early January for the holiday season, and this leads to
increased attendance in the evenings at the zoo despite the colder winter temperatures.
Visual data exploration is an important part of descriptive analytics. Data visualization
can also be used directly to monitor key performance metrics, that is, measure how an
Data dashboards are organization is performing relative to its goals. A data dashboard is a data visualization
discussed in more detail in tool that gives multiple outputs and may update in real time. Just as the dashboard in your
Chapter 8.
car measures the speed, engine temperature, and other important performance data as you
drive, corporate data dashboards measure performance metrics such as sales, inventory
levels, and service levels relative to the goals set by the company. These data dashboards
alert management when performances deviate from goals so that corrective actions can
be taken.
Visual data exploration is also critical for ensuring that model assumptions hold in predictive
and prescriptive analytics. Understanding the data before using that data in modeling builds
trust and can be important in determining and explaining which type of model is appropriate.
6 Chapter 1 Introduction

As an example of the importance of exploring data visually before modeling, we con-

sider two data sets provided by statistician Francis Anscombe.2 Table 1.2 contains these
two data sets, each of which contains 11 X-Y pairs of data. Notice in Table 1.2 that both
data sets have the same average values for X and Y, and both sets of X and Y also have the
same standard deviations. Based on these commonly used summary statistics, these two
data sets are indistinguishable.
Figure 1.2 shows the two data sets visually as scatter charts. A scatter chart is a
graphical presentation of the relationship between two quantitative variables. One variable
is shown on the horizontal axis and the other is shown on the vertical axis. Scatter charts
are used to better understand the relationship between the two variables under consider-
ation. Even though the two different data sets have the same average values and standard
deviations of X and Y, the respective relationships between X and Y are different.
A scatter chart is often One of the most commonly used predictive models is linear regression, which involves
referred to as a scatter plot. finding the best-fitting line to the data. In the graphs in Figure 1.2, we show the best-
fitting lines for each data set. Notice that the lines are the same for each data set. In
fact, the measure of how well the line fits the data (expressed by a statistic labeled R2)
is the same (67% of the variation in the data is explained by the line). Yet, as we can see
because we have graphed the data, in Figure 1.2a, fitting a straight line looks appropriate
for the data set. However, as shown in Figure 1.2b, a line is not appropriate for data set 2.
We will need to find a different, more appropriate mathematical equation for data set 2.
The line shown in Figure 1.2 for data set 2 would likely dramatically overestimate values
of Y for values of X less than 5 or greater than 14.
Hence, before applying predictive and prescriptive analytics, it is always best to visually
explore the data to be used. This helps the analyst avoid misapplying more complex tech-
niques and reduces the risk of poor results.

TABLE 1.2 Two Data Sets from Anscombe

Data Set 1 Data Set 2
X Y X Y
10 8.04 10 9.14
8 6.95 8 8.14
13 7.58 13 8.74
9 8.81 9 8.77
11 8.33 11 9.26
14 9.96 14 8.1
6 7.24 6 6.13
4 4.26 4 3.10
12 10.84 12 9.13
7 4.82 7 7.26
5 5.68 5 4.74
Average 9 7.501 9 7.501
Standard Deviation 3.317 2.032 3.317 2.032

2
Anscombe, F. J., “The Validity of Comparative Experiments,” Journal of the Royal Statistical Society, Vol. 11,
No. 3, 1948, pp. 181–211.
 1-2 Why Visualize Data? 7

FIGURE 1.2 Anscombe’s Data Displayed Graphically

Data Set 1
Y
12

10

4 y = 0.5x + 3.00
R² = 0.67
2

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
X
(a)
Anscombe
Data Set 2
Y
12

10

4 y = 0.5x + 3.00
R² = 0.67
2

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
X
(b)

Data Visualization for Explanation

Data visualization is also important for explaining relationships found in data and for
explaining the results of predictive and prescriptive models. More generally, data visual-
ization is helpful in communicating with your audience and ensuring that your audience
understands and focuses on your intended message.
Let us consider the article, “Check Out the Culture Before a New Job,” which appeared
in The Wall Street Journal.3 The article discusses the importance of finding a good cultural
fit when seeking a new job. Difficulty in understanding a corporate culture or misalignment
with that culture can lead to job dissatisfaction. Figure 1.3 is a re-creation of a bar chart
that appeared in this article. A bar chart shows a summary of categorical data using the
length of horizontal bars to display the magnitude of a quantitative variable.
The chart shown in Figure 1.3 shows the percentage of the 10,002 survey respon-
dents who listed a factor as the most important in seeking a job. Notice that our
attention is drawn to the dark blue bar, which is “Company culture” (the focus of the

3
Lublin, J. S. “Check Out the Culture Before a New Job,” The Wall Street Journal, January 16, 2020.
8 Chapter 1 Introduction

article). We immediately see that only “Salary and bonus” is more frequently cited
than “Company culture.” When you first glance at the chart, the message that is com-
The effective use of color is
municated is that corporate culture is the second most important factor cited by job
discussed in more detail in seekers. And as a reader, based on that message, you then decide whether the article is
Chapter 4. worth reading.

FIGURE 1.3 A Bar Chart of Survey Results of Job Seekers

What matters most to you when deciding which job to take next?

