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 Fundamentals of Human Resource Management, 8e Instructor’s Manual

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Chapter 1
Managing Human Resources
This chapter provides the introductory foundation for students. Elements include HRM’s role in
organizational success, skills for effective HRM, and how these skills are necessary for all
managers, not just HR managers. The chapter concludes with discussion of careers in HRM,
ethical considerations and an outline for the rest of the chapter.

Chapter Outline
Human Resources and Company Performance
• Human resources are valuable.

Responsibilities of Human Resource Departments

• Human Resource Management (HRM) consists of an organization's "people practices,”
including:
• Policies, practices, and systems that influence employees’ behavior, attitudes,
and performance.
• Who works for the organization and how those people work.
• A variety of functions related to acquiring and managing employees.

Skills of HRM Professionals

• HRM requires human relations skills, including:
• Communicating.
• Negotiating.
• Team development.

• HR professionals also need to:

• Understand the language of business.
• Be a credible with line managers and executives.
• Be strategic partners.

HR Responsibilities of Supervisors

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Fundamentals of Human Resource Management, 8e Instructor’s Manual

• Non-HR managers, such as supervisors, typically have responsibilities related to all HR

functions such as analyzing work, interviewing, training, and writing performance
appraisals.

Ethics in Human Resource Management

• Make consistently ethical decisions.
• Understand and enforce employee rights.

Careers in Human Resource Management

• Careers in HRM may involve specialized work in fields such as recruiting, training, or
compensation.

Learning Objectives
LO 1-1: Define human resource management, and explain how HRM contributes to
organization’s performance.

LO 1-2: Identify the responsibilities of human resource departments.

LO 1-3: Summarize the types of competencies needed for human resource management.

LO 1-4: Explain the role of supervisors in human resource management.

LO 1-5: Discuss ethical issues in human resource management.

LO 1-6: Describe typical careers in human resource management.

Society for Human Resource Management Body of Competency &

Knowledge
This chapter contains content, which may be identified within the following content areas:

• Talent Acquisition & Retention

• Learning & Development
• Total Rewards
• Structure of HR Function
• Business & HR Strategy
• Organizational Effectiveness & Development
• Workforce Management
• Risk Management

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 Fundamentals of Human Resource Management, 8e Instructor’s Manual

Human Resource Certification Institute’s A Guide to the HR Body

of Knowledge
This chapter contains content, which may be identified within the following content areas:

• Business Management & Strategy

• Workforce Planning and Employment
• Human Resource Development
• Compensation and Benefits
• Employee and Labor Relations
• Risk Management

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Fundamentals of Human Resource Management, 8e Instructor’s Manual

Question Guidance to Vignettes and Discussion Questions

Best Practices
HRM Helps Abbott Laboratories Thrive

1. How could a company such as Abbott benefit from sending an employee to school to
study finance or another business subject?

Answer: Students should identify the reduction in training costs while further developing
the employee. Students may also identify the outside knowledge and skill gained, while
potentially improving employee morale and, thus increasing retention.

2. How do you think hiring and training could work hand-in-hand to help a company such
as Abbott meet its business objectives?

Answer: Discussion should consider how training initiatives may be viewed favorably by
potential candidates, and thus lead to both the acceptance of a job offer and retention.

HRM Social
Social Media Tools for HR Professionals

1. Of the social-media applications described here, which, if any, have you already used?
On which, if any, have you observed messages from employers or co-workers?

Answer: Expect many student answers to center around the largest and most popular
social media sites/apps. This is both true for the first and second parts of Question 1.
Consider moving the conversation to tools such as Google Drive, Dropbox, or other
sharing tools that are used for both personal and work projects.

2. Based on the descriptions here and your experiences with social media, briefly describe
one way the use of social media might help you stat or advance your career.

Answer: Students will probably focus on their network and how job postings can be
made and spread very easily. Instructors will want to guide the conversation to targeted
strategies, where students can research a company the same way a company can research
potential applicants.

HR How To
Applying HR Data to Solve Business Problems

1. Review the categories of HR responsibilities (see Table 1.1). For any of the categories
write a question that analytics might be able to answer.

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 Fundamentals of Human Resource Management, 8e Instructor’s Manual

Answer: Responses will vary, but instructors should be sure to help students first
understand HR responsibilities, and then discuss how analytics can help improve those
skills.

2. In light of the tips listed here, how should an HR professional use data to address the
business issue you identified in question 1?

Answer: Students should be able to identify how both statistical and communication
skills are necessary in human resources management.

HR Oops!
Zenefits Runs into Its Own HR Issues

1. What do you think of the description of HR being “essentially pretty boring”? How well
does that statement take into account the competencies Zenefits has defined for HR
professionals?

Answer: Students will respond with their own experiences of being hired, trained,
appraised, or terminated. Instructors should consider flipping this model and have the
students re-do those problem situations with their own answers.

2. Review the competencies in Figure 1.3 and the example behaviors listed in the
accompanying text discussion. Which ones are the areas you would advise Zenefits to
strengthen so it can better meet its internal needs or serve its customers?

Answer: Students should be able to rationalize any or all of the competencies within the
figure. Group work could be a recommended method of instruction or activity.

Did You Know?

Employers’ Reputations Have Value

1. If you were an HR manager, how could you use the survey results to make a business
case for rewarding ethical conduct?

Answer: Students should identify how businesses with a bad reputation could lead to
higher compensation costs to attract and retain employees. Active learning strategies are
strongly recommended here based on personal experience and improving the response of
HR in ethical dilemmas.

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Fundamentals of Human Resource Management, 8e Instructor’s Manual

End of Chapter Questions and Cases

Thinking Ethically
Whom Does the HR Professional Represent?

1. Consider a situation where a new sales associate complains that a top-earning sales
manager has been harassing her. Who would be affected by (a) a decision to fire the sales
manager; and (b) a decision to tell the employee the manager is valuable, and she should
figure out how to handle the situation herself?

Answer: Responses should indicate a consideration as to how both sides’ rights may be
impacted, while also considering the legal and publicity ramifications of either action.

2. What duties does the HR department receiving this complaint have to (a) the sales
associate; (b) the sales manager; (c) the company that employs them?

Answer: In today’s age, instructors should anticipate this to be a hotly debated topic in
the classroom. Students answers should be respectful in considering both parties and how
the process should play itself out. In addition, decisions must incorporate the business
decisions of maintaining profitability. Refer back to the section on reputation of the
business in creating a positive culture.

Review and Discussion Questions

1. How can human resource management contribute to a company’s success? (LO 1-1)

Answer: Human resource management consists of an organization’s “people practices”

such as the policies, practices, and systems that influence employees’ behavior, attitudes,
and performance. HRM influences who works for the organization and how those people
work. These human resources, if well managed, have the potential to be a source of
sustainable competitive advantage, contributing to basic objectives like quality, profits,
and customer satisfaction.

2. Imagine that a small manufacturing company decides to invest in a materials resource

planning (MRP) system. This is a computerized information system that improves
efficiency by automating such work as planning needs for resources, ordering materials,
and scheduling work on the shop floor. The company hopes that with the new MRP
system, it can grow by quickly and efficiently processing small orders for a variety of
products. Which of the human resource functions are likely to be affected by this change?
How can human resource management help the organization carry out this change
successfully? (LO 1-2)

Answer: The sort of change described in the question above would most likely affect, to
some degree, all nine of the functions of human resource management. The analysis and
design of work would need to be considered in a decidedly different manner than it was
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 Fundamentals of Human Resource Management, 8e Instructor’s Manual

before the newly implemented automated process, as the “job” itself would be changed
under the new system. Recruitment and selection as well as training and development
would require adjustment to secure those individuals with the necessary skills,
knowledge, and abilities to perform at expected levels under the new system.
Performance management, the process of ensuring employees’ activities and outputs
match the organization’s goals, would need reevaluation due to the changes created by
the new process. Compensation would require adjustment because of the changes caused
by the automation. Employee relations and human resource planning to support the
organizational strategy would require adjustment to bring harmony and balance back into
the workplace as individuals are noted to fear and resist new changes.

Human resource management can help the organization successfully carry out this
change by combining its knowledge of human behavior with performance management
tools in order to assist the organization in constructively managing the change process.

3. What competencies are important for success in human resource management? Which of
these competencies are already strengths of yours? Which would you like to develop?
(LO 1-3)

Answer: Human resource management requires substantial human relations skills,

including skill in communicating, negotiating, and promoting team development. Human
resource professionals also need decision-making skills based on knowledge of the HR
field as well as the organization’s line of business. Leadership skills are necessary,
especially for managing conflict and change. Technical skills of human resource
professionals include knowledge of current techniques, applicable laws, and computer
systems.

