Download the Full Version of the Ebook with Added Features ebookname.

com

Graph theory and complex networks an introduction

1st ed Edition Steen

https://ebookname.com/product/graph-theory-and-complex-
networks-an-introduction-1st-ed-edition-steen/

OR CLICK HERE

DOWLOAD NOW

Download more ebook instantly today at https://ebookname.com

Instant digital products (PDF, ePub, MOBI) available
Download now and explore formats that suit you...

A Walk Through Combinatorics An Introduction to

Enumeration and Graph Theory 2nd Edition Miklós Bóna

https://ebookname.com/product/a-walk-through-combinatorics-an-
introduction-to-enumeration-and-graph-theory-2nd-edition-miklos-bona/

ebookname.com

Networks An Introduction 1st Edition Mark Newman

https://ebookname.com/product/networks-an-introduction-1st-edition-
mark-newman/

ebookname.com

Lectures on Complex Networks Sergey Dorogovtsev

https://ebookname.com/product/lectures-on-complex-networks-sergey-
dorogovtsev/

ebookname.com

The Handbook of Discourse Analysis 1st Edition Deborah

Schiffrin

https://ebookname.com/product/the-handbook-of-discourse-analysis-1st-
edition-deborah-schiffrin/

ebookname.com
Standard Poor s 500 Guide 2009 PB Standard and Poor s 500
Guide 1st Edition Standard & Poor'S

https://ebookname.com/product/standard-poor-s-500-guide-2009-pb-
standard-and-poor-s-500-guide-1st-edition-standard-poors/

ebookname.com

The Quest for Just and Pure Law Rocky Mountain Workers and
American Social Democracy 1870 1924 1st Edition John P.
Enyeart
https://ebookname.com/product/the-quest-for-just-and-pure-law-rocky-
mountain-workers-and-american-social-democracy-1870-1924-1st-edition-
john-p-enyeart/
ebookname.com

Evangelicals and Culture 2nd Edition Doreen Rosman

https://ebookname.com/product/evangelicals-and-culture-2nd-edition-
doreen-rosman/

ebookname.com

Panoramic Imaging Sensor Line Cameras And Laser Range

Finders 1st Edition Fay Huang

https://ebookname.com/product/panoramic-imaging-sensor-line-cameras-
and-laser-range-finders-1st-edition-fay-huang/

ebookname.com

Naoki Urasawa s 20th Century Boys Volume 6 Naoki Urasawa

https://ebookname.com/product/naoki-urasawa-s-20th-century-boys-
volume-6-naoki-urasawa/

ebookname.com
The Art and Science of Vedic Astrology 2 Vol Set 1st
Edition Richard Fish

https://ebookname.com/product/the-art-and-science-of-vedic-
astrology-2-vol-set-1st-edition-richard-fish/

ebookname.com
 Graph Theory
and
Complex Networks
An Introduction

Maarten van Steen

Copyright © 2010 Maarten van Steen
Published by Maarten van Steen
ISBN: 978-90-815406-1-2
Edition: 1. Printing: 01 (April 2010)

All rights to text and illustrations are reserved by Maarten van Steen. This work may not be copied, reproduced,
or translated in whole or part without written permission of the publisher, except for brief excerpts in reviews
or scholarly analysis. Use with any form of information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation or whatever,
computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methods now known or developed in the future is strictly forbidden
without written permission of the publisher.
To Mariëlle, Max, and Elke
 C ONTENTS

Preface ix

1 Introduction 1
1.1 Communication networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Historical perspective . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
From telephony to the Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
The Web and Wikis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2 Social networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Online communities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Traditional social networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.3 Networks everywhere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.4 Organization of this book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13

2 Foundations 17
2.1 Formalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Graphs and vertex degrees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Degree sequence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Subgraphs and line graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.2 Graph representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Data structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Graph isomorphism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
2.3 Connectivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
2.4 Drawing graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Graph embeddings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Planar graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50

3 Extensions 55
3.1 Directed graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Basics of directed graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57

v
 Connectivity for directed graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.2 Weighted graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.3 Colorings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Edge colorings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Vertex colorings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

4 Network traversal 79
4.1 Euler tours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Constructing an Euler tour . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
The Chinese postman problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
4.2 Hamilton cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Properties of Hamiltonian graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Finding a Hamilton cycle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
Optimal Hamilton cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

5 Trees 105
5.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Trees in transportation networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Trees as data structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
5.2 Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
5.3 Spanning trees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
5.4 Routing in communication networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Dijkstra’s algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
The Bellman-Ford algorithm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
A note on algorithmic performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127

6 Network analysis 131

6.1 Vertex degrees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Degree distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Degree correlations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
6.2 Distance statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
6.3 Clustering coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Some effects of clustering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
Local view . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Global view . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
6.4 Centrality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

7 Random networks 155

7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
7.2 Classical random networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Degree distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Other metrics for random graphs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162

vi
 7.3 Small worlds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
7.4 Scale-free networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Fundamentals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Properties of scale-free networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Related networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182

8 Modern computer networks 185

8.1 The Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Computer networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Measuring the topology of the Internet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
8.2 Peer-to-peer overlay networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Structured overlay networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Random overlay networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
8.3 The World Wide Web . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
The organization of the Web . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Measuring the topology of the Web . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214