Salary and Bonus 24%

Company Culture 22%

Location 13%

Flexible Schedule 11%

Day-to-day Work 11%

Industry 8%

Job Title 6%

Health Care Benefits 5%

1-3 Types of Data

Different types of charts are more effective than others for certain types of data. For that
reason, let us discuss the different types of data you might encounter.
The Dow Jones Industrial Table 1.3 contains information on the 30 companies that make up the Dow Jones
Average is a stock market
Industrial Index (DJI). The table contains the company name, the stock symbol, the indus-
index. It was created in 1896
by Charles Dow. The 30
try type, the share price, and the volume (number of shares traded). We will use the data
companies that are included in contained in Table 1.3 to facilitate our discussion.
The Dow change periodically
to reflect changes in major
corporations in the United Quantitative and Categorical Data
States.
Quantitative data are data for which numerical values are used to indicate magnitude,
such as how many or how much. Arithmetic operations, such as addition, subtraction,
multiplication, and division, can be performed on quantitative data. For instance,
we can sum the values for Volume in Table 1.3 to calculate a total volume of all
shares traded by companies included in the Dow, because Volume is a quantitative
variable.
Categorical data are data for which categories of like items are identified by labels or
names. Arithmetic operations cannot be performed on categorical data. We can summarize
categorical data by counting the number of observations or computing the proportions of
observations in each category. For instance, the data in the Industry column in Table 1.3
are categorical. We can count the number of companies in the Dow that are, for example,
in the food industry. Table 1.3 shows two companies in the food industry: Coca-Cola and
McDonald’s. However, we cannot perform arithmetic operations directly on the data in the
Industry column.
1-3 Types of Data 9

TABLE 1.3  ata for the Dow Jones Industrial Index Companies
D
(April 3, 2020)
Company Symbol Industry Share Price ($) Volume
Apple Inc. AAPL Technology 241.41 32,470,017
American Express AXP Financial Services 73.6 9,902,194
Boeing BA Manufacturing 124.52 36,489,379
Caterpillar Inc. CAT Manufacturing 114.67 4,803,174
Cisco Systems CSCO Technology 39.06 21,235,157
Chevron CVX Petroleum 75.11 14,317,998
Disney DIS Entertainment 93.88 14,592,062
Goldman Sachs GS Financial Services 146.93 2,773,298
Home Depot, Inc. HD Retailing 178.7 6,762,357
IBM IBM Technology 106.34 3,909,196
Intel Corporation INTC Technology 54.13 23,906,062
Johnson & Johnson JNJ Pharmaceutical 134.17 9,409,033
JPMorgan Chase JPM Financial Services 84.05 20,363,095
Coca-Cola KO Food 43.83 13,294,556
McDonald’s MCD Food 160.33 4,361,094
3M Company MMM Conglomerate 133.79 3,461,642
Merck & Co. MRK Pharmaceutical 76.25 9,181,539
Microsoft MSFT Technology 153.83 41,243,284
Nike NKE Apparel 78.86 8,297,443
Pfizer PFE Pharmaceutical 33.64 30,306,371
Procter & Gamble PG Consumer Goods 115.08 7,520,086
Travelers TRV Financial Services 93.89 1,595,000
UnitedHealth Group UNH Healthcare 229.49 4,356,992
Raytheon UTX Conglomerate 86.01 13,203,254
Visa V Financial Services 151.85 11,649,519
Verizon VZ Telecommunication 54.7 16,304,703
Walgreens WBA Retailing 40.72 6,489,129
Walmart WMT Retailing 119.48 9,390,287
Exxon Mobil XOM Petroleum 39.21 48,094,821

Cross-Sectional and Time Series Data

We distinguish between cross-sectional data and times series data. Cross-sectional data
are collected from several entities at the same or approximately the same point in time. The
data in Table 1.3 are cross-sectional because they describe the 30 companies that comprise
the Dow at the same point in time (April 2020).
Time series data are data collected over several points in time (minutes, hours,
days, months, years, etc.). Graphs of time series data are frequently found in business,
economic, and science publications. Such graphs help analysts understand what hap-
pened in the past, identify trends over time, and project future levels for the time series.
10 Chapter 1 Introduction

For example, the graph of the time series in Figure 1.4 shows the DJI value from January
2010 to April 2020. The graph shows the upward trend of the DJI value from 2010
to 2020, when there was a steep decline in value due to the economic impact of the
COVID-19 pandemic.

Big Data
There is no universally accepted definition of big data. However, probably the most general
definition of big data is any set of data that is too large or too complex to be handled by
standard data-processing techniques using a typical desktop computer. People refer to the
four Vs of big data:
●● volume—the amount of data generated
●● velocity—the speed at which the data are generated
●● variety—the diversity in types and structures of data generated

●● veracity—the reliability of the data generated

Volume and velocity can pose a challenge for processing analytics, including data visual-
ization. Special data management software such as Hadoop and higher capacity hardware
(increased server or cloud computing) may be required. The variety of the data is handled
by converting video, voice, and text data to numerical data, to which we can then apply
standard data visualization techniques.
In summary, the type of data you have will influence the type of graph you should use to
convey your message. The zoo attendance data in Figure 1.1 are time series data. We used
a column chart in Figure 1.1 because the numbers are the total attendance for each month,
and we wanted to compare the attendance by month. The height of the columns allows us
to easily compare attendance by month. Contrast Figure 1.1 with Figure 1.4, which is also
time series data. Here we have the value of the Dow Jones Index. These data are a snapshot
of the current value of the DJI on the first trading day of each month. They provide what is

FIGURE 1.4 Dow Jones Index Values from January 2010 to April 2020

DJI Value
30,000

25,000

20,000

15,000
DJI
10,000

5,000

0
11

13
12
10

20
14

18

19
16
15

17
20

20
20
20

20
20

20

20
20
20

20
1/

1/
1/
1/

1/
1/

1/

1/
1/
1/

1/
1/

1/
1/
1/

1/
1/

1/

1/
1/
1/

1/
 1-4 Data Visualization in Practice 11

How to select an effective essentially a time path of the value, and so we use a line graph to emphasize the continuity
chart type is discussed in more
of time.
detail in Chapter 2.