The student responses will vary as to which skills are their current strengths and which
skills they would like to develop further.

4. Traditionally, human resource management practices were developed and administered

by the company’s human resource department. Line managers now play a major role in
developing and implementing HRM practices. Why do you think non-HR managers are
becoming more involved? (LO 1-4)

Answer: As the relationship between various HRM practices and the productivity and
performance of employees has been recognized, line managers have strong reasons to
become involved in the development and implementation of HRM practices. The
information from line managers is critical to determine needed and appropriate policies
and practices that will reinforce the strategic and operational needs of the organization.
For instance, if quality needs improvement, then it is critical that incentive/compensation
practices be developed to reward quality improvement rather than volume production.

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Fundamentals of Human Resource Management, 8e Instructor’s Manual

5. If you were to start a business, what aspects of human resource management would you
want to entrust to specialists? Why? (LO 1-3)

Answer: Human resource specialists most often possess certain areas of expertise, such
as recruitment, training, and labor relations. Human resource generalists usually perform
the full range of HRM activities, such as recruitment, training, compensation, and
employee relations. The cost difference associated with hiring a specialist or a generalist
would need to be considered, as this is a newly established company. A full picture of
organizational size, objectives, financial standing, as well as organizational need would
need to be examined prior to selecting either a specialist or a generalist to guide the HR
process.

The responses provided by the students will vary depending upon their personal
viewpoints. However, each response provided should discuss rationales for why such a
decision was made.

6. Why do all managers and supervisors need knowledge and skills related to human
resource management? (LO 1-4)

Answer: Although many organizations have human resource departments, non-HR

managers must be familiar with the basics of HRM and their own role regarding
managing human resources. Supervisors typically have responsibilities related to all HR
functions. Supervisors help analyze work, interview job candidates, participate in
selection decisions, provide training, conduct performance appraisals, and recommend
pay increases. On a day-by-day basis, supervisors represent the company to their
employees, so they also play an important role in employee relations.

7. Federal law requires that employers not discriminate based on a person’s race, sex,
national origin, or age over 40. Is this also an ethical requirement? A competitive
requirement? Explain. (LO 1-5)

Answer: Ethics refers to the fundamental principles of right and wrong. Ethical behavior
is behavior that is consistent with those principles. It is imperative for organizations to
adhere to current laws and regulations. This is indicative of ethical organizational
behavior. The way an organization conducts its business can affect the way in which
others such as customers, government agencies, and vendors perceive that organization.
While operating ethically is not a competitive requirement, remember that individuals
most often prefer to deal with organizations they feel they can trust. So in essence,
operating in an ethical/unethical manner may greatly impact an organization’s
competitiveness.

8. When a restaurant employee slipped on spilled soup and fell, requiring the evening off to
recover, the owner realized that workplace safety was an issue to which she had not
devoted much time. A friend warned the owner that if she started creating a lot of safety
rules and procedures, she would lose her focus on customers and might jeopardize the
future of the restaurant. The safety problem is beginning to feel like an ethical dilemma.

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 Fundamentals of Human Resource Management, 8e Instructor’s Manual

Suggest some ways the restaurant owner might address this dilemma. What aspects of
human resource management are involved? (LO 1-5)

Answer: Safety for workers as well as for customers is vital for every organization
regardless of its size. Accidents can prove to be an exorbitant cost for businesses. The
restaurant owner may address this dilemma by gaining knowledge on the value of safety
training. By viewing implementation of safety training as an enhancement, the owner
may conquer any of her fears.

In actuality, all nine areas of human resource management functions could potentially be
involved in or affected by the creation of a safety-training program. Of course, the
training and development function would sustain an immediate and more recognized
effect.

9. A friend hears you are taking this course and mentions an interest in an HRM career.
Based on this chapter’s description, what advice would you give your friend? (LO 1-6)

Answer: Individual students will provide a wide variety of responses to this topic.
Answers should represent an understanding of each content area in this chapter.

Taking Responsibility
Why Good Things Happen at Costco

1. In what ways does Costco meet the criteria for a "sustainable" organization?

Answer: The company clearly cares about a workforce that is engaged and retained. This
adds to their sustainability because they do not have to spend as much on recruitment
costs. They have employees who feel valued and that translates into productivity and
customer satisfaction.

2. What would you describe as Costco’s basic strategy as a retailer? How do its human
resource practices support that strategy?

Answer: Their basic strategy is to be a low-cost provider. They keep their HR costs low
by having less turnover and lower residual training costs, which is tied to the low
turnover, even though their pay rates are competitive. They also have higher productivity
so they are getting a great ROI for their higher hourly wage and benefits.

Managing Talent
Old Navy’s Talent Strategy Fills in Some Gaps

1. In your own words, briefly summarize the business problem facing The Gap and the
effectiveness of This Way Ahead as a solution to the problem.

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Fundamentals of Human Resource Management, 8e Instructor’s Manual

Answer: Students answers should focus on the skill deficits facing many of the workers
that would typically find jobs or start careers in the retail industry. TWA is meant to
provide incentives on a number of fronts. Not only is Old Navy creating a demand to
work at their stores, but they are also investing in workers who are more enthusiastic and
have the potential to grow inside of Old Navy.

2. Suggest one or two ways Old Navy’s HR department could use data to measure the
success of This Way Ahead in providing a source of talent. That is, what measure would
indicate success?

Answer: Data could be analyzed to investigate any potential reductions in employee

turnover as well as new workers to the Old Navy brand. Focusing on store-by-store, or
regional results on entry-level employees is the key metric.

HR in Small Business
Network Is the Key to HRM at 1Collision

1. Give examples of 1Collision’s HRM professionals providing the competencies of (a) HR

expertise and (b) critical evaluation.

Answer: Students may identify the HR expertise as the recruitment support, and the
evaluation regarding training requirements.

2. How might HRM support from the 1Collision Network make an auto body shop more
competitive than if it relied on the shop manager to handle human resource management?
In other words, how might this support contribute to business success?

Answer: Responses may vary, but should identify the ability to gain HRM expertise at a
relatively lower time and money cost than if the shop manager just handled all the HRM
aspects.

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 Fundamentals of Human Resource Management, 8e Instructor’s Manual

Recommended Connect Activities

HRM Matters to Everyone
Learning Objective: 01-03 Summarize the types of competencies needed for human resource
management
Activity Summary: This case analysis involves the changing role of the HR department over
time and the addition of increased responsibility and decision making.
Follow-Up Activity: Active and collaborative learning exercises are recommended for this
application exercise. One example would be for small groups to diagram the different
organizational structures for HR as time has progressed. In addition, students can then delegate
the different HR responsibilities of each employee as the company has evolved.

Ethical Concerns in Human Resources

Learning Objective: 01-05 Discuss ethical issues in human resource management.
Activity Summary: This worksheet includes matching of real-world issues to the ethical
concerns highlighted in the text.
Follow-Up Activity: Activities for this application exercise could include any number of topics.
Use the multiple-choice questions as a pre- and post-assessment so that students understand each
of the ethical dilemmas outlined in the text. After the pre-assessment is complete, have
individuals or groups document previous examples in their own careers when an ethical concern
arose. Students could then categorize those examples as one of the main ethical concern areas as
outlined in the activity.

Supervising Employees Who Work from Home

Learning Objective: 01-04 Explain the role of supervisors in human resource management.
Activity Summary: Technological improvements can influence policies and practices in human
resource management, as well as in the overall organization. Although there are many benefits of
using technology in the workplace, there are also challenges. This video case presents some of
those for telecommuters.
Follow-Up Activity: Have students "flip" the classroom and present on the processes
organizations use for considering, implementing, and supervising telecommuting employees. The
answers do not need to include great depth but should focus on recognition and examples of the
necessary steps.

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Fundamentals of Human Resource Management, 8e Instructor’s Manual

HRM Practices
Learning Objective: 01-03 Summarize the types of competencies needed for human resource
management.
Activity Summary: Today is it not enough for an HR professional to know only how to perform
tasks specific to human resources management. HR professionals must be proficient in the nine
categories of HR success competencies clustered into four areas: technical, interpersonal,
business, and leadership.
Follow-Up Activity: This matching exercise plays a more foundational role in a student’s ability
to understand the role of HR in the current landscape. Ask students to complete this worksheet
when class begins and then have them retake it at the end of the class meeting (the same could be
done in an online environment). Use the results to guide your teaching to the needs/weaknesses
of your students on a real-time basis, which will increase the chances of retention.

CHRO Conversations: Tracy Keogh, HP, Inc.