9 Social networks 223

9.1 Social network analysis: introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Historical background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Sociograms in practice: a teacher’s aid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
9.2 Some basic concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Centrality and prestige . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Structural balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Cohesive subgroups . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
Affiliation networks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
9.3 Equivalence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Structural equivalence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Automorphic equivalence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
Regular equivalence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259

Conclusions 261

Mathematical notations 267

Index 271

Bibliography 279

vii
 P REFACE

When I was appointed Director of Education for the Computer Science de-
partment at VU University, I became partly responsible for revitalizing our
CS curriculum. At that point in time, mathematics was generally experi-
enced by most students as difficult, but even more important, as being ir-
relevant for successfully completing your studies. Despite numerous efforts
from my colleagues from the Mathematics department, this view on math-
ematics has never really changed. I myself obtained a masters degree in
Applied Mathematics (and in particular Combinatorics) before switching to
Computer Science and gradually moving into the field of large-scale dis-
tributed systems. My own research is by nature highly experimental, and
being forced to handle large systems, bumping into the theory and practice
of complex networks was almost inevitable. I also never quite quit enjoying
material on (combinatorial) algorithms, so I decided to run another type of
experiment.
The experiment that eventually led to this text was to teach graph the-
ory to first-year students in Computer Science and Information Science. Of
course, I needed to explain why graph theory is important, so I decided to
place graph theory in the context of what is now called network science. The
goal was to arouse curiosity in this new science of measuring the structure
of the Internet, discovering what online social communities look like, obtain
a deeper understanding of organizational networks, and so on. While doing
so, teaching graph theory was just part of the deal.
No appropriate book existed, so I started writing lecture notes. As with
most experiments that I participate in (the hard work is actually done by my
students), things got a bit out of hand and I eventually found myself writ-
ing another book. Considering that my other textbooks are really on (dis-
tributed) computer systems and barely contain any mathematical symbols
(as, in fact, is also the case for most of my research papers), this book is to
be considered as somewhat exceptional. In fact, because I do not consider

ix
myself to be a mathematician anymore, I’m not quite sure how this book
should be classified. Is it math? Is it computer science? Does it matter?
The goal is to provide a first introduction into complex networks, yet in
a more or less rigorous way. After studying this material, a student should
have a pretty good idea of what makes real-world networks complex in-
stead of complicated, and can do a lot more than just handwaving when it
comes to explaining real-world phenomena. While getting to that point, I
also hope to have achieved two other goals: successfully teaching the foun-
dations of graph theory, and even more important, lowering the threshold
for studying mathematical material.
The latter may not be obvious when skimming through the text: it is full
of mathematical symbols, theorems, and proofs. I have deliberately chosen
for this approach, feeling confident that if enough and targeted attention
is paid to the language of mathematics in the first chapters, a student will
become aware of the fact that mathematical language is sometimes only in-
timidating: mathematicians’ barks are often worse than their bites. Students
who have so far followed my classes have indeed confirmed that they were
surprised at how much easier it was to access the math once they got over
the notations. I hope that this approach will last for long, making it at least
easier for many students to not immediately pull back when encountering
mathematical language in other texts.

Intended readership
This book has been written for first- or second-year undergraduates who
have taken the usual courses in mathematics as taught in high school. How-
ever, although I claim that the material is not inherently difficult, it will cer-
tainly require serious studying by most students, and certainly those for
which math does not come natural. As mentioned, I have deliberately cho-
sen to use the language of math because it is not only precise and compre-
hensive, but above all because I believe that at the level of this book, it will
lower the threshold for other mathematical texts. It should be clear that the
lecturer using this material may need to pay some special effort to encour-
age students. For most students, the language will turn out to be the hard
part, not the content.

Supplementary material
As said, this book is part of a course on graph theory and complex net-
works. Although it can be used for self-study, I encourage students and
their instructors to visit the accompanying Web site:
http://www.distributed-systems.net/gtcn/

x
where lots of extra material can be found, including, most importantly, a
huge collection of exercises (with solutions). My goal is to expand this set
of exercises continuously. This is the most important reason not to have
included any exercises in the book: they can be readily obtained from the
site, and always up-to-date.
To make the material more accessible (and fun), but also to allow stu-
dents to do some basic analysis of larger graphs and networks, we have
been using Mathematica in combination with Combinatorica. All mate-
rial, including Mathematica notebooks and data on graphs are all avail-
able through the Web site. The site also has some extra tools for generating
graphs.
Of course, slides and handouts are available (all originating from LATEX
sources), as well as all the figures from the book. Perhaps most importantly,
an electronic version of the book itself is also available.

All material is freely accessible

Sometimes when you write a book, it makes a lot of sense to think big and
act commercially. Thinking big in this sense means you expect many people
to have access to your book. Acting commercially means that you try to
successfully market and sell your book. Sometimes, it’s enough to just think
big, knowing that acting commercially will certainly keep everything small.
When you write a book containing mathematical symbols, thinking big and
acting commercially doesn’t seem the right combination. I merely hope to
see the material to be used by many students and instructors everywhere
and to receive a lot of constructive feedback that will lead to improvements.
Acting commercially has never been one of strong points anyway.
However, freely accessible doesn’t mean that everyone has the right to
copy and spread the material, which I would find quite offensive. For this
reason, when requesting an electronic copy, the book will be watermarked
with your e-mail address. The watermark is part of the LATEX source, so it’s
pretty difficult to remove, although I do not have the illusion that removal
is impossible.
Finally, for those who still prefer to (also) have a hard-copy version of
the book (of course, without a watermark), such can be realized by placing
an order through the Web site. Further information can be found there. The
price is comparable to printing it yourself.