1-4 Data Visualization in Practice

Data visualization is used to explore and explain data and to guide decision making in
all areas of business and science. Even the most analytically advanced companies such
as Google, Uber, and Amazon rely heavily on data visualization. Consumer goods giant
Procter & Gamble (P&G), the maker of household brands such as Tide, Pampers, Crest,
and Swiffer, has invested heavily in analytics, including data visualization. P&G has
built what it calls the Business Sphere™ in more than 50 of its sites around the world.
The Business Sphere is a conference room with technology for displaying data visual-
izations on its walls. The Business Sphere displays data and information P&G executives
and managers can use to make better-informed decisions. Let us briefly discuss some
ways in which the functional areas of business, engineering, science, and sports use data
visualization.

Accounting
Accounting is a data-driven profession. Accountants prepare financial statements and
examine financial statements for accuracy and conformance to legal regulations and best
practices, including reporting required for tax purposes. Data visualization is a part of
every accountant’s tool kit. Data visualization is used to detect outliers that could be an
indication of a data error or fraud. As an example of data visualization in accounting, let us
consider Benford’s Law.
Benfords Law, also known as the First-Digit Law, gives the expected probability that
the first digit of a reported number takes on the values one through nine, based on many
real-life numerical data sets such as company expense accounts. A column chart displaying
Benford’s Law is shown in Figure 1.5. We have rounded the probabilities to four digits. We
see, for example, that the probability of the first digit being a 1 is 0.3010. The probability
of the first digit being a 2 is 0.1761, and so forth.

FIGURE 1.5 A Column Chart Showing Benford’s Law

Benford’s Law: The Probability of the First Digit

0.3010

0.1761

0.1249
0.0969
0.0792
0.0669 0.0580 0.0512 0.0458

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
First Digit
12 Chapter 1 Introduction

Benford’s Law can be used to detect fraud. If the first digits of numbers in a data set
do not conform to Bedford’s Law, then further investigation of fraud may be warranted.
Consider the accounts payable (money owed the company) for Tucker Software. Figure 1.6
is a clustered column chart (also known as a side-by-side column chart). A clustered
column chart is a column chart that shows multiple variables of interest on the same
chart, with the different variables usually denoted by different colors or shades of a color.
In Figure 1.6, the two variables are Benford’s Law probability and the first digit data for a
random sample of 500 of Tucker’s accounts payable entries. The frequency of occurrence
in the data is used to estimate the probability of the first digit for all of Tucker’s accounts
payable entries. It appears that there are an inordinate number of first digits of 5 and 9 and
a lower than expected number of first digits of 1. These might warrant further investigation
by Tucker’s auditors.

FIGURE 1.6 A Clustered Column Chart Showing Benford’s Law versus

Tucker Software’s Accounts Payable Entries

Benford’s Law versus Tucker Software Accounts Payable

Probability
0.35

0.30 Benford Tucker

0.25

0.20

0.15

0.10

0.05

0.00
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
First Digit

Finance
Like accounting, the area of business known as finance is numerical and data-driven.
Finance is the area of business concerned with investing. Financial analysts, also known
as “quants,” use massive amounts of financial data to decide when to buy and sell certain
stocks, bonds, and other financial instruments. Data visualization is useful in finance for
recognizing trends, assessing risk, and tracking actual versus forecasted values of metrics
of concern.
Yahoo! Finance and other websites allow you to download daily stock price data. As an
example, the file Verizon has five days of stock prices for telecommunications company
We discuss High-Low-Close Verizon Wireless. Each of the five observations includes the date, the high share price for
Stock charts in more detail in
that date, the low share price for that day, and the closing share price for that day. Excel has
Chapter 2.
several charts designed for tracking stock performance with such data. Figure 1.7 displays
1-4 Data Visualization in Practice 13

these data in a high-low-close stock chart, a chart that shows the high value, low value,
and closing value of the price of a share of stock over time. For each date shown, the bar
indicates the range of the stock price per share on that day, and the labelled point on the
bar indicates closing price per share for that day. The chart shows how the closing price is
changing over time and the volatility of the price on each day.

FIGURE 1.7 A High-Low-Close Stock Chart for Verizon Wireless

Verizon Wireless Stock Price per Share Performance

Price per Share ($) Close
59.50

59.00

58.50
58.13
58.00 57.99 57.93

57.50 57.59

57.00
56.82
56.50

56.00

55.50
20-Apr 21-Apr 22-Apr 23-Apr 24-Apr

Human Resource Management

Human resource management (HRM) is the part of an organization that focuses on an orga-
nization’s recruitment, training, and retention of employees. With the increased use of ana-
lytics in business, HRM has become much more data-driven. Indeed, HRM is sometimes
now referred to as “people analytics.” HRM professionals use data and analytical models to
form high-performing teams, monitor productivity and employee performance, and ensure
diversity of the workforce. Data visualization is an important component of HRM, as HRM
professionals use data dashboards to monitor relevant data supporting their goal of having
a high-performing workforce.
A key interest of HRM professionals is employee churn, or turnover in an organiza-
tion’s workforce. When employees leave and others are hired, there is often a loss of pro-
ductivity as positions go unfilled. Also, new employees typically have a training period
and then must gain experience, which means employees will not be fully productive at
the beginning of their tenure with the company. Figure 1.8, a stacked column chart, is an
example of a visual display of employee turnover. It shows gains and losses of employees
by month. A stacked column chart is a column chart that shows part-to-whole compari-
sons, either over time or across categories. Different colors or shades of color are used to
denote the different parts of the whole within a column. In Figure 1.8, gains in employees
(new hires) are represented by positive numbers in darker blue and losses (people leaving
the company) are presented as negative numbers and lighter blue bars. We see that January
and July–October are the months during which the greatest numbers of employees left the
company, and the months with the highest numbers of new hires are April through June.
14 Chapter 1 Introduction

Visualizations like Figure 1.8 can be helpful in better understanding and managing work-
force fluctuations.