Learning Objective: 01-02 Identify the responsibilities of human resource departments.
Activity Summary: The video case and multiple-choice questions that follow will push students
to apply previously learned information to corporate-level strategy.
Follow-Up Activity: Students should understand the role that HR takes in managing an
environment that has the necessary tools and structure to lead an organization to a highly
competitive market position. Active learning strategies could include having students research
their own employers or find "best HR practices" and then apply course content to these
scenarios.

01-12
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 Fundamentals of Human Resource Management, 8e Instructor’s Manual

Classroom Exercises
Students may benefit from exercises that illustrate the concepts of the chapter. Use these along
with CONNECT activities.

1. Understanding of HRM and the textbook

Instructors may engage students in a general discussion meant to support the

understanding of HRM. Instructors may have students review Figures 1.1 and 1.2, and
then discuss Review and Discussion question #1. Instructors may then direct students to
Table 1.3 to see the outline of the book and answer any questions they may have
concerning the content.

2. The Role of HRM

Students may be asked to discuss and identify HRM’s role within organizations. Review
and Discussion questions #5 may be used to begin the discussion. Then instructors may
ask students to respond to the Taking Responsibility question #2. While responding to
question #2, the instructor may ask students to reflect on their responses to the Review
and Discussion question and ask whether their initial responses have now changed.

3. Competencies for Careers

Instructors may facilitate a discussion for students to discuss the competencies necessary
for strong managers. Review and Discussion questions #3 and #4 may be asked to begin
the discussion. Then, Review and Discussion question #6 may be asked as a follow-up,
with students then reflecting on their responses to questions #3 and #4.

4. HRM Career Considerations

Instructors may wish to have students identify components in Chapter 1 within both the
Society for Human Resource Management Body of Competency & Knowledge and the
Human Resource Certification Institute’s A Guide to the HR Body of Knowledge.
Discussion could be focused on how these chapter concepts are important to the
development of their careers and potential certification.

5. Vignette Discussions

Any of the vignettes (see above) may be employed for classroom discussion. Students
could be asked to respond as individuals or placed into groups for discussion. Individuals
and/or groups may then be asked to defend their responses and rationale when comparing
and contrasting other responses.

01-13
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Other documents randomly have
different content
[Contents]

The Festivals.

“The feasts of the Lord, even holy convocations, which ye shall

proclaim in their seasons” (Lev. xxiii. 4), are Passover, Feast of
Weeks, Day of Memorial, Day of Atonement, and Feast of
Tabernacles. These are divided into two groups called ‫‏שלוש רגלים‬‎
and ‫‏ימים נוראים‬‎, “three festivals” and “solemn days.” In the
Pentateuch the two groups are kept distinctly asunder. Thus in Exod.
xxiii. 14–17 and xxxiv. 18, and Deut. xvi., only the former group is
mentioned.

The name shalosh regalim derives its origin from the following
Biblical passage: “Three times thou shalt keep a feast unto me in the
year,” ‫‏שלש רגלים תחג לי בשנה‬‎(Exod. xxiii. 14). Although in a
parallel passage the word ‫‏רגלים‬has been replaced by ‫‏פעמים‬‎(ibid.
ver. 17), of the same meaning, “times,” shalosh regalim has been
preferred, because ‫‏רגלים‬‎reminds one also of “a journey on foot,” “a
pilgrimage,” an important element in the celebration of these three
festivals, according to the Divine commandment, “Three times every
year shall thy males appear before the Lord thy God, in the place
which he shall choose, in the feast of unleavened bread, in the feast
of weeks, and in the feast of tabernacles” (Deut. xvi. 16).

The name yamim noraim for the remaining two feasts is not founded
on a Biblical phrase, but on the fact that these festivals are devoted
more than the rest to earnest reflection and solemn devotion. [369]
I. The Three Festivals (‫‏שלש רגלים‬‎).

The three festivals have the following three characteristics in

common:—

1. They refer to important events in our national history; viz.,

Passover to the deliverance of the Israelites from Egyptian bondage;
Feast of Weeks to the Revelation on Mount Sinai; and Tabernacles to
the travels of the Israelites through the Arabian desert.

2. They mark the various stages of the harvest; viz., Passover marks
the season of the early harvest, Feast of Weeks the second harvest,
and the Feast of Tabernacles the ingathering of the fruit.

3. They serve as a means for imparting essential religious truths;

viz., Passover embodies the principle of the Existence of God, the
Feast of Weeks that of Revelation, and the Feast of Tabernacles that
of Divine Providence.

The Distinguished Sabbaths (‫‏ד׳ פרשיות‬‎). 56

There are in the months Adar and Nisan four Sabbaths distinguished
by the circumstance that on them additional sections are read from
the Pentateuch and special lessons from the Prophets. Two of them
are connected with the celebration of Passover.

1. ‫‏שבת שקלים‬‎“Sabbath of the shekels;” i.e., on which the law

concerning the half-shekel contribution is read from the Pentateuch
(Exod. xxx. 11–16), and also the account of the gifts for the repair of
the Temple in the reign of King Joash (2 Kings xii. [370]1–17). Every
male Israelite, twenty years old or upward, had to contribute
annually one half-shekel towards the maintenance of the Temple and
the Temple Service. The year commenced the 1st of Nisan, when
public sacrifices had to be bought with money of the new
contributions. 57 Every one was therefore expected to send his
contribution before the 1st of Nisan. On the 1st of Adar
proclamations were made throughout the country that the half-
shekel was due. 58 Hence the custom to read the above-named
sections on the Sabbath before the 1st of Adar, or on the 1st, if this
happens to be on a Sabbath.

2. ‫‏שבת זכור‬‎“Sabbath Remember” is the Sabbath on which the

paragraph concerning the enmity of Amalek is read from the
Pentateuch (Deut. xxv. 17–19), and the defeat of Amalek by King
Saul from the Prophets (I Sam. xv.). The Agagite Haman, one of the
principal figures in the history of Purim, is believed to be a
descendant of Agag, king of Amalek (ibid. ver. 8). And as the Law
commands us to remember the hostilities of Amalek against Israel, it
has been found appropriate to read the above sections on the
Sabbath before Purim.

3. ‫‏שבת פרה‬‎“The Sabbath of the Red Heifer,” i.e., the Sabbath on

which the law concerning the sacrifice of the red heifer and the
purification with its ashes is read from the Pentateuch (Num. xix.),
and “the future purification of Israel” (Ezek. xxxvi. 17–38) from the
Prophets. It is the Sabbath after Purim, or, when the 15th or 16th of
Adar falls on Saturday, the second Sabbath after Purim. All Israelites
had [371]to come to the Temple, and to offer the Passover-lamb on
the 14th of Nisan, and this could not be done by any unclean
person. By the reading of the above sections, all are, as it were,
reminded to take the necessary steps for their purification, and thus
prepare themselves for the celebration of Passover.

4. ‫‏שבת החדש‬‎“The Sabbath of ha-chodesh,” i.e., the Sabbath

before the 1st of Nisan, or on the 1st of Nisan if it falls on a
Saturday, on which the law that fixes Nisan as the first month 59 and
the commandment concerning Passover are read from the
Pentateuch (Exod. xii. 1–20), and the description of the sacrifices of
the 1st of Nisan, Passover, and other Festivals in the future Temple
from the Prophets (Ezek. xlv. 16–xlvi. 18).

In addition to these four Sabbaths, the Sabbath preceding Passover

is to be mentioned. It is not distinguished by any special lesson from
the Pentateuch, but it has nevertheless received the title “the Great
Sabbath,” ‫‏שבת הגדול‬‎60 on account of the importance of [372]the
approaching Festival. The last part of Malachi (iii. 4–24) is read as
the haphtarah of the day, in which the ultimate triumph of the God-
fearing is described by the Prophet.

‫‏פסח‬Passover.

Passover is the first of the Three Feasts, and is kept eight days, from
the 15th of Nisan to the 22nd; the four middle days being half-Holy-
days, called chol ha-moëd (“the week-days of the festival”).

The name Pesach, “Passover,” 61 reminds us of the way in which the

Israelites enjoyed the Divine protection before they left Egypt.
Pharaoh, king of Egypt, kept the Israelites as slaves, and when
asked in the name of God to let them go, refused to obey. But the
ten plagues which consecutively afflicted his land without causing
injury to the Israelites taught [373]him the existence of a higher
Power, to whose decrees the will of earthly rulers has to submit. It
was especially the tenth plague, the slaying of the first-born, that
convinced the king and his people of this truth. When the Lord
smote all the first-born in the land of Egypt, “he passed over the
houses of the children of Israel” (Exod. xii. 27).