Acknowledgments
There are a few people who deserve to be mentioned. Spyros Voulgaris
has been responsible for creating homework assignments, preparing Math-

xi
ematica notebooks, and setting up all the exercise classes. Albana Gaba has
a gifted talent to provide very constructive feedback (next to the fact that she
has been working like a dog to process all the student assignments). Achraf
Belmokadem has done a terrific job on setting up a Web-based subsystem
for letting students self-assess their abilities for solving graph problems. Fi-
nally, I would like to thank the students who have undergone my teaching
for the past two years and who have, despite all the mistakes, continued to
claim that they enjoyed it.

Maarten van Steen

Amsterdam, April 2010

xii
 C HAPTER 1

I NTRODUCTION
 Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics
 Mirths and toys
To cozen time withal: for o' my troth, Sir
I can love,—I think well too,—well enough;
And think as well of women as they are,—
Pretty fantastic things, some more regardful,
And some few worth a service. I'm so honest
I wish 'em all in Heaven and you know how hard, Sir,
'Twill be to get in there with their great farthingals.
BEAUMONT and FLETCHER.

And not much easier now with their great sleeves.

AUTHOR, A.D. 1830.

The question concerning the equality of the sexes which was

discussed so warmly some thirty years ago in Magazines and
Debating Societies, was one upon which it was not easy to collect
the Doctor's real opinion. His manner indeed was frequently sportive
when his meaning was most serious, and as frequently the thoughts
and speculations with which he merely played, and which were
sports or exercitations of intellect and humour, were advanced with
apparent gravity. The propensity however was always restrained
within due bounds, for he had treasured up his father's lessons in his
heart, and would have regarded it as a crime ever to have trifled with
his principles or feelings. But this question concerning the sexes was
a subject which he was fond of introducing before his female
acquaintance; it was like hitting the right note for a dog when you
play the flute, he said. The sort of half anger, and the indignation,
and the astonishment and the merriment withal which he excited
when he enlarged upon this fertile theme, amused him greatly, and
moreover he had a secret pleasure in observing the invincible good
humour of his wife, even when she thought it necessary for the
honour of her sex to put on a semblance of wrath at the notions
which he repeated, and the comments with which he accompanied
them.

He used to rest his opinion of male superiority upon divinity, law,

grammar, natural history, and the universal consent of nations.
Noting also by the way, that in the noble science of heraldry, it is laid
down as a rule “that amongst things sensitive the males are of more
worthy bearing than the females.”1
1 GWILLIM.

The Salic law he looked upon as in this respect the Law of Nature.
And therefore he thought it was wisely appointed in France, that the
royal Midwife should receive a fee of five hundred crowns upon the
birth of a boy and only three hundred if it were a female child. This
the famous Louise Bourgeois has stated to be the custom, who for
the edification of posterity, the advancement of her own science, and
the use of French historians published a Recit veritable de la
naissance de Messieurs et Dames les enfans de France, containing
minute details of every royal parturition at which she had officiated.

But he dwelt with more force on the theological grounds of his

position. “The wife is the weaker vessel. Wives submit yourselves to
your husbands: be in subjection to them. The Husband is the head.
Sarah obeyed Abraham, calling him Lord.” And here he had
recourse to the authority of Daniel Rogers (whom he liked the better
for his name's sake) who in his Treatise of Matrimonial Honour
teaches that the duty of subjection, is woman's chief commandment;
and that she is properly made subject by the Law of Creation and by
the Law of Penalty. As thus. All other creatures were created male
and female at the same time; man and woman were not so, for the
Man was first created—as a perfect creature, and afterwards the
woman was thought of. Moreover she was not made of the same
matter, equally, with man,—but of him, of a rib taken from him, and
thirdly, she was made for his use and benefit as a meet help-mate,
“three weighty reasons and grounds of the woman's subjection to the
man, and that from the purpose of the Creator; who might have done
otherwise, that is, have yielded to the Woman co-equal beginning,
sameness of generation, or relation of usefulness; for he might have
made her without any such precedency of matter, without any
dependency upon him, and equally for her good as for his. All shew
at ennobling the Man as the Head and more excellent, not that the
Man might upbraid her, but that she might in all these read her
lesson of subjection. And doubtless, as Malachi speaks, herein is
wisdom, for God hath left nothing to be bettered by our invention.

“The woman, being so created by God in the integrity of Nature had

a most divine honour and partnership of his image, put upon her in
her creation; yea, such as (without prejudice of those three respects)
might have held full and sweet correspondence with her husband.
But her sin still augmented her inequality, and brought her lower and
lower in her prerogative. For since she would take upon her, as a
woman, without respect to the order, dependence and use of her
creation, to enterprize so sad a business, as to jangle and demur
with the Devil about so weighty a point as her husband's freehold,
and of her own brain to lay him and it under foot, without the least
parley and consent of his, obeying Satan before him,—so that till she
had put all beyond question and past amendment, and eaten, she
brought not the fruit to him, therefore the Lord stript her of this robe
of her honour, and smote into the heart of Eve an instinct of
inferiority, a confessed yielding up of her insufficient self to depend
wholly upon her husband.”

This being a favourite commentary with the Doctor upon the first
transgression, what would he have said if he had lived to read an
Apology for Eve by one of her daughters, yes, an Apology for her
and a Defence, showing that she acted meritoriously in eating the
Apple. It is a choice passage and the reader shall have it from Miss
Hatfield's Letters on the Importance of the Female Sex.