FIGURE 1.8 A Stacked Column Chart of Employee Turnover by Month

Number of Employees
60

50 Gains Losses

40

30

20

10

–10

–20

–30
Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Month

Marketing
Marketing is one of the most popular application areas of analytics. Analytics \is used
for optimal pricing, markdown pricing for seasonal goods, and optimal allocation of
marketing budget. Sentiment analysis using text data such as tweets, social networks to
determine influence, and website analytics for understanding website traffic and sales,
are just a few examples of how data visualization can be used to support more effective
marketing.
Let us consider a software company’s website effectiveness. Figure 1.9 shows a funnel
chart of the conversion of website visitors to subscribers and then to renewal customers.
Funnel charts are discussed in A funnel chart is a chart that shows the progression of a numerical variable for various
more detail in Chapter 2.
categories from larger to smaller values. In Figure 1.9, at the top of the funnel, we track
100% of the first-time visitors to the website over some period of time, for example, a
six-month period. The funnel chart shows that of those original visitors, 74% return to
the website one or more times after their initial visit. Sixty-one percent of the first-time
visitors downloaded a 30-day trial version of the software, 47% eventually contacted
support services, 28% purchased a one-year subscription to the software, and 17% even-
tually renewed their subscription. This type of funnel chart can be used to compare the
conversion effectiveness of different website configurations, the use of bots, or changes in
support services.