The Feast has a second name, viz., “feast of unleavened bread,” ‫‏חג‬
‫המצות‬‎, a name derived from the commandment to eat ‫‏מצה‬‎
“unleavened bread,” instead of the ordinary ‫‏חמץ‬‎“leavened bread,”
during the Festival. The purpose of this commandment is to
commemorate the deliverance of the Israelites from Egypt as well as
the mode of their actual departure. For when the tenth plague, the
slaying of the first-born, had visited the Egyptians, they were
overcome with fear, and urged the Israelites at once to leave the
country. The Israelites therefore left Egypt hurriedly, [374]and had no
time for preparing the ordinary “leavened bread,” and baked for
themselves unleavened cakes (‫‏מצות‬‎) of the dough which they had
made.

Passover thus commemorates two distinct moments in the

deliverance of the Israelites from Egyptian slavery, viz. (1) the
special protection which the Almighty granted them in Egypt, and (2)
their departure from the house of bondage.

Two distinct observances, therefore, were ordained for the Feast of

Passover, viz. (1) the sacrifice of the Passover-lamb, and (2) the
eating of “unleavened bread” and the abstaining from “leavened
bread.”

1. The Passover-lamb.—A short time before their departure from

Egypt the Israelites were commanded by the Almighty that on the
tenth of the first month every family should procure a lamb, keep it
four days, 62 kill it in the afternoon of the fourteenth, sprinkle of its
blood on the “lintel and the two door-posts,” and “eat in the evening
the meat roast in fire, with unleavened bread and bitter herbs, in
haste, their loins girded, their shoes on their feet and their staff in
their hand” (Exod. xii. 3–11). Whatever the material benefit was
which the Israelites, in the moment of starting for a long and
uncertain journey, derived from the meal prepared and partaken of
in this manner, there was a higher purpose in the Divine
commandment; it was [375]demanded that the lamb should be “a
passover sacrifice unto the Lord” (ibid.). The proceedings should be
an expression of faith in God, 63 and of gratitude to Him for His
protection. Every house should thus form a place holy unto the Lord;
an altar, as it were, on which the blood of the sacrifice was
sprinkled.

The Passover sacrifice first observed in Egypt was afterwards

ordained as a permanent institution (ibid. ver. 24). This difference,
however, was observed, that the Passover-lamb, like all sacrifices,
had to be brought to the Sanctuary, to “the place which the Lord
chose to place his name in” (Deut. xvi. 6). All who were prevented
from performing their duty on the 14th of Nisan were allowed to
offer the Passover on the 14th of the second month (Iyar). By way
of distinction from the sacrifice on the first date, this offering was
called “the second passover” (‫‏פסח שני‬‎, 64 Num. ix. 9–14). Since the
destruction of the Temple all sacrificial service has been
discontinued, and in accordance with the words, “We will
compensate with our lips for the bullocks” (Hos. xiv. 3), prayers and
recitals from [376]the Bible have taken the place of sacrifices, whilst
psalms and hymns are added such as used to accompany the act of
offering sacrifices. The Passover sacrifice has therefore been
discontinued; but the law of eating unleavened bread and bitter
herbs is still observed.

2. The Unleavened Bread.—“Seven days shall ye eat unleavened

bread; even the first day ye shall have put away leaven out of your
houses: for whosoever eateth leavened bread from the first day until
the seventh day, that soul shall be cut off from Israel” (Exod. xii.
15). “Unleavened bread shall be eaten seven days; and there shall
no leavened bread be seen with thee, neither shall there be leaven
seen with thee in all thy quarters” (ibid. xiii. 7). “Seven days shall
there no leaven be found in your houses” (ibid. xii. 19). The
distinction between leavened and unleavened only applies to bread
or any other form of food prepared out of any of the following five
kinds of grain: barley, wheat, rye, oats, and spelt. Bread or cake
prepared from any of these five kinds is called unleavened bread, or
‫‏מצה‬‎, if the dough is baked immediately after it has been prepared,
no time being left for fermentation. 65 It is not only forbidden during
the [377]Festival to eat leavened bread, but it is not permitted to
derive any benefit whatsoever from it. 66 All leaven and leavened
bread must be removed before Passover comes in; and in
accordance with the traditional interpretation of the precept, “Thou
shalt not offer the blood of my sacrifice with leavened bread” (ibid.
xxiii. 18), the leaven must be removed before the time in which the
Passover was offered. 67

The law forbidding ‫‏חמץ‬‎“leavened bread,” to be kept in the house

during Passover is frequently and most emphatically repeated in the
Torah. Jews have therefore, as a rule, been very conscientious and
zealous in the fulfilment of this Divine command. In accordance with
this law, the following observances have been ordained:—

(1.) ‫‏בדיקת חמץ‬‎“the searching for leavened bread” on the eve of the
14th of Nisan. 68 The head of the family, or his deputy, examines his
residence thoroughly, and keeps the chamets, which he has found,
in a safe place till the next morning. This searching, like every other
performance of a religious duty, is preceded by a blessing, viz., ‫‏ברוך‬
‫… אשר קדשנו במצותיו וצונו על ביעור חמץ‬‎“Blessed art thou … who
hast sanctified us by thy [378]commandments, and hast commanded
us concerning the removal of the leavened bread.” 69

(2.) ‫‏ביעור חמץ‬‎, “the removal or the destruction of chamets.” All the
chamets that is left after the first meal on the 14th of Nisan must be
removed, i.e., sold or given as a present to a non-Israelite, or
destroyed. In addition to the actual removal or destruction of
chamets, a solemn declaration is made by the head of the family,
that if any chamets should be left in his house without his
knowledge, he would not claim it as his. The object of this
declaration is to free the master of the house from all responsibility
in case any chamets should be found on his premises, contrary to
the Law. 70

(3.) Utensils which have been used for chamets are put away, and
replaced by new ones, or by such as have exclusively been kept for
Passover. Some vessels used during the year may be used for
Passover, after having undergone a certain process called kasher; 71
i.e., “fitting” them as vessels for use on Passover. [379]

(4.) Although the articles of food that are directly forbidden as

chamets are very few, there are a great many things that contain an
admixture of chamets, and those “who fear the word of the Lord”
use during Passover only those articles of food concerning which
there is no doubt whatever that they are perfectly free from
chamets. Articles of food for Passover are therefore only bought of
persons who can be trusted to hold these observances in respect.

In addition to the commandments of the Passover-offering and the

unleavened bread, there is a special duty, mentioned four times in
the Pentateuch, for the Israelite to relate to his children the history
of the departure from Egypt, and to explain to them the meaning of
the several rites connected with the celebration of Passover. This
duty is called haggadah, “relating,” and a service has been arranged
for the purpose, called Seder, “the Order.” The first two evenings of
Passover are therefore called “Seder-evenings,” and the book which
contains this Service is generally called Haggadah.

The Seder-service contains four elements: (1) the relation of the

deliverance of the Israelites from Egypt; (2) the festive meal,
preceded by Kiddush and the partaking of bitter herbs and
unleavened bread, and followed by Grace; (3) Hallel and other
hymns; (4) the partaking of four cups of wine (arba kosoth). 72 [380]

The head of the family or his substitute who reads the Service has
before him on the table: (1) three unleavened cakes (matsoth); 73 (2)
bitter herbs and [381]other vegetables; 74 (3) salt water, in which the
vegetables (karpas) are dipped before they are eaten, and
charoseth, a mixture of apples, almonds, various spices, especially
cinnamon, and wine, in which mixture the bitter herbs are dipped; 75
(4) a bone with some meat on it and an egg, 76 both roasted.

The order of the Service is indicated in most [382]editions of the

Haggadah in rhymed Hebrew as follows:—

.‎‫ מוציא מָצה‬. ‫ מגיד רַחץ‬. ‫ כרפס יַחץ‬. ‫‏קדש ורַחץ‬

‎‫ הלל נרָצה׃‬. ‫ צפון בֵר ְך‬. ‫ מרור כֵר ְך‬. ‫‏שלחן עֵר ְך‬

The following is the explanation of these lines:—

1. ‫‏קדש‬‎Say Kiddush. See above, page 379.