“By the creation of woman, the great design was accomplished,—the

universal system was harmonized. Happiness and innocence
reigned together. But unacquainted with the nature or existence of
evil,—conscious only of good and imagining that all were of that
essence around her; without the advantages of the tradition of
forefathers to relate, or of ancient records to hand down, Eve was
fatally and necessarily ignorant of the rebellious disobedience of the
fallen Angels, and of their invisible vigilance and combination to
accomplish the destruction of the new favourites of Heaven.

“In so momentous an event as that which has ever been exclusively

imputed to her, neither her virtue nor her prudence ought to be
suspected; and there is little reason to doubt, that if the same
temptations had been offered to her husband under the same
appearances, but he also would have acquiesced in the commission
of this act of disobedience.

“Eve's attention was attracted by the manner in which the Serpent

first made his attack: he had the gift of speech, which she must have
observed to be a faculty peculiar to themselves. This appeared an
evidence of something supernatural. The wily tempter chose also the
form of the serpent to assist his design, as not only in wisdom and
sagacity that creature surpassed all others, but his figure was also
erect and beautiful, for it was not until the offended justice of God
denounced the curse, that the Serpent's crest was humbled to the
dust.

“During this extraordinary interview, it is evident that Eve felt a full

impression of the divine command, which she repeated to the
tempter at the time of his solicitations. She told him they were not to
eat of that Tree.—But the Serpent opposed her arguments with
sophistry and promises. He said unto the Woman, ye shall not surely
die—but shall be as Gods. What an idea to a mortal!—Such an
image astonished her!—It was not the gross impulses of greedy
appetite that urged her, but a nobler motive that induced her to
examine the consequences of the act.—She was to be better and
happier;—to exchange a mortal for an angelic nature. Her motive
was great,—virtuous,—irresistible. Might she not have felt herself
awed and inspired with a belief of a divine order?—Upon
examination she found it was to produce a greater good than as
mortals they could enjoy; this impression excited a desire to possess
that good; and that desire determined her will and the future destiny
of a World!”

It must be allowed that this Lady Authoress has succeeded in what

might have been supposed the most difficult of all attempts, that of
starting a new heresy,—her followers in which may aptly be
denominated Eveites.

The novelty consists not in excusing the mother of mankind, but in

representing her transgression as a great and meritorious act. An
excuse has been advanced for her in Lodovico Domenichi's
Dialogue upon the nobleness of Women. It is there pleaded that the
fruit of the fatal tree had not been forbidden to Eve, because she
was not created when the prohibition was laid on. Adam it was who
sinned in eating it, not Eve, and it is in Adam that we have all sinned,
and all die. Her offence was in tempting him to eat, et questo
anchora senza intention cattiva, essendo stata tentata dal Diavolo.
L'huomo adunque peccò per certa scientia, et la Donna
ignorantemente, et ingannata.

I know not whether this special pleading be Domenichi's own; but he

must have been conscious that there is a flaw in it, and could not
have been in earnest, as Miss Hatfield is. The Veronese lady Isotta
Nogarola thought differently; essendo studiosa molto di Theologia et
di Philosophia, she composed a Dialogue wherein the question
whether Adam or Eve in the primal transgression had committed the
greater sin. How she determined it I cannot say, never having seen
her works.

Domenichi makes another assertion in honour of womankind which

Miss Hatfield would undoubtedly consider it an honour for herself to
have disproved in her own person,—that no heresy, or error in the
faith ever originated with a woman.

Had this Lady, most ambitious of Eve's daughters, been

contemporary with Doctor Dove, how pleasant it would have been to
have witnessed a debate between them upon the subject! He would
have wound her up to the highest pitch of indignation, and she would
have opened the flood-gates of female oratory upon his head.

CHAPTER CCVI.

THE SUBJECT CONTINUED.—OPINIONS OF THE RABBIS.—ANECDOTE OF

LADY JEKYLL AND A TART REPLY OF WILLIAM WHISTON'S.—JEAN
D'ESPAGNE.—QUEEN ELIZABETH OF THE QUORUM QUARUM QUORUM
GENDER.—THE SOCIETY OF GENTLEMEN AGREE WITH MAHOMET IN
SUPPOSING THAT WOMEN HAVE NO SOULS, BUT ARE OF OPINION THAT THE
DEVIL IS AN HERMAPHRODITE.

Sing of the nature of women; and then the song shall be surely full of variety, old
crotchets, and most sweet closes: it shall be humourous, grave, fantastic, amorous,
melancholy, sprightly, one in all and all in one.

MARSTON.

The Doctor had other theological arguments in aid of the opinion

which he was pleased to support. The remark has been made which
is curious, or in the language of Jeremy Taylor's age, considerable,
that we read in Genesis how when God saw every thing else which
he had made he pronounced that it was very good, but he did not
say this of the woman.

There are indeed certain Rabbis who affirm that Eve was not taken
out of Adam's side: but that Adam had originally been created with a
tail (herein agreeing with the well-known theory of Lord Monboddo)
and that among the various experiments and improvements which
were made in his form and organization before he was finished, the
tail was removed as an inconvenient appendage, and of the
excrescence or superfluous part which was then lopt off, the Woman
was formed.