Operations
Like marketing, analytics is used heavily in managing the operations function of busi-
ness. Operations management is concerned with the management of the production and
Random documents with unrelated
content Scribd suggests to you:
The work of carving and ornamenting the rood-lofts in the parish
churches was constant up to the very eve of the Reformation, and
bequests are very frequently met with in the wills of that period for
this end, and to keep up the rood-lights. At St. Mary-at-Hill, for
instance, in 1496-7 there are a set of accounts headed “costes paid
for the pyntyng of the Roode, with karvyng and odir costes also”; and
amongst the items is “to the karvare for makyng of 3 dyadems—and
for mendyng the Roode, the cross, the Mary and John, the crowne of
thorn, with all other fawtes, Summa 10 shillings”; and yet another
item was for the painting and gilding. Towards these and other
expenses of “setlyng up of the Roode” the parishioners contributed
in a special collection. The legacy for beautifying and completing the
rood at Leverton has already been noticed. To the “Rood” in one
parish church a lady in her will leaves “my heart of gold with a
diamond in the midst.” In 1510, at St. Margaret’s, Westminster, £10
was left “towards making a new rood-loft”; and the work was still
apparently going on in 1516, when another donor left £38 for the
same object. Lastly, in the churchwardens’ accounts of St.
Edmund’s, Salisbury, there are entered expenses for the light kept
burning before the rood; at which place, for example, in 1480 the
candlemaker was specially employed in making “the rood-light.” A
curious entry in the accounts of the parish church of St. Petrock’s,
Exeter, shows how this light at the rood was kept up: “Ordinans
made by the eight men for gathering to the wax silver for the light
kept before the high cross, which says, that every man and his wife
to the wax shall pay yerely one peny, and every hired servant that
takes wages a half peny, and every other persons at Easter, taking
no wages, a farthing.” In some places, as, for example, Cratfield,
there was a “rowell,” or wheel or corona of candles, kept burning on
feast-days before the rood.
The special destruction of the roods of the English churches in the
early stages of the Reformation under Edward VI., and again under
Elizabeth, causes many to think that the reverence shown to this
representation of our Crucified Lord, probably the most prominent
object visible in the churches, was not only excessive, but mistaken
in its kind. If that were so, it must at least be allowed that the
Church’s teaching on the matter was clear and definite. The author
of Dives and Pauper, for example, says that the representations of
the Crucified Christ—
“ben ordeyned to steryn men’s mynds to thinke on Crist’s
Incarnation and on hys passyon and on his levyng ... for
oft man is more sterryed be syght than be heryng or
redyng—also thei ben ordeyned to ben a tokne and a
boke to the lewyd people that thei mon redyn in ymagery
and peyntour that clerkes redyn in boke.”
Then, after describing what thoughts the sight of the crucifix should
bring to the mind of the beholder, Pauper goes on—
“In this manner I pray thee read thy boke and fall down to
the ground and thank thy God that would do so much for
thee, and worship him above all things—not the stock,
stone nor tree, but him that died on the tree for thy sin and
thy sake: so that thou kneel if thou wilt afore the image,
not to the image; do thy worship afore the image, afore the
thing, not to the thing; make thy prayer afore the thing, not
to the thing, for it seeth thee not, heareth thee not,
understandeth thee not. Make thy offering if thou wilt afore
the thing, but not to the thing; make thy pilgrimage not to
the thing nor for the thing, for it may not help thee, but to
him and for him that the thing representeth. For if thou do
it for the thing or to the thing thou doest idolatry.”
We now pass from the chancel to the body of the church. The nave
and aisles—if there were any—were in a special way under the care
of the wardens chosen by the people. There seems to be little doubt
that very generally, although perhaps not universally, the walls of the
parish churches were painted with subjects illustrating Bible history,
the lives of the saints, or the teaching of the sacramental doctrine of
the Church. In the same way, although of course in a lesser degree,
the windows were often filled with glass stained with pictures
conveying the same lessons to the young and the unlettered. These
were, as they were called, “the books of the poor and the illiterate,”
who, by looking at these representations, could learn the story of
God’s dealings with mankind, and could draw encouragement to
strive manfully in God’s service, from the example of the deeds of
God’s chosen servants.
The work of beautifying the parish churches by wall decorations and
painted windows was the delight of the parishioners themselves, for
it all helped to make their churches objects both of beauty and
interest. To take but one example: the church of St. Neots possesses
many stained-glass windows, placed in their present positions
between 1480 and 1530. The inscriptions inserted below the lights
testify that most of them were paid for by individual members of the
parish, but in the case of three it appears that groups of people
joined together to beautify their church. Thus, a Latin label below
one says that “the youths of the parish of St. Neots” erected the
window in 1528; a second says that, the following year, the young
maidens emulated the example of their brothers; and the “mothers”
of the parish finished the third window in 1530.
Besides the high altar in the chancel, there were, from early times,
few churches that did not have one or more, and sometimes many
smaller or side altars. These were dedicated to various saints, and
from the fifteenth century, and even earlier, they were used as
chantries or guild chapels. The priests serving them were supported
by the annuity left by some deceased benefactor to the parish
church, or by a stipend paid by the guild to the priest who acted as
its chaplain, or again by the private generosity of some benefactor.
These chapels were frequently richly decorated, furnished with
hangings, and supplied with their own vestments and altar furniture
by their founders or by the guilds that supported them. To take an
example: In 1471 an indenture or agreement was made between Mr.
William Vowelle, master of the town of Wells, and the two wardens of
our Lady’s altar in St. Cuthbert’s Church, and John Stowell,
freemason, for making the front of the Jesse at the said altar. The
work was to cost £40 (probably more than £500 of our money), and
the mason was to be paid 40s. a week, with £5 to be kept in hand till
the completion of the work. To take another example: at Heydon, in
the East Riding of Yorkshire, the south aisle was dedicated to St.
Catherine, and there is an item of expense in the churchwardens’
accounts showing the existence of a painted altar, an image of the
saint, and a kneeling-desk in front of it.
In the accounts of St. Mary-at-Hill, where there were many such side
chapels, there is an order of the wardens, made in 1518, “that every
priest shall sing with his founder’s vestments, and that their chest is
to be at the altar’s end, next where they sing.” In some of these small
chapels there were statues, before which lights were kept burning by
the devotion of various members, or groups of members, of a parish.
Thus at Henley-on-Thames there were seven chapels and two altars
in the nave, besides the high altar in the chancel. Lights were kept
burning before the rood, the altar of Jesus, and the altar of the Holy
Trinity. In 1482 the warden and the commonalty ordained that the
chaplain in the chapel of the Blessed Virgin Mary say Mass every
day at six o’clock, and the chantry priest of St. Katherine’s chapel at
eight o’clock. In these accounts are entered the receipts and
expenses of the Guild of the Holy Name, and amongst the rest is an
entry “for painting the image of Jesus and gilding it.” The most
curious entry, however, in this book of accounts is that of a gift to
secure the perpetual maintenance of “our Lady’s light.” This was a
set of jewels, given to the churchwardens in 1518 by Lady Jones.
They were apparently very fine, and were to be let out by the
wardens for the use of brides at weddings. The sum charged for the
hire was to be 3s. 4d. for anyone outside the town, and 20d. for any
burgess of Henley. Portions of what is called “the Bridegeer” were let
at lower figures; but in one year the wardens received as much as
46s. 6d. from this source of income. At the Reformation the jewels
were sold for £10 6s. 8d.
The floors of our churches, until late in the fifteenth century, were not
generally so encumbered with pews or sittings, as they became later
on, but were open spaces covered with rushes. The church accounts
show regular expenses for straw, rushes, or, on certain festivals, box
and other green stuff wherewith to cover the pavement. This carpet
was renewed two or three times a year, and one almost shudders to
think of the state of unpleasant dirt revealed on those periodical
cleanings. Some accounts show regular payments made to “the
Raker” on these occasions, whilst the purchase, in 1469, of “three
rat-traps”
for the
church of
St.
Michael’s,
Cornhill,
suggests
that the
rush
covering
must
have
been a
happy
hunting-
ground
for rats,
mice, and
suchlike
vermin. In
some
places,
however,
mats CORONA OF LIGHTS, ST. MARTIN DE TROYES—
were FIFTEENTH CENTURY
provided
by the wardens, as at St. Margaret’s, Westminster, where, in 1538,
4s. 4d. was paid to provide “matts for the parishioners to kneel on
when they reverenced their Maker.” So too, at St. Mary-at-Hill,
London, there was a mat in the confession pew, and others were