2. ‫‏רחץ‬‎“Wash,” scil., your hands.—Only the head of the family does

so at this part of the Service. 77

3. ‫‏כרפס‬‎“Vegetables.” A piece of parsley or salad or bitter herb is

dipped in salt water, and eaten after the recitation of the blessing:
‫‏ברוך … בורא פרי האדמה‬‎“Blessed art thou … who hast created the
fruit of the ground.” 78

4. ‫‏יחץ‬‎“He divides.” Of the three matsoth before him, the head of the
family breaks the middle one, part of which is laid aside, to be eaten
at the end of the meal. 79

5. ‫‏מגיד‬‎“Relating,” 80 scil., the history of the departure [383]from

Egypt. The reader, pointing to the broken ‫‏מצה‬‎before him, exclaims,
“Such was the bread of poverty which our forefathers ate in the land
of Egypt;” as if to say, “We are all alike descendants of those who
ate the bread of poverty in Egypt.” In the same sense, the reader
continues, “We all alike should rejoice in the kindnesses shown by
the Almighty to our nation, and all alike should seek and find true
comfort in the hope of the Messianic blessing promised by Him for
the future.” 81 One of the company, usually the youngest, puts to the
reader four questions, as formulated in the paragraph beginning ‫‏מה‬
‫נשתנה‬‎“Why is different?” 82 Additions and alterations may, of
course, be made by the inquirer according to his knowledge and
intellect. The object of these questions is to obtain an explanation of
the rites that distinguish this evening from others. In answer to
these questions, the reader refers to the past history of Israel in
three different forms, 83 viz.:—

(1.) The first answer begins, ‫‏עבדים היינו‬‎, “We were [384]slaves;” and
ends, ‫‏בשעה שיש מצה ומרור מונחים לפניך‬‎“When unleavened bread
and bitter herbs lie before thee.” Here the reader restricts himself,
without any comment, to the one fact that our forefathers were at
first slaves in Egypt, and were then delivered, and illustrates the
duty of speaking that night more fully concerning the departure from
Egypt, by precedent, by the authority of the Mishnah, and by the
Midrashic interpretation of the law commanding us to tell our
children this event.

(2.) The second form of the answer begins, ‫‏מתחלה עבדי עבודה זרה‬
‫היו אבתינו‬‎“Our forefathers were at first worshippers of idols,” and
ends, ‫‏מצילנו מידם‬‎“delivers us out of their hand.” Here the exodus
from Egypt is described as the fulfilment of the promise made by
God to Abraham, that his descendants would be delivered out of the
hands of their oppressors.
(3.) The passage from Deut. xxvi. 5–8 is recited with its Midrashic
interpretations, 84 and in conclusion all the benefits received by the
Israelites from the [385]departure from Egypt till the building of the
Temple are enumerated, and our duty of gratitude is shown.

In all these three forms no notice has been taken of the particular
questions. Rabban Gamaliel insists that this should be done, and a
section is therefore added, containing the explanation why the
Passover-offering, the unleavened bread, and the bitter herbs were
to be eaten; this, like the three other sections, concludes with the
emphatic declaration that we—after so many generations—are still
bound to praise and to thank God for the benefits bestowed upon
our nation so long ago. Hereupon follows the Hallel, of which the
first two paragraphs, containing special reference to the departure
from Egypt, are sung before supper; the first part of the Seder-
Service concludes with a blessing, in which we praise God for our
past deliverance and pray for the approach of our future redemption.

6. ‫‏רחץ‬‎“Washing.” All those who partake of the meal wash their

hands, as is ordinarily done before meals.

7. ‫‏מוציא מצה‬‎. Two pieces of ‫‏מצה‬‎are taken; one piece, broken off
the whole cake, representing the bread eaten at ordinary meals for
‫‏מוציא‬‎, and the other piece taken from the broken one, representing
the ‫‏מצה‬‎we are commanded to eat on the Seder-night. Before
eating the two pieces two blessings are recited ‫‏ברוך … המוציא לחם‬
‫מן הארץ‬‎“Blessed art thou … who bringest forth bread from the
earth,” and ‫‏ברוך … אשר קדשנוּּּ על אכילת מצה‬‎“Blessed art thou …
who hast sanctified us by Thy commandments and hast commanded
us to eat ‫‏מצה‬‎.” 85 [386]

8. ‫‏מרור‬‎“Bitter herb.” Bitter herbs dipped in charoseth are eaten,

after the following blessing has been recited … ‫‏ברוך … אשר קדשנו‬
‫על אכילת מרור‬‎“Blessed art thou … who hast sanctified us by thy
commandments and hast commanded us to eat bitter herbs.”

9. ‫‏כורך‬‎“Combining;” scil., unleavened bread and bitter herbs; these

are eaten together, just as formerly, in the time of the Temple, Hillel
used to eat together meat of the Passover-offering, unleavened
bread, and bitter herbs (Exod. xii. 8; Num. ix. 11).

10. ‫‏שלחן עורך‬‎“Table laid.” The evening meal is taken.

11. ‫‏צפון‬‎“Laid aside.” The meal is concluded with a piece of the half
matsah that has been laid aside at the beginning of the Service. It is
called afikuman, “dessert.” 86 [387]

12. ‫‏ברך‬‎“Say grace.” 87

13. ‫‏הלל‬‎“Hallel.”—The rest of Hallel is sung, followed by Ps. cxxxvi.,

and the whole of ‫‏נשמת‬‎with the concluding blessing.—The fourth
cup of wine is then taken, and the usual prayer after the partaking
of wine is recited.

14. ‫‏נרצה‬‎“Completed.” 88—The Seder-Service is [388]completed; it

concludes with a prayer for the rebuilding of the Temple and the
restoration of Israel to Zion. The prayer seems to have been
originally the conclusion of a Piyyut or liturgical poem on the
Passover Sacrifice.

The Haggadah contains, besides, several hymns and songs, of which

the following are found in the ordinary editions of the work:—

1. ‫‏ויהי בחצי הלילה‬‎“And it was in the middle of the night.” The

author reflects on the various marvellous events in our history that
happened in the night-time.
2. ‫‏ואמרתם זבח פסח‬‎“And ye shall say, It is a sacrifice of Passover.”
A song referring to wonderful events which, according to Tradition,
took place on Passover.

3. ‫‏כי לו נאה‬‎“To him praise is seemly.” A praise of God as the only

Being worthy to be called King and Ruler.

4. ‫‏אדיר הוא‬‎“He is mighty.” A praise of God, and an expression of

hope that He will soon rebuild the Temple.

5. ‫‏אחד מי יודע‬‎“One, who knows?” A popular song enumerating

persons and objects in Jewish History and Tradition, as well as in
Nature according to numbers up to thirteen, with the object of
emphasising the Unity of God.

6. ‫‏חד גדיא‬‎“One kid.” A popular song that illustrates the working of

Divine Justice in the history of mankind.

Passover as an agricultural feast was kept “in the season of the

month of ripeness” (‫‏למועד חדש האביב‬‎), [389]when the barley sown
in the winter had become ripe. On the second day of Passover an
offering was brought of “the beginning of the harvest;” it consisted
of an omer 89 of barley (Lev. xxiii. 9 sqq.). Before this offering was
presented it was not allowed to eat of the new corn (ibid. 14).

From the bringing of the Omer to “the harvest feast” the days are
counted, viz., forty-nine days, and the fiftieth day is the feast of
harvest (‫‏חג הקציר‬‎), or “the day of the first-fruit offering” (‫‏יום‬
‫הבכורים‬‎).

The counting commences on the second evening. It is done either

immediately after Maarib, or later on during the Seder-Service; it is
preceded by the following blessing: ‫‏ברוך … אשר קדשנו … על‬
‫ספירת העומר‬‎“Blessed art thou … who hast sanctified us by thy
commandments and hast commanded us … to count the days of the
Omer.” The following is the way of counting: ‫‏היום יום … לעומר‬‎“This
day is the first day since the Omer.” From seven upward the number
of weeks is likewise expressed, 90 … ‫‏היום יום … שהם … שבועות‬
‫לעומר‬‎“This day completes … that is … weeks … since the offering
of the Omer.”

The celebration of Passover serves to inculcate into our hearts the

first principle of our faith: the existence of God, the Supreme Being
who rules the whole universe, in whose hand are the destinies of
kings and peoples, whose power was recognised by the Egyptians
when they were punished for their misdeeds, [390]and whose might
was seen by the Israelites when He divided the Red Sea for them,
and fulfilled the Divine promise made to the patriarchs, Abraham,
Isaac, and Jacob.

The season of Passover, in which we celebrate our liberation from

earthly taskmasters, is called ‫‏זמן חרותנו‬‎“The season of our
freedom.” The deliverance from Egypt, the first step leading to the
fulfilment of the promise, “And I will take you unto me for a people,”
has been poetically conceived as the betrothal of Israel to God, and
in the Piyyut for Passover ample use has been made of this idea. It
has further found expression in the custom of reading the Song of
Solomon on the first Sabbath after the first two days of Passover,
and by some also on the Seder-evening after the conclusion of the
ordinary Service.