We are not bound to believe the Rabbis in every thing, the Doctor
would say; and yet it cannot be denied that they have preserved
some valuable traditions which ought to be regarded with much
respect. And then by a gentle inclination of the head—and a peculiar
glance of the eye, he let it be understood that this was one of those
traditions which were entitled to consideration. It was not impossible
he said, but that a different reading in the original text might support
such an interpretation: the same word in Hebrew frequently signified
different things, and rib and tail might in that language be as near
each other in sound or as easily miswritten by a hasty hand, or
misread by an inaccurate eye as costa and cauda in Latin. He did
not pretend that this was the case—but that it might be so. And by a
like corruption (for to such corruptions all written and even all printed
books are liable) the text may have represented that Eve was taken
from the side of her husband instead of from that part of the back
where the tail grew. The dropping of a syllable might occasion it.

And this view of the question he said, derived strong support from
that well known and indubitable text wherein the Husband is called
the Head; for although that expression is in itself most clear and
significative in its own substantive meaning, it becomes still more
beautifully and emphatically appropriate when considered as
referring to this interpretation and tradition, and implying as a direct
and necessary converse that the Wife is the Tail.

There is another legend relating to a like but even less worthy

formation of the first helpmate, and this also is ascribed to the
Rabbis. According to this mythos the rib which had been taken from
Adam was for a moment laid down, and in that moment a monkey
stole it and ran off with it full speed. An Angel pursued, and though
not in league with the Monkey he could have been no good Angel;
for overtaking him, he caught him by the Tail, brought it maliciously
back instead of the Rib, and of that Tail, was Woman made. What
became of the Rib, with which the Monkey got clear off, “was never
to mortal known.”

However the Doctor admitted that on the whole the received opinion
was the more probable. And after making this admission he related
an anecdote of Lady Jekyll who was fond of puzzling herself and
others with such questions as had been common enough a
generation before her, in the days of the Athenian Oracle. She asked
William Whiston of berhymed name and eccentric memory, one day
at her husband's table to resolve a difficulty which occurred to her in
the Mosaic account of the creation. “Since it pleased God, Sir,” said
she, “to create the Woman out of the Man, why did he form her out
of the rib rather than any other part.” Whiston scratched his head
and answered. “Indeed Madam I do not know, unless it be that the
rib is the most crooked part of the body.” “There!” said her husband,
“you have it now: I hope you are satisfied!”

He had found in the writings of the Huguenot divine, Jean

D'Espagne, that Women have never had either the gift of tongues, or
of miracle; the latter gift according to this theologian being withheld
from them because it properly accompanies preaching, and women
are forbidden to be preachers. A reason for the former exception the
Doctor supplied; he said it was because one tongue was quite
enough for them: and he entirely agreed with the Frenchman that it
must be so, because there could have been no peace on earth had it
been otherwise. But whether the sex worked miracles or not, was a
point which he left the Catholics to contend. Female Saints there
certainly had been,—“the Lord,” as Daniel Rogers said, “had gifted
and graced many women above some men especially with holy
affections; I know not,” says that divine, “why he should do it else (for
he is wise and not superfluous in needless things) save that as a
Pearl shining through a chrystal glass, so her excellency shining
through her weakness of sex, might show the glory of the workman.”
He quoted also what the biographer of one of the St. Catharines
says, “that such a woman ought not to be called a woman, but rather
an earthly Angel, or a heavenly homo: hæc fœmina, sed potius
Angelus terrestris, vel si malueris, homo cælestis dicenda erat, quam
fœmina.” In like manner the Hungarians thinking it infamous for a
nation to be governed by a woman—and yet perceiving the great
advantage of preserving the succession, when the crown fell to a
female, they called her King Mary, instead of Queen.

And Queen Elizabeth rather than be accounted of the feminine

gender, claimed it as her prerogative to be of all three. “A prime
officer with a White Staff coming into her presence” she willed him to
bestow a place then vacant upon a person whom she named. “May it
please your Highness Madam,” said the Lord, “the disposal of that
place pertaineth to me by virtue of this White Staff.” “True,” replied
the Queen, “yet I never gave you your office so absolutely, but that I
still reserved myself of the Quorum.” “Of the Quarum, Madam,”
returned the Lord, presuming, somewhat too far, upon her favour.—
Whereat she snatched the staff in some anger out of his hand, and
told him “he should acknowledge her of the Quorum, Quorum,
Quorum before he had it again.”

It was well known indeed to Philosophers, he said, that the female is

an imperfection or default in nature, whose constant design is to
form a male; but where strength and temperament are wanting—a
defective production is the result. Aristotle therefore calls Woman a
Monster, and Plato makes it a question whether she ought not to be
ranked among irrational creatures. There were Greek Philosophers,
who (rightly in his judgment) derived the name of Ἀθηνῆ from Θῆλυς
and alpha privativa, as implying that the Goddess of wisdom, though
Goddess, was nevertheless no female, having nothing of female
imperfection. And a book unjustly ascribed to the learned Acidalius
was published in Latin, and afterwards in French, to prove that
women were not reasonable creatures, but distinguished from men
by this specific difference, as well as in sex.

Mahomet too was not the only person who has supposed that
women have no souls. In this Christian and reformed country, the
question was propounded to the British Apollo whether there is now,
or will be at the resurrection any females in Heaven—since, says the
questioner, there seems to be no need of them there! The Society of
Gentlemen who, (in imitation of John Dunton, his brother-in-law the
elder Wesley, and their coadjutors,) had undertaken in this Journal to
answer all questions, returned a grave reply, that sexes being
corporeal distinctions there could be no such distinction among the
souls which are now in bliss; neither could it exist after the
resurrection, for they who partook of eternal life neither marry nor are
given in marriage.