provided for the choristers, whilst we read of the expenditure of 4d.
“for three mats of wikirs, boght for prestis and clerkis.”
The provision of fixed seats in parish churches, for the use of the
people generally, was a late introduction. The practice of allowing
seats to be appropriated to individuals was in early days distinctly
discouraged. In 1287, for instance, Bishop Quevil, of Exeter, in his
synodical Constitutions, condemns the practice altogether.
 “We have heard,” he says, “that many quarrels have
arisen amongst members of the same parish, two or three
of whom have laid claim to one seat. For the future, no
one is to claim any sitting in the church as his own, with
the exception of noble people and the patrons of
churches. Whoever first comes to church to pray, let him
take what place he wishes in which to pray.”
This, of course, refers to a few seats or benches, and not to regular
sittings or pews, which were begun to be set up in the English
churches only in the middle of the fifteenth century, and in some not
till late in the sixteenth. At Bramley church, for example, the wardens
did not begin “to seat” the nave before 1538; at Folkestone some
pews were in existence as early as in 1489; in 1477-8 the wardens
of St. Edmund’s parish church, Salisbury, assigned certain seats to
individuals at a yearly rent of 6d.; and even before that time, in 1455,
seats were rented at St. Ewen’s church, Bristol. Apparently, once
introduced, the churchwardens soon found out the advantages of
being able to derive income from the pew or seat rents, especially as
from some of the accounts it is evident that the seats were first made
with money obtained at special collections for the purpose, as at St.
Mary’s the Great, Cambridge, in 1518. In the first instance,
apparently, the seats were assigned only to the women-folk, but the
great convenience was, no doubt, quickly realised by all, and the use
became general after a very short time.
 BACKLESS BENCHES, CAWSTON, NORFOLK
One of the most conspicuous objects in every parish church was its
Font. This stood at the west end of the church, and frequently in a
place set apart as a baptistery. From the thirteenth century it was
ordered, in the Constitutions of St. Edmund of Canterbury, that every
font must be made of stone or some other durable material, and that
it was to be covered and locked, so as to keep the baptismal water
pure, and prevent any one except the priest from meddling with what
had been consecrated on Easter Eve with Holy Oils and with solemn
ceremony. Great care was enjoined on the clergy to keep the
Blessed Sacrament, the Holy Oils, and the baptismal water safe
under lock and key. For, says the gloss on this ordinance in
Lyndwood, keys exist so that things may be kept securely; and he
that is negligent about the keys would appear to be negligent about
what the keys are supposed to guard. By the ordinary law of the
Church a font could only be set up in a parish church; and in the
case of chapels of ease, and other places in a parochial district,
where it was lawful to satisfy other ecclesiastical obligations, for
baptism the child had generally to be brought to the mother church.
The instances in which permission was granted for the erection of
any font in a chapel are very rare, and leave was never given without
the consent of the rector of the parish church. Thus a grant was
 made in
the
fourteenth
century to
Lord
Beaucha
mp to
erect a
font for
baptisms
in his
chapel at
Beaucha
mp,
provided
that the
rector
agreed
that it
would not
harm his
parochial
rights.
FONT, ST. MICHAEL’S, SUTTON BONNINGTON,
NOTTS Leading
into the
church
very generally there was a covered approach, greater or less in size,
called the porch, from the Latin porta, “a door or gate.” This was
usually at the south side of the church, and sometimes it was built in
two stories, the upper one being used as a priest’s chamber, with a
window looking into the church. In some cases this chamber was
used as a safe repository for the parish property and muniments. In
the lower porch, at the side of the church door, was the stoup,
usually in a stone niche, with a basin to contain the Holy Water. With
this people were taught to cross themselves before entering God’s
house, the water being a symbol of the purity of soul with which they
ought to approach the place where His Majesty dwelt. The mutilated
remains
of those
niches,
destroyed
when the
practice
was
forbidden
in the
sixteenth
century,
may still
frequently
be seen
in the
porches
of pre-
Reformati
on
churches.
Sometime
s it would
seem that
there was
attached
to the
water
stoup a
sprinkler
to be HOLY WATER STOUP, WOOTTON COURTNEY,
used for SOMERSET
the
Blessed Water—as, for example, at Wigtoft, a village church near
Boston, in Lincolnshire, where the churchwardens purchased “a
chain of iron with a Holy Water stick at the south door.”
The land round about the church was also in the custody of the
people’s wardens. It was called the Cemetery, from the word
cœmeterium, “a dormitory,” it being in the Christian sense the
sleeping-place of the dead who had died in the Lord. It was likewise
spoken of as the “church-yard,” or under the still more happy
appellation of “God’s acre.” From an early period attempts were
made from time to time to put a stop to the practice of holding fairs in
the cemetery, or to prevent anything being sold in the porches of
churches or in the precincts. Bishops prohibited the practice by
Constitutions, and imposed all manner of spiritual penalties for
disobedience. By the Synod of Exeter, in 1267, Bishop Quevil
ordered that all the cemeteries in his diocese should be enclosed
securely, and that no animal was to be allowed pasturage on the
grass that grew in them, and even the clergy were warned of the
impropriety of permitting their cattle to graze in “the holy places,
which both civil and canon law ordered to be respected.” For this
reason, the bishop continues, “all church cemeteries must be
guarded from all defilement, both because they are holy (in
themselves) and because they are made holy by the relics of the
Saints.”
The reason for this belief in the holy character of cemeteries is set
out clearly in a letter of Bishop Edyndon, in 1348, where he says that
“the Catholic Church spread over the world believes in the
resurrection of the bodies of the dead. These have been
sanctified by the reception of the Sacraments, and are
consequently buried, not in profane places, but in specially
enclosed and consecrated cemeteries, or in churches,
where with due reverence they are kept, like the relics of
the Saints, till the day of the resurrection.”
The trees that grew within the precincts of the cemetery were at
times a fertile cause of dispute between the priest and his people.
Were they the property of the parson or of the parish? And could
they be cut down at the will of either? In the thirteenth century, when
the charge of looking after the churchyards was regarded as
weighing chiefly on the clergy, it was considered that to repair the
church—either chancel or nave—the trees growing in them might be
cut. Otherwise, as they had been planted for the purpose of
protecting the churches from damage by gales, they were to be left
to grow and carry out the end for which they had been placed there.
Archbishop Peckham had previously laid down the law that, although
the duty of keeping the enclosure of the cemetery rested upon the
parishioners, what grew upon holy ground being holy, the clergy had
the right to regard the grass and trees and all that grew in the
cemetery as rightly belonging to them. In cutting anything, however,
the archbishop warned the clergy to remember that these things
were intended to ornament and protect God’s house, and that
nothing should be cut without reason. However the question of the
ownership of the trees growing in churchyards may have been
regarded by the parishioners, there are evidences to show that they
did not hesitate to adorn their burial-places with trees and shrubs
when needed. At St. Mary’s, Stutterton, for instance, in 1487, the
churchwardens purchased seven score of plants from one John
Folle, of Kyrton, and paid for “expenses of settyng of ye plants, 16d.”
The sacred character of consecrated cemeteries was recognized by
the law. Bracton says that “they are free and absolute from all
subjection, as a sacred thing, which is only amongst the goods of
God—whatever is dedicated and consecrated to God with rites and
by the pontiffs, never to return afterward to any private uses.” And
amongst these he names “cemeteries dedicated, whether the dead
are buried therein or not, because if those places have once been
dedicated and consecrated to God, they ought not to be converted
again to human uses.” Indeed, “even if the dead are buried there
without the place having been dedicated or consecrated, it will still
be a sacred place.”
The ceremony by which the mediæval churchyard was consecrated
was performed by the bishop of the diocese, or some other bishop,
by his authority and in his name. The fees were to be paid by the
parish; and the parochial accounts give examples of this expense
having been borne by the wardens. Thus at Yatton, in 1486, the
churchyard was greatly enlarged, and, when the new wall had been
constructed, the bishop came over and consecrated the ground. The
parish entertained him and his ministers at dinner, and paid the
episcopal fee, which was 33s. 4d. One of the expenses of this
ceremony, noted down by the churchwardens, was, “We paid the old
friar that was come to sing for the parish, 8d.”
In the churchyards thus dedicated to God were set up stone crosses
or crucifixes, as a testimony to the faith and the hope in the merits of
Christ’s death, of those who lay there waiting for the resurrection.
The utmost reverence for these sacred places was ever enjoined
upon all. Children, according to Myrc, were to be well instructed on
this point—