The Service is, in general outline, the same as on Sabbath. It

consists of Maarib, Shacharith, Musaph, and Minchah. The Morning-
Service includes Hallel, the reading of the Law, and Lessons from the
Prophets (‫‏קריאת התורה‬‎and ‫‏הפטרה‬‎). The following sections,
containing description of, or reference to, Passover or to the
departure from Egypt, are read consecutively on the eight days:
Exod. xii. 21–51, on the Passover celebrated by the Israelites in
Egypt; Lev. xxii. 26 to xxiii. 44, on “the seasons of the Lord;” Exod.
xiii., xxii. 24 to xxiii. 19, and xxxiv. 1–26: Num. ix. 1–14, on the
second Passover; Exod. xiii. 17–xv. 26, the crossing of the Red Sea;
Deut. xv. 19 (on Sabbath, xiv. 22) to xvi. 17 contains laws referring
to the three Festivals. On Sabbath chol-ha-moëd, Exod. xxxiii. 12 to
xxxiv. 26.—In addition to these sections [391]verses from Num.
xxviii.–xxix., referring to the sacrifices prescribed for each day of the
Festival, are read from a second sefer.

The Lessons from the Prophets are the following:—Josh. v.

(preceded in the German Ritual by iii. 5–7), on the first Passover
kept by the Israelites in Palestine; 2 Kings xxiii. 1–9 and 21–25, on
the Passover celebrated in the days of King Josiah; 2 Sam. xxii., the
song of David after deliverance from his enemies, a parallel to the
Song of Moses; Isa. x. 32—xii., on the defeat of Sennacherib, and
the blessings of the Messianic days. According to Tradition the defeat
of Sennacherib took place on Passover; moreover, the celebration of
the deliverance from Egypt suggests the reflection on the final
Redemption of Israel. The Lesson from the Prophets chosen for
Sabbath chol-ha-moëd is taken from Ez. xxxvi. 1–14. The prophet
sees in a vision how the dry bones of the dead are awakened to
fresh life by the Will and the Spirit of the Lord: a precious lesson for
us, designed to strengthen our hope of a revival of every good and
noble idea, though for the present it be dormant within us. Nature
around us awakening to fresh life in the spring supplies a parallel to
the vision of Hezekiel.

The Machzor (lit. Cycle) or Prayer-book for the Holy-days contains

numerous additions to the ordinary prayers. They are called
Piyyutim, and vary according to the custom and the taste of the
congregation. The Piyyut added in the second paragraph of the
Musaph-amidah on the first day of Passover is called tal, “dew,” or
prayer for dew; the rain season having come to an end, we [392]pray
that the vegetation may, during the hot season, be refreshed by the
regular descent of the dew. The praise for “sending down rain” in
the same paragraph, viz., ‫‏משיב הרוח ומוריד הגשם‬‎, “Thou causest
the wind to blow and the rain to fall,” is discontinued after the
shacharith prayer of the first day of Passover. In the Portuguese
Ritual the words ‫‏מוריד הטל‬‎, “Thou causest the dew to fall,” are
introduced instead.

Similarly, there is an additional prayer for rain (‫‏גשם‬‎) in the Musaf of

Shemini-atsereth. The time chosen for these prayers is in accordance
with the meteorological conditions of Palestine. This custom,
however, does not exclude the addition of prayers for rain or dew,
according to the needs of the country in which we live.

The Days of the Counting of the Omer, ‫‏ימי הספירה‬‎

The period from Passover to the Feast of Weeks is full of sad

memories of massacres of Jews that took place in the days of the
Crusades; also of the miseries that befell the Jews in Palestine in the
days of the Emperor Hadrian. During the month of Iyar, the Jews
abstain from rejoicings and weddings, 91 with the exception of the
18th of the month, which is the 33rd of the Omer, because,
according to Tradition, a plague that had raged among the disciples
of Rabbi Akiba ceased on that day. The 18th of Iyar, ‫‏ל״ג בעומר‬‎is
therefore called “the scholars’ festival.” [393]

The Feast of Weeks, ‫‏שבועות‬‎

The Feast of Weeks is celebrated on the fiftieth day 92 of the Omer
(Lev. xxiii. 16); i.e., the 6th of Sivan. It is, in the first place, “the
feast of harvest,” ‫‏חג הקציר‬‎(Exod. xxiii. 16), especially of the wheat,
and “the day of the first-fruit offering,” ‫‏יום הבכורים‬‎(Num. xxviii.
26). The first sacrifice of the new corn was offered: “the bread of
the first-fruit,” which was to serve as an expression of gratitude for
the blessing of the harvest. In the absence of sacrifices in our days,
the custom widely prevails of adorning the Synagogue and the home
with plants and flowers, in order that the sight of these beautiful
objects might awaken and strengthen feelings of gratitude toward
the Almighty for His loving-kindness. Each one of the plants and
flowers reveals a special form of the Creator’s wisdom, power, and
goodness.—The feast is called Feast of Weeks, ‫‏חג השבעות‬‎(Deut.
xvi. 10), on account of the completion of the seven weeks counted
from the day of the Omer.

The Feast of Weeks, the 6th and the 7th of Sivan, commemorates
also an historical event: the Law-giving on Mount Sinai. It is
therefore called “the season of the giving of our Law,” ‫‏זמן מתן‬
‫תורתנו‬‎.

As Passover has been poetically called the day of Israel’s betrothal to

God, the Feast of Weeks would [394]correspond to the wedding-day,
and the counting of the Omer does thus not only connect two
harvest-feasts, but represents the longing of the bride for the day of
her complete happiness; i.e., the longing of the Israelites for the
Divine Revelation, which was to complete the work of their
deliverance from Egypt.

The celebration of the Feast of Weeks thus involves the second

principle of our faith: ‫‏תורה מן השמים‬‎“The belief in the Divine origin
of the Law,” or “Divine Revelation.”
On the first day we read Exod. xix.–xx., the account of the Law-
giving on Mount Sinai, and Ez. i., the first vision of the prophet
Ezekiel, in which the glory of God is revealed to him. On the second
day Deut. xv. 19 (on Sabbath, xiv. 22) to xvi. 17; and Hab. iii., “the
prayer of Habakkuk,” in reference to God’s Revelation as the Ruler of
the universe.—There is also the custom to read the Book of Ruth,
which contains the account of Ruth’s embracing the true faith, and a
description of the harvest and the treatment of the poor in the
harvest-season.

There is a custom among some of our brethren to employ the first

night of the Feast in preparing themselves for the coming celebration
of the giving of the Law. The greater part of the night is spent in
reading passages from the Scriptures and from the Talmudical
books. 93 The custom has its basis in the preparation commanded by
God to be made during “the three days of bordering” (‫‏שלשת ימי‬
‫הגבלה‬‎) which preceded the Law-giving (Exod. xix. 10–12). [395]

The Feast of Tabernacles, ‫‏סכות‬‎

“The fifteenth day of this seventh month (Tishri) shall be the Feast
of Tabernacles (‫‏סכות‬‎) for seven days unto the Lord” (Lev. xxiii. 34).
The name has its explanation in the commandment, “Ye shall dwell
in booths seven days” (ibid. 42); “that your generations may know
that I made the children of Israel to dwell in booths, when I brought
them out of the land of Egypt” (ver. 43). We are thus commanded to
commemorate the travelling of the Israelites through the wilderness.
They dwelt in tents, that gave them shelter to some extent; but
without the Divine protection this shelter would have proved
insufficient. Of this twofold shelter and protection we are reminded
by the tabernacle in which the Law commands us to dwell during the
Festival.

In fulfilment of this commandment we make booths (‫‏סכות‬‎). The

chief difference between a booth and an ordinary house consists in
the mode and in the material employed for roofing the two
structures. For the succah must not be covered with fixed boards
and beams or with canvas, but with detached branches of trees,
plants, flowers, and leaves, in such a manner that the covering is not
quite impenetrable to wind and rain, or starlight. During the Festival
the succah is our dwelling-house, in which we take our meals, study,
receive our friends, and, if possible, enjoy rest and sleep. If, on
account of the severity of the climate, the constant dwelling in the
succah threatens to prove injurious to our health, we content
ourselves with taking our meals in the succah. Before each meal
[396]we recite the blessing ‫‏ברוך … אשר קדשנו … לישב בסוכה‬‎
“Blessed art thou … who hast sanctified us by thy commandments
and hast commanded us to dwell in the booth.” The first time we are
in the succah we add the blessing, ‫‏שהחינו‬‎(p. 358).