That same Society supposed the Devil to be an Hermaphrodite, for

though by his roughness they said he might be thought of the
masculine gender, they were led to that opinion because he
appeared so often in petticoats.

CHAPTER CCVII.

FRACAS WITH THE GENDER FEMININE.—THE DOCTOR'S DEFENCE.

If there sit twelve women at the table, let a dozen of them be—as they are.

TIMON OF ATHENS.

“Papp-paah!” says my daughter.

“You intolerable man!” says my wife.

“You abominable creature!” says my wife's eldest sister, “you wicked

wretch!”
“Oh Mr. Author,” says Miss Graveairs, “I did not expect this from
you.”

“Very well, Sir, very well! This is like you!” says the Bow-Begum.

“Was there ever such an atrocious libel upon the sex,” says the Lady
President of the Celestial Blues.

The Ladies of the Stocking unanimously agree in the sentence of

condemnation.

Let me see, who do I know among them. There is Mrs. Lapis Lazuli
and her daughter Miss Ultramarine,—there is Mrs. Bluestone, the
most caustic of female critics, and her friend Miss Gentian,—Heaven
protect me from the bitterness of her remarks,—there is Lady
Turquoise, Lady Celestina Sky, the widow Bluebeard, Miss
Mazarine, and that pretty creature Serena Cerulean, it does me good
to look at her, she is the blue-bell of the party. There is Miss
Sapphire, Miss Priscilla Prussian, Mrs. Indigo, and the Widow Woad.
And Heaven knows who beside. Mercy on me—it were better to be
detected at the mysteries of the Bona Dea, than be found here! Hear
them how they open in succession—

Infamous!

Shameful!

Intolerable!

This is too bad.

He has heaped together all the slanderous and odious things that
could be collected from musty books.

Talk of his Wife and Daughter. I do not believe any one who had wife
and daughter would have composed such a Chapter as that. An old
batchelor I warrant him, and mustier than his books.

Pedant!
Satirist!

Libeller!

Wretch!

Monster!

And Miss Virginia Vinegar compleats the climax by exclaiming with

peculiar emphasis, Man!

All Indigo-land is in commotion; and Urgand the Unknown would be

in as much danger proh-Jupiter! from the Stockingers, if he fell into
their hands, as Orpheus from the Mænades. Tantæne animis
cælestibus iræ?

Why Ladies! dear Ladies! good Ladies! gentle Ladies! merciful

Ladies! hear me,—hear me! In justice, in compassion, in charity hear
me! For your own sakes, and for the honour of feminality hear me!

What has the wretch to say?

What can he say?

What indeed can be said? Nevertheless let us hear him, so bad a

case must always be made worse by any attempt at defending it.

Hear him! hear him!

Englishwomen, countrywomen, and lovelies,—lovelies I certainly

may call you, if it be not lawful for me to say lovers,—hear me for
your honour, and have respect to your honour that you may believe,
censure me in your wisdom, and awake your senses that you may
be better judges. Who is here so unfeminine that would be a male
creature? if any, speak; for her have I offended. Who is here so
coarse that would not be a woman! if any, speak; for her have I
offended. Who is here so vile that will not love her sex? if any speak;
for her have I offended. I can have offended none but those who are
ashamed of their womanhood, if any such there be, which I am far
from thinking.

Gentle Ladies do you in your conscience believe that any reasonable

person could possibly think the worse of womankind, for any of the
strange and preposterous opinions which my lamented and excellent
friend used to repeat in the playfulness of an eccentric fancy? Do
you suppose that he was more in earnest when he brought forward
these learned fooleries, than the Devil's Advocate when pleading
against a suit for canonization in the Papal Court?

questo negro inchiostro, ch'io dispenzo

Non fu per dare, o donne, a i vostri nasi,
Ingrato odore, o d'altro che d'incenzo.1

1 MAURO.

Hear but to the end, and I promise you on the faith of a true man a
Red Letter Chapter in your praise; not a mere panegyric in the
manner of those who flatter while they despise you, but such an
honest estimate as will bear a scrutiny,—and which you will not like
the worse because it may perhaps be found profitable as well as
pleasing.

Forgive me, sacred sex of woman, that,

In thought or syllable, I have declaim'd
Against your goodness; and I will redeem it
With such religious honouring your names,
That when I die, some never thought-stain'd virgin
Shall make a relic of my dust, and throw
My ashes, like a charm, upon those men
Whose faiths they hold suspected.2

2 SHIRLEY.
 CHAPTER CCVIII.

VALUE OF WOMEN AMONG THE AFGHAUNS.—LIGON'S HISTORY OF

BARBADOES, AND A FAVORITE STORY OF THE DOCTOR'S THEREFROM.—
CLAUDE SEISSEL, AND THE SALIC LAW.—JEWISH THANKSGIVING.—
ETYMOLOGY OF MULIER, WOMAN, AND LASS;—FROM WHICH IT MAY BE
GUESSED HOW MUCH IS CONTAINED IN THE LIMBO OF ETYMOLOGY.

If thy name were known that writest in this sort,

By womankind, unnaturally, giving evil report,
Whom all men ought, both young and old, defend with all their might,
Considering what they do deserve of every living wight,
I wish thou should exiled be from women more and less,
And not without just cause thou must thyself confess.
EDWARD MORE.

It would have pleased the Doctor when he was upon this topic if he
had known how exactly the value of women was fixed among the
Afghauns, by whose laws twelve young women are given as a
compensation for the slaughter of one man, six for cutting off a hand,
an ear, or a nose; three for breaking a tooth, and one for a wound of
the scalp.