“Also wyth-ynn chyrche and seyntwary

Do rygt thus as I the say.
Songe and cry and such fare
For to stynt thou schalt not spare;
Castynge of axtre and eke of ston
Sofere hem there to use non;
Bal and bares and such play
Out of chyrcheyorde put away.”

And the penitent soul was to inquire of itself whether it had done its
duty in ever offering a prayer for the dead when passing through a
cemetery—

“Hast thou I-come by chyrcheyorde

And for ye dead I-prayed no worde?”

In concluding this brief survey of the material parts of pre-

Reformation churches, it is impossible not mentally to contrast the
picture of these sacred places, as revealed in the warden’s
accounts, the church inventories and other documents, with the bare
and unfurnished buildings they became after what Dr. Jessopp has
called “the great pillage.” Even the poorest and most secluded
village sanctuary was in the early times overflowing with wealth and
objects of beauty, which loving hands had gathered to adorn God’s
house, and to make it, as far as their means would allow, the
brightest spot in their little world, and beyond doubt the pride of all
their simple, true hearts. This is no picture of our imagination, but
sober reality, for the details can be all pieced together from the
records which survive. Just as a shattered stained-glass window
may with care be put together again, and may help us to understand
something of what it must have been in the glory of its
completeness, so the fragments of the story of the past, which can
be gathered together after the destruction and decay of the past
centuries, are capable of giving some true, though perhaps poor,
idea of the town and village parish churches in pre-Reformation
days. “There is not a parish church in the Kingdom,” writes a
Venetian traveller of England in 1500,—“there is not a parish church
in the Kingdom so mean as not to possess crucifixes, candlesticks,
censers, patens, and cups of silver.” What is most remarkable about
the documents that have come down to us, and which are mere
chance survivals amid the general wreck, is the consistent story they
tell of the universal and intelligent interest taken by the people of
every parish as a whole in beautifying and supporting their churches.
In a real and true sense, which may be perhaps strange to us in
these later times, the parish church was their church. Their life, as
will be seen in subsequent chapters, really centred round it, and they
one and all were intimately connected with its management. The
building was their care and their pride; the articles of furniture and
plate, the vestments and banners and hangings, all had their own
well-remembered story, and were regarded, as in truth they were, as
the property of every man, woman, and child of the particular village
or district.
 CHAPTER IV
THE PARISH CLERGY
The head of every parish in pre-Reformation days was the priest. He
might be a rector or vicar, according to his position in regard to the
benefice; but in either case he was the resident ecclesiastical head
of the parochial district. The word “parson,” in the sense of a
dignified personage—“the person of the place”—was, in certain
foreign countries, applied in the eleventh century, in its Latin form of
persona, to any one holding the parochial cure of souls. English legal
writers, such as Coke and Blackstone, have stated the civil law
signification of the word as that of any “person” by whom the
property of God, the Patron Saint, the church or parish was held, and
who could sue or be sued at law in respect to this property. In
ecclesiastical language, at any rate in England, according to
Lyndwood, the word “parson” was synonymous with “rector.”
Besides the rector or parson and the vicar, several other classes of
clergy were frequently to be met with in mediæval parishes. Such
were curates, chantry priests, chaplains, stipendiary priests, and
sometimes even deacons and subdeacons. About each of these and
their duties and obligations it will be necessary to speak in turn, but
before doing so something may usefully be said about the clergy
generally, and about their education, obligations, and method of life.
From the earliest times the clerical profession was open to all ranks
and classes of the people. Possibly, and even probably, the English
landlords of the fourteenth or fifteenth centuries were only too glad to
bestow livings, of which they had the right of presentation, upon
younger sons or relations, who had been educated with this end in
view. But in those same centuries there is ample evidence that the
ranks of the clergy were recruited from the middle classes, and even
from the sons of serfs, who had to obtain their overlord’s leave and
pay a fine to him for putting their children to school, and thus taking
them from the land to which they were by birth adscripti, or bound.
Mr. Thorold Rogers has given instances of the exaction of these
fines for sending sons to school. In one example 13s. 4d. was paid
for leave to put an eldest son ad scholas with a view of his taking
orders; in another 5s. was paid, in 1335, for a similar permission for
a younger son. In the diocesan registers, also, episcopal
dispensations de defectu natalium are frequent, and show that a not
inconsiderable number of the English clergy sprang from the class of
“natives” of the soil, or serfs, upon whom the lord of the manor had a
claim. Examples also could be given of a bishop allowing his “native”
(nativus meus) permission to take sacred orders and to hold
ecclesiastical benefices—acts of kindness on the bishops’ part
shown to some promising son of one of the serfs of the episcopal
domains.
The practice of introducing into the body of the clergy even those
sprung from the lower ranks of life was not altogether popular, and
the author of The Vision of Piers Plowman has left a record of the
existing prejudice on the subject. He thinks that “bondmen and
beggars’ children belong to labour, and should serve lords’ sons,”
and that things are much amiss when every cobbler sends “his son
to schole” and “each beggar’s brat” learns his book, “so that
beggar’s brat a Bishop that worthen among the peers of the land
prese to sytten ... and his sire a sowter (cobbler) y-soiled with grees,
his teeth with toyling of leather battered as a saw.”
In 1406 the more liberal spirit of encouraging learning wherever it
was found to exist asserted itself, and by a statute of the English
Parliament of that date it was enacted that “every man or woman, of
what state or condition he be, shall be free to set their son or
daughter to take learning at any school that pleaseth them within the
realm.” That such schools existed in the past in greater numbers
than has been thought likely does not now appear open to doubt.
Besides the teaching to be obtained at the cathedrals, religious
houses, and well-known grammar schools, the foundations of
education were furnished by numerous other smaller places, taught
by priests up and down the country. This is proved by the numbers of
students who came up to the Universities for their higher work at the
age of fourteen or so, after they had been prepared elsewhere, and
the numbers of whom fell off almost to a vanishing point on the
destruction of the religious houses, and the demolition of the smaller
schools, under cover of the Act for dissolving Chantries, etc. In the
Chantry certificates mention is made of numerous parochial schools
taught by priests, who also served the parish in other ways, or by
clerks supported by money left for the purpose of giving free
education. These proofs appear on the face of the certificates, in
order that a plea might be made for their exemption from the
operation of the general dissolution of chantries and guilds; it is
needless to add that the plea had no effect. In some places, too, as
for example at Morpeth and Alnwick and Durham, a second school
of music, called the “song school,” was kept. At the latter place a
chantry was founded in the cathedral for two priests “to pray and to
keep free schools, one of grammar and one of song, in the city of
Durham, for all manner of children that should repair to the said
schools, and also to distribute yearly alms to poor people.” At
Lavenham, in Suffolk, a priest was paid by the parish to “teach the
children of the town” and to act as “secondary” to the curate.
By the will of Archbishop Rotheram, in 1500, the foundation of a
college in his native place was laid. In this will the archbishop, after
saying that he had been born at Rotheram, gives an interesting
biographical note about his early years—
“To this place a teacher of grammar coming, by what
chance, but I believe it was God’s grace that brought him
thither, taught me and other youths, by which others with
me attained to higher (paths of life). Wherefore wishing to
show my gratitude to our Saviour, and to celebrate the
cause of my (success in life), and lest I should seem to be
ungrateful and forgetful of God’s benefits and from
whence I came, I have determined in the first place to
establish there a teacher of grammar to instruct all without
charge.”
Archbishop Rotheram’s case was not singular. Bishop Latimer, in
one of his sermons before Edward VI., gives an account of his early
life.
 “My father,” he says, “was a yeoman, and had no lands of
his own; only he had a farm of three or four pounds by the
year at the uttermost, and hereupon he tilled so much as
kept half a dozen men. He had a walk for a hundred
sheep, and my mother milked thirty kine. He was able and
did find the king a harness and his horse. I remember that
I buckled on his harness when he went to Blackheath
field. He kept me to school, or else I had not been able to
have preached before the King’s majesty now.”
An ordinance of the diocese of Exeter in the synod of Bishop Quevil
seems also to suggest that schools of some kind existed in most
cities and towns. He had always understood, he says, that the
benefice of the “Holy Water bearer” was in the beginning instituted in
order to give poor clerks something to help them to school, “that they
might become more fit and prepared for higher posts.” In this belief
the bishop directs that in all churches, not more than ten miles
distant from the schools of the cities and towns of his diocese, the
“benefices” of the “Holy Water bearers” should always be held by
scholars.
Seager’s Schoole of Virtue, although written in Queen Mary’s reign,
refers, no doubt, to a previous state of things. The author seems to
take for granted that attendance at school is a very common, if not
the ordinary thing, and that it is in the power of most youths to make
their future by study and perseverance.