The Festival is, secondly, called “the Feast of Ingathering,” ‫‏חג‬

‫האסיף‬‎. The produce of the fields and gardens have been gathered
in, and the people rejoice before the Lord in gratitude for the
blessings which He has granted to them. “And ye shall take unto you
on the first day the fruit of the goodly tree, branches of palm-trees,
and boughs of thick-leaved trees, and willows of the brook; and ye
shall rejoice before the Lord your God seven days” (Lev. xxiii. 40). In
accordance with the traditional interpretation of this verse, we take
four kinds of plants (‫‏ארבעה מינין‬‎), viz., ‫‏אתרוג‬‎“the citron;” ‫‏לולב‬‎, “a
branch of the palm-tree;” ‫‏הדסים‬‎, three “myrtle branches;” and
‫‏ערבות‬‎, two “branches of the willow.” According to a Midrashic
interpretation, they represent four different types of plants, that
which has a pleasant fragrance and a beautiful form (esrog); the
beautiful in form, but without fragrance (lulabh); that which smells
pleasantly, but is inferior in form (hadassim); and that which has
neither a goodly form nor an agreeable fragrance (arabhoth), as if to
say that we are thankful to God for all that He has given us,
although to our mind some of these seem imperfect in comparison
with others.

In obedience to this commandment we take, every day of Succoth

except Saturday, 94 the above four kinds [397]into our hands, hold
them during the recitation of the Hallel, and make with them a
procession round the Synagogue, 95 while singing the hymns called
hoshaanoth (so called on account of the repeated occurrence of the
word hoshaanah in them).

Before taking the arbaah minim into our hands we say the following
blessing: ‫‏ברוך … אשר קדשנו … על נטילת לולב‬‎“Blessed art thou …
who hast sanctified us by thy commandments and hast commanded
us to take the lulabh.” 96 On the first day ‫‏שהחינו‬‎is added.

Succoth lasts seven days, the last five days being half Holy-days, ‫‏חול‬
‫המועד‬‎. The seventh day is called Hoshaana-rabba, because on that
day many prayers beginning with hoshaana are offered up, during
the [398]chanting of which seven processions round the Synagogue
are made. 97

The Feast of Tabernacles is closely followed by “the feast of the

eighth day,” ‫‏שמיני עצרת‬‎, 98 which, like all other Festivals, is kept two
days. The second day is, in addition, called “Rejoicing of the Law,”
‫‏שמחת תורה‬‎[399]because on this day the reading of the Pentateuch
is completed and recommenced.

The nine days of the Festival are called ‫‏זמן שמחתנו‬‎“The season of
our rejoicing,” and it is the third principle of our faith, the belief in
Divine Providence, that this Festival impresses on our hearts. On the
one hand, we have the rejoicing and the four species of plants as
proofs and tokens of Divine blessing; and, on the other hand, the
succah is a symbol of human frailties and imperfections. Thus, in all
our rejoicings we should remember that our abode on earth is not
permanent, and that all earthly happiness is like the plants that
easily fade away. In order to impress this idea on our mind, we read
the book of Koheleth on Sabbath chol-ha-moëd or on Shemini-
atsereth.

The following portions are read from the Pentateuch: Lev. xxii. 26 to
xxiii. 44 99 (on the first two days); Exod. xxxiii. 12 to xxxiv. 26 (on
Sabbath chol-ha-moëd); Deut. xiv. 22 to xvi. 7 (on the eighth day);
Deut. xxxiii. to end of Pentateuch; and Gen. i. 1 to ii. 3 (on Simchath
Torah). In addition, the paragraph of the sacrifices of the day (Num.
xxix. 12–39) is read [400]from a second sefer. The Lessons for chol-
ha-moëd are taken from the same passage.

The Lessons from the Prophets are the following: Zech. xiv.,
prophecy on the future of Israel and on the punishment of those
who would not come to Jerusalem to celebrate there the Succoth
Festival; 1 Kings viii. 2–21, on the opening of the new Temple; on
Sabbath chol-ha-moëd, Ez. xxxviii. 18 to xxxix. 16, on the war with
Gog; 1 Kings viii. 22–66, prayer of Solomon on the eighth day of the
services for the consecration of the Temple; Jos. i., accession of
Joshua to the leadership of Israel.
[Contents]

Solemn Days, ‫‏ימים נוראים‬‎

By ‫‏ימים נוראים‬‎“solemn days,” we understand the first ten days of
the month Tishri, especially their beginning and their end: ‫‏ראש‬
‫השנה‬‎, “New-year,” and ‫‏יום כפור‬‎“the Day of Atonement.” 100

It is customary to prepare for the “solemn days” during the month of

Elul, by additional prayers, called ‫‏סליחות‬‎“forgiveness,” after or
before the Daily Service, and by blowing the shofar at the close of
the [401]Daily Service. 101 According to the Portuguese Ritual, the
Selichoth begin on the 1st of Elul, and are continued [402]morning
and evening till the Day of Atonement. The German Ritual has
Selichoth only in the Morning Service; they begin on the Sunday
before New-year, and if the Festival is on Monday or Tuesday, on the
second Sunday before, and end on the Day of Atonement. The
blowing of the shofar takes place in the German Synagogues during
the month of Elul, in the Portuguese this custom is not practiced.

‫‏ראש השנה‬‎New-year.

The first and the second days of Tishri are kept as New-year. 102 In
accordance with the command, “The first of the first-fruits of thy
land thou shalt bring unto the house of the Lord thy God” (Exod.
xxxiv. 26), we devote the first ten days of the year as an offering to
the Lord; they are days of increased devotion, earnest self-
examination, and new efforts to lead a good, virtuous, and godly
life. They are called ‫‏עשרת ימי תשובה‬‎“ten days of return” to God, or
“ten penitential days.”

We greet and congratulate each other on New-year, using the

phrase, ‫‏לשנה טובה תכתב‬‎—or ‫ תכתבנה‬,‫ תכתבו‬,‫‏לש׳ ט׳ תכחבי‬‎
according as a male, a female, several males, or several females are
addressed—“May you be inscribed for a happy year.” It is a figurative
expression, borrowed from the writing and signing of decrees by
earthly judges. [403]

In the Bible the Festival is not called New-year, 103 but ‫‏יום תרועה‬‎
“Day of blowing the shofar” (Num. xxix. 1); and ‫‏זכרון תרועה‬‎
“Memorial of the blowing of the shofar” (Lev. xxiii. 24); in our
prayers the names ‫‏יום הזכרון‬‎and ‫‏יום הדין‬‎“Day of Remembering”
and “Day of Judgment,” are also used.

The first of these four names implies, according to the traditional

interpretation, the commandment of blowing the shofar. As a rule
the shofar is blown during the Morning Service before the sefer is
returned to the Ark, and during Musaf. 104 The blowing of the shofar
is expressed by ‫‏תרועה‬‎, which denotes the sound of an alarm; hence
we learn that the shofar is intended to awaken us, and to call us
forth to range ourselves under our banner. It is an ideal banner, the
worship of God and faith in Him, that we are called upon to protect
and to defend from enemies without and within. 105 Prominence is
therefore given in our Service for New-year to the proclamation of
God as King of the universe, and to our longing for the time when all
mankind will unite in the worship of the One God. [404]

The name “Memorial of blowing the shofar” indicates that we are to

remember some historical event suggested by the sound of the
shofar. We are reminded of the period when the Israelites,
encamped round Mount Sinai, on hearing the Divine message, “Ye
shall be my peculiar people,” “a kingdom of priests,” and “a holy
nation,” joyfully replied, “All that the Lord hath spoken we will do”
(Exod. xix. 8). The shofar thus awakens us to greater watchfulness
and activity in the purification and sanctification of our heart.

The third name, “Day of Memorial,” seems to be a modification of

the second; but it has a more general meaning. The second name,
that reminds us of our duty as God’s peculiar people, suggests also
the idea that God, who declared us to be His people, watches over
us; that what we do, we do in His presence. He perceives, notes,
and remembers all our deeds, words, and thoughts. When,
therefore, we appeal to the goodness of Him, who remembers all His
creatures and provides for the wants of every one of them, we must
not forget that He is also just. This idea, again, suggests the fourth
name, ‫‏יום הדין‬‎“Day of Judgment,” the day on which we are judged
according to our deeds, both our merits and our shortcomings being
taken into account.

The essential elements in our Service are the three sections in the
Amidah of Musaf: ‫‏מלכיות‬‎, ‫‏זכרונות‬‎and ‫‏שופרות‬‎. They chiefly refer to
the three fundamental principles of our religion: (1) Existence of
God, a Being that is King of the universe; (2) Divine Justice, and (3)
Revelation. Ten passages are quoted [405]from the Bible in support of
each of these principles.

Tradition has fixed the 1st of Tishri as the date of several events in
the history of Israel, e.g., the birth of Isaac, the binding of Isaac
(‫‏עקדה‬‎), and the birth of Samuel (B. T. Rosh ha-shanah 10b). Hence
Gen. xxi. and xxii. are read on the two days of New-year, in addition
to the paragraph on the sacrifices of the Festival (Num. xxix. 1–6).