By the laws of the Venetians as well as of certain Oriental people,

the testimony of two women was made equivalent to that of one
man. And in those of the Welsh King Hywel Dda, or Howel Dha, “the
satisfaction for the murder of a woman, whether she be married or
not, is half that of her brother,” which is upon the same standard of
relative value. By the same laws a woman was not to be admitted as
bail for a man, nor as witness against him.

He knew that a French Antiquarian (Claude Seissel) had derived the

name of the Salic law from the Latin word Sal, comme une loy pleine
de sel, c'est a dire pleine de sapience,1 and this the Doctor thought a
far more rational etymology than what some one proposed either
seriously or in sport, that the law was called Salique because the
words Si aliquis and Si aliqua were of such frequent occurrence in it.
“To be born a manchild,” says that learned author who first
composed an Art of Rhetoric in the English tongue, “declares a
courage, gravity and constancy. To be born a woman, declares
weakness of spirit, neshenes of body and fickleness of mind.”2 Justin
Martyr, after saying that the Demons by whom according to him the
system of heathen mythology was composed, spake of Minerva as
the first Intelligence and the daughter of Jupiter, makes this
observation; “now this we consider most absurd, to carry about the
image of Intelligence in a female form!” The Father said this as
thinking with the great French comic poet that a woman never could
be any thing more than a woman.

Car, voyez-vous, la femme est, comme on dit, mon maître,

Un certain animal difficile à connoître,
Et de qui la nature est fort encline au mal;
Et comme un animal est toujours animal.
Et ne sera jamais qu' animal, quand sa vie
Dureroit cent mille ans; aussi, sans repartie,
La femme est toujours femme, et jamais ne sera
Que femme, tant qu'entier le monde durera.

1 BRANTÔME.

2 WILSON.

A favourite anecdote with our Philosopher was of the Barbadoes

Planters, one of whom agreed to exchange an English maid servant
with the other for a bacon pig, weight for weight, four-pence per
pound to be paid for the overplus, if the balance should be in favour
of the pig, sixpence if it were on the Maid's side. But when they were
weighed in the scales, Honour who was “extreme fat, lazy and good
for nothing,” so far outweighed the pig, that the pig's owner repented
of his improvident bargain, and refused to stand to it. Such a case
Ligon observes, when he records this notable story, seldom
happened; but the Doctor cited it as shewing what had been the
relative value of women and pork in the West Indies. And observe,
he would say, of white women, English, Christian women,—not of
poor heathen blacks, who are considered as brutes, bought and sold
like brutes, worked like brutes—and treated worse than any
Government ought to permit even brutes to be treated.

However, that women were in some respects better than men, he did
not deny. He doubted not but that Cannibals thought them so; for we
know by the testimony of such Cannibals as happen to have tried
both, that white men are considered better meat than negroes, and
Englishmen than Frenchmen, and there could be little doubt that for
the same reason, women would be preferred to men. Yet this was
not the case with animals, as was proved by buck venison, ox beef,
and wether mutton. The tallow of the female goat would not make as
good candles as that of the male. Nature takes more pains in
elaborating her nobler work; and that the male, as being the nobler,
was that which Nature finished with greatest care must be evident,
he thought, to any one who called to mind the difference between
cock and hen birds, a difference discoverable even in the egg, the
larger and finer eggs with a denser white, and a richer yolk,
containing male chicks. Other and more curious observations had
been made tending to the same conclusion, but he omitted them, as
not perhaps suited for general conversation, and not exactly capable
of the same degree of proof. It was enough to hint at them.

The great Ambrose Parey (the John Hunter and the Baron Larrey of
the sixteenth century) has brought forward many instances wherein
women have been changed into men, instances which are not
fabulous: but he observes, “you shall find in no history, men that
have degenerated into women; for nature always intends and goes
from the imperfect to the more perfect, but never basely from the
more perfect to the imperfect.” It was a rule in the Roman law, that
when husband and wife overtaken by some common calamity
perished at the same time, and it could not be ascertained which had
lived the longest, the woman should be presumed to have expired
the first, as being by nature the feeblest. And for the same reason if
it had not been noted whether brother or sister being twins came first
in the world, the legal conclusion was that the boy being the stronger
was the first born.

And from all these facts he thought the writer must be a judicious
person who published a poem entitled the Great Birth of Man, or
Excellence of his creation over Woman.

Therefore according to the Bramins, the widow who burns herself

with the body of her husband, will in her next state be born a male;
but the widow, who refuses to make this self sacrifice, will never be
any thing better than a woman, let her be born again as often as she
may.

Therefore it is that the Jew at this day begins his public prayer with a
thanksgiving to his Maker, for not having made him a woman;—an
escape for which the Greek philosopher was thankful. One of the
things which shocked a Moor who visited England was to see dogs,
women, and dirty shoes permitted to enter a place of worship, the
Mahometans, as is well known, excluding all three from their
Mosques. Not that all Mahometans believe that women have no
souls. There are some who think it more probable they have, and
these more liberal Mussulmen hold that there is a separate Paradise
for them, because they say, if the women were admitted into the
Men's Paradise, it would cease to be Paradise,—there would be an
end of all peace there. It was probably the same reason which
induced Origen to advance an opinion that after the day of Judgment
women will be turned into men. The opinion has been condemned
among his heresies; but the Doctor maintained that it was a
reasonable one, and almost demonstrable upon the supposition that
we are all to be progressive in a future state. There was, however,
he said, according to the Jews a peculiar privilege and happiness
reserved for them, that is for all those of their chosen nation, during
the temporal reign of the Messiah, for every Jewish woman is then to
lie in every day!