“Experience doth teche, and shewe to the playne

That many to honour, by learninge attayne
That were of byrthe but simple and bace
Such is the goodness of God’s speciale grace.
For he that to honour by vertue doth ryse
Is doubly happy, and counted more wyse.”

The writer then warns the boys he is addressing to behave

themselves when leaving school. On their way home they would do
well to walk two and two, and “not in heaps, like a swarm of bees.”
Another educator, Old Symon, in his “Lesson of Wysedom for all
maner chyldryn,” urges diligence and plodding upon his pupils, with
a jest as to possible positions to which the student may in time
attain.

“And lerne as faste as thou can,

For our byshop is an old man,
And therfor thou must lerne faste
If thou wilt be byshop when he is past.”

It is unnecessary to pursue the subject of the education of the

parochial clergy further. After his elementary education had been
received in the schools, the student’s preparation for the reception of
Orders was continued and completed at the Universities. The
ordinary course here was lengthy. Grammar, which included Latin
and literature with rhetoric and logic, occupied four years. The
student was then admitted a Bachelor. In the case of clerical
students this was followed by seven years’ training before the
Bachelor’s degree in Theology was bestowed, and only after a
further three years’ study of the Bible, and after the candidate had
lectured at least on some one book of the Scriptures, was he
considered to have earned his degree of Doctor in Theology.
ACOLYTHES
 SACRAMENT OF BAPTISM
The age when the candidate for Orders could be promoted to the
various steps leading to the priesthood was settled by law and
custom. A boy of seven, if he showed signs of having a vocation to
the sacred ministry, might be made a cleric by receiving the tonsure.
In “rare instances” and under special circumstances he might then
receive an ecclesiastical benefice, and so get the wherewith to live
while he was studying to fulfil the duties attached to his office. In the
course of the next seven years the youth could be given the minor
Orders of “doorkeeper,” “lector,” “exorcist,” and “acolyte.” He would
then be at least fourteen years of age, and thus at the time of life at
which in those days students were supposed to begin their
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