From the Prophets, we read on the first day 1 Sam. i. 1 to ii. 10, on
the birth of Samuel, and the prayer of Hannah praising the justice of
God; on the second day, Jer. xxxi. 2–20, a prophecy concerning the
restoration of Israel. 106

The Sabbath between New-year and the Day of Atonement is called

‫‏שבת שובה‬‎because the haphtarah, taken from Hosea (xiv. 1 seq.),
commences with the word ‫‏שובה‬‎and is an exhortation of Israel to
return to God.

‫‏יום כפור‬‎“Day of Atonement.”

The tenth day of the seventh month, Tishri, is the most important of
all the Holy-days. It is the Day of Atonement, on which “God will
forgive you, to cleanse you, that you may be clean from all your sins
before the Lord” (Lev. xvi. 30). [406]

“Ye shall do no manner of work; it shall be a statute for ever

throughout your generations in all your dwellings. It shall be unto
you a sabbath of rest, and ye shall afflict yourselves: in the ninth day
of the month at even, from even unto even, shall ye celebrate your
sabbath” (Lev. xxiii. 31, 32).

The Day of Atonement is therefore a day of resting, fasting, prayer,

and spiritual improvement.

It is a day of rest, and the prohibition of work is the same as on the

ordinary Sabbath.

The fasting begins the 9th of Tishri—‫‏ערב יום כפור‬‎—about sunset,

and lasts till the beginning of night on the following day. The phrase,
‫‏ועניתם את נפשתיכם‬‎“Ye shall afflict yourselves,” is explained by
Tradition to signify the total abstinence from all kinds of food and
the gratification of other bodily desires (Mishnah, Yoma viii. 1). The
reason of this commandment may be the following: The principal
source of sin is the gratification of our bodily appetites; ‫‏תשובה‬
“return” to the right way must therefore include the earnest attempt
to control, and when necessary to suppress, such appetites. Fasting
is such an attempt. But it must be borne in mind that fasting is only
one of the duties we have to fulfil on the Day of Atonement, and
that the other duties are equally essential.

‫‏תשובה‬‎“return,” is the principal object of the celebration of the Day

of Atonement; it implies the following four steps:—

1. Consciousness of sin, ‫‏ידיעת החטא‬. We must again and again

examine ourselves and try to discover our failings; our actions and
our words must pass in review, and we must remember that,
however good we may [407]be, no man is righteous upon earth “that
doeth good and sinneth not” (Eccles. vii. 20).

2. Confession of sin, ‫‏ודוי‬‎. 107 On the discovery of sin, we must have

the courage to confess our guilt before him against whom we have
sinned; if it is against God alone that we have sinned, we make
silent confession before Him; if we find ourselves guilty of an offence
against our fellow-man, we must confess our sin to him.

3. Regret, ‫‏חרטה‬‎. Having discovered and confessed our sin, we

should feel pain and remorse, alike for the evil we have done and for
the good we have left undone.

4. Amendment, ‫‏עזיבת החטא‬‎. The regret should be followed by a

firm resolve to abandon the way of evil, and not to sin again, even if
occasion be given for a repetition of the sinful act.

There are five Services on the Day of Atonement: [408]

(1) Evening Service, ‫‏מעריב‬‎; 108 (2) Morning Service, ‫‏שחרית‬‎; (3)
Additional Service, ‫‏מוסף‬‎; (4) Afternoon Service, ‫‏מנחה‬‎; (5)
Concluding Service, ‫‏נעילה‬‎. 109—The [409]confession of sin, ‫‏ודוי‬is the
most essential and characteristic element in the Services of the Day
of Atonement.

In the Morning Service we read Lev. xvi., and Num. xxix. 7–11, on
the sacrifices on the Day of Atonement; in the Afternoon Service,
Lev. xviii., on forbidden marriages. The Lessons from the Prophets
are: in the morning, Isa. lvii. 14–lviii. 14, on our duties on the fast-
day; in the afternoon, the Book of Jonah, illustrating the effect of
sincere repentance, and Micah vii. 18–20, on Israel’s repentance.
[Contents]

Historical Feasts and Fasts.

Besides the Festivals commanded in the Torah, we celebrate also in

the course of the year anniversaries of certain days both of joy and
of sorrow. Of the former kind are ‫‏חנוכה‬‎and ‫‏פורים‬‎; of the latter, the
9th of Ab and four other fasts.

‫‏חנוכה‬‎Feast of Dedication.

On the 25th of Kislev we begin to celebrate eight days of ‫‏חנוכה‬‎or

Dedication, in commemoration of the victories of the Maccabees
over Antiochus Epiphanes, king of Syria. Antiochus had attempted to
force the Jews to idolatry, and to make them abandon the worship of
the true God. The Jews, led by the Maccabees, resisted, and, armed
with faith in God, gained the victory over large armies of the enemy.
The Temple, which had been defiled by the heathen soldiers, was
again purified, and the Service of God re-established. [410]For
lighting the continual lamp (‫‏נר תמיד‬‎) pure oil was wanted, that had
not been touched by the heathen. Only a small cruse of pure oil was
found, which was believed to be sufficient for one night; but it
sufficed for eight days, by which time a fresh supply could be
procured.

The Feast of Dedication commemorates the victory of the faithful

over the faithless, of the true religion over idolatry, of light over
darkness, and is celebrated—

(1.) By lighting ‫‏חנוכה‬‎lights, one on the first evening, and adding

one light each successive evening, so that on the eighth evening
eight lights are kindled.

(2.) By giving expression to our feeling of gratitude in psalms (‫‏הלל‬‎)

and prayers of thanks (‫‏על הנסים‬‎).

In the Morning Service a few verses from Num. vii., on the

dedication of the Altar, are read. On Sabbath Chanuccah, Zechariah’s
vision, Zech. ii. 10 to iii. 7, including the vision of the golden
candlestick, is read as haphtarah; and if there happen to be a
second Sabbath Chanuccah, 1 Kings vii. 40–50, a description of the
various vessels and ornaments in the Temple of Solomon is read on
that Sabbath.

Note 1.—The ‫‏חנוכה‬‎lights remind us, in the first place, of the reopening of the
Temple and the resumption of the regular Temple Service. But they are also
intended to remind us of the light of our holy faith, which Antiochus Epiphanes
attempted in vain to extinguish. For it shed forth its light again, and shone brighter
and brighter every successive day. We thus learn that when our religion is
imperilled, firmness against temptation or force is sure to lead to success and
victory.

2. Before lighting the Chanuccah lights the following blessings are said: … ‫‏ברוך‬
‫אשר קדשנו … להדליק נר של חנוכה‬‎“Blessed art thou … who hast sanctified us by
thy commandments and hast commanded us to kindle the lights of Chanuccah.”
[411]‫‏ברוך … שעשה נסים לאבותינו בימים ההם בזמן הזה‬‎“Blessed art thou … who
wroughtest miracles for our fathers in days of old at this season.” On the first night
‫‏שהחינו‬‎is added.

‫‏פורים‬‎Purim.
‫‏פורים‬‎or “Feast of Lots,” is celebrated on the 14th and the 15th of
Adar (second Adar in a leap-year), in commemoration of the defeat
of Haman’s wicked plans. Haman was chief minister to Ahasuerus,
king of Persia, and planned to kill all the Jews in the Persian Empire,
but the Almighty frustrated his designs through the agency of
Mordecai and his cousin Esther. The Feast is called Purim, that is,
“lots,” because Haman had cast lots in order to discover the day
most favourable to his plans.

We celebrate Purim—

(1.) By reading twice, once during the Evening Service and once
during the Morning Service, the Book of Esther (‫‏מגלת אסתר‬‎), which
contains the history of Haman’s plans and their frustration. The
reading is preceded by the following blessing: … ‫‏ברוך … אשר קדשנו‬
‫על מקרא מגלה‬‎“Blessed art thou … who hast sanctified us by thy
commandments and hast commanded us to read the Megillah.” ‫‏ברוך‬
‫… שעשה נסים לאבותינו בימים ההם בזמן הזה‬‎“Blessed art thou …
who wroughtest miracles for our fathers in days of old at this
season,” and ‫‏שהחינו‬‎.

(2.) By giving presents to our friends (‫‏משלוח מנות‬‎) and gifts to the
poor (‫‏מתנות לאביונים‬‎).

(3.) By a festive meal (‫‏סעודת פורים‬‎). Comp. Esth. ix. During the
Morning Service the account of the war with Amalek is read from
Exod. xvii. 8–16. [412]

The 15th of Adar is called Shushan Purim, because the Jews in

Shushan continued to fight against the enemy on the 14th of Adar,
and kept Purim on the 15th. The 13th of Adar, being the day
appointed for the slaughter of the Jews, is now kept as a fast-day,
and is called ‫‏תענית אסתר‬‎“the Fast of Esther.”
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