“I never,” says Bishop Reynolds, “read of more dangerous falls in the

Saints than were Adam's, Sampson's, David's, Solomon's, and
Peter's; and behold in all these, either the first enticers, or the first
occasioners, are women. A weak creature may be a strong tempter:
nothing too impotent or useless for the Devil's service.” Fuller,
among his Good Thoughts has this paragraph:—“I find the natural
Philosopher making a character of the Lion's disposition, amongst
other his qualities, reporteth, first, that the Lion feedeth on men, and
afterwards (if forced with extremity of hunger) on women. Satan is a
roaring Lion seeking whom he may devour. Only he inverts the
method and in his bill of fare takes the second first. Ever since he
over-tempted our grandmother Eve, encouraged with success he
hath preyed first on the weaker sex.”

“Sit not in the midst of women,” saith the son of Sirach in his
Wisdom, “for from garments cometh a moth, and from women
wickedness.” “Behold, this have I found, saith the Preacher, counting
one by one to find out the account; which yet my soul seeketh, but I
find not: one man among a thousand have I found; but a woman
among all those have I not found.”

“It is a bad thing,” said St. Augustine, “to look upon a woman, a
worse to speak to her, and to touch her is worst of all.” John Bunyan
admired the wisdom of God for making him shy of the sex, and
boasted that it was a rare thing to see him “carry it pleasant towards
a woman.” “The common salutation of women,” said he, “I abhor,
their company alone I cannot away with!” John, the great Tinker,
thought with the son of Sirach, that “better is the churlishness of a
man, than a courteous woman, a woman which bringeth shame and
reproach.” And Menu the law-giver of the Hindoos hath written that
“it is the nature of women in this world to cause the seduction of
men.” And John Moody in the play, says, “I ha' seen a little of them,
and I find that the best, when she's minded, won't ha' much
goodness to spare.” A wife has been called a daily calamity, and
they who thought least unfavourably of the sex have pronounced it a
necessary evil.

“Mulier, quasi mollior,” saith Varro;3 a derivation upon which Dr.

Featley thus commenteth: “Women take their name in Latin from
tenderness or softness, because they are usually of a softer temper
than men, and much more subject to passions, especially of fear,
grief, love and longing; their fear is almost perpetual, their grief
immoderate, their love ardent, and their longing most vehement.
They are the weaker vessels, not only weaker in body than men, and
less able to resist violence, but also weaker in mind and less able to
hold out in temptations; and therefore the Devil first set upon the
woman as conceiving it a matter of more facility to supplant her than
the man.” And they are such dissemblers, says the Poet,

as if their mother had been made

Only of all the falsehood of the man,
Disposed into that rib.

3 The Soothsayer in Cymbeline was of a like opinion with Varro!

The piece of tender air, thy virtuous daughter,

Which we call mollis aer; and mollis aer
We term it mulier.

Southey's favorite play upon the stage was Cymbeline, and next to it, As you like it.

“Look indeed at the very name,” said the Doctor, putting on his
gravest look of provocation to the ladies.—“Look at the very name—
Woman, evidently meaning either man's woe—or abbreviated from
woe to man, because by woman was woe brought into the world.”

And when a girl is called a lass, who does not perceive how that
common word must have arisen? Who does not see that it may be
directly traced to a mournful interjection, alas! breathed sorrowfully
forth at the thought the girl, the lovely and innocent creature upon
whom the beholder has fixed his meditative eye, would in time
become a woman,—a woe to man!

There are other tongues in which the name is not less significant.
The two most notoriously obstinate things in the world are a mule
and a pig. Now there is one language in which pige means a young
woman: and another in which woman is denoted by the word mulier:
which word, whatever grammarians may pretend, is plainly a
comparative, applied exclusively and with peculiar force to denote
the only creature in nature which is more mulish than a mule.
Comment, says a Frenchman, pourroit-on aymer les Dames, puis
qu'elles se nomment ainsi du dam et dommage qu'elles apportent
aux hommes!4
4 BOUCHET.

INTERCHAPTER XXIV.

A TRUE STORY OF THE TERRIBLE KNITTERS E' DENT WHICH WILL BE READ
WITH INTEREST BY HUMANE MANUFACTURERS, AND BY MASTERS OF
SPINNING JENNIES WITH A SMILE.—BETTY YEWDALE.—THE EXCURSION—AN
EXTRACT FROM, AND AN ILLUSTRATION OF.

O voi ch' avete gl' intelletti sani,

Mirate la dottrina, che s' asconde
Sotto 'l velame degli versi strani.
DANTE.
Welcome to our website – the ideal destination for book lovers and
knowledge seekers. With a mission to inspire endlessly, we offer a
vast collection of books, ranging from classic literary works to
specialized publications, self-development books, and children's
literature. Each book is a new journey of discovery, expanding
knowledge and enriching the soul of the reade

Our website is not just a platform for buying books, but a bridge
connecting readers to the timeless values of culture and wisdom. With
an elegant, user-friendly interface and an intelligent search system,
we are committed to providing a quick and convenient shopping
experience. Additionally, our special promotions and home delivery
services ensure that you save time and fully enjoy the joy of reading.

Let us accompany you on the journey of exploring knowledge and

personal growth!

ebookname.com