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Data Structures and

Algorithms in C++
Second Edition

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Data Structures and

Algorithms in C++
Second Edition

Michael T. Goodrich
Department of Computer Science
University of California, Irvine

Roberto Tamassia
Department of Computer Science
Brown University

David M. Mount
Department of Computer Science
University of Maryland

John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

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ACQUISITIONS EDITOR Beth Lang Golub

MARKETING MANAGER Chris Ruel
EDITORIAL ASSISTANT Elizabeth Mills
MEDIA EDITOR Thomas Kulesa
SENIOR DESIGNER Jim O’Shea
CONTENT MANAGER Micheline Frederick
PRODUCTION EDITOR Amy Weintraub
PHOTO EDITOR Sheena Goldstein

This book was set in LATEX by the authors and printed and bound by Malloy Lithographers.
The cover was printed by Malloy Lithographers. The cover image is from Wuta Wuta Tjan-
gala, “Emu dreaming” c estate of the artist 2009 licensed by Aboriginal Artists Agency.
Jennifer Steele/Art Resource, NY.
This book is printed on acid free paper. ∞
Trademark Acknowledgments: Java is a trademark of Sun Microsystems, Inc. UNIX R is
a registered trademark in the United States and other countries, licensed through X/Open
Company, Ltd. PowerPoint R is a trademark of Microsoft Corporation. All other product
names mentioned herein are the trademarks of their respective owners.
Copyright c 2011, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted
in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, scanning
or otherwise, except as permitted under Sections 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States
Copyright Act, without either the prior written permission of the Publisher, or authorization
through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee to the Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.
222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (978)750-8400, fax (978)646-8600.
Requests to the Publisher for permission should be addressed to the Permissions Depart-
ment, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, NJ 07030, (201)748-6011, fax
(201)748-6008, E-Mail: PERMREQ@WILEY.COM.
To order books or for customer service please call 1-800-CALL WILEY (225-5945).
Founded in 1807, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. has been a valued source of knowledge and
understanding for more than 200 years, helping people around the world meet their needs
and fulfill their aspirations. Our company is built on a foundation of principles that include
responsibility to the communities we serve and where we live and work. In 2008, we
launched a Corporate Citizenship Initiative, a global effort to address the environmental,
social, economic, and ethical challenges we face in our business. Among the issues we
are addressing are carbon impact, paper specifications and procurement, ethical conduct
within our business and among our vendors, and community and charitable support. For
more information, please visit our website: www.wiley.com/go/citizenship.
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data
ISBN-13 978-0-470-38327-8

Printed in the United States of America

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

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To Karen, Paul, Anna, and Jack

– Michael T. Goodrich

To Isabel
– Roberto Tamassia

To Jeanine
– David M. Mount

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Preface
This second edition of Data Structures and Algorithms in C++ is designed to pro-
vide an introduction to data structures and algorithms, including their design, analy-
sis, and implementation. In terms of curricula based on the IEEE/ACM 2001 Com-
puting Curriculum, this book is appropriate for use in the courses CS102 (I/O/B
versions), CS103 (I/O/B versions), CS111 (A version), and CS112 (A/I/O/F/H ver-
sions). We discuss its use for such courses in more detail later in this preface.
The major changes in the second edition are the following:
• We added more examples of data structure and algorithm analysis.
• We enhanced consistency with the C++ Standard Template Library (STL).
• We incorporated STL data structures into many of our data structures.
• We added a chapter on arrays, linked lists, and iterators (Chapter 3).
• We added a chapter on memory management and B-trees (Chapter 14).
• We enhanced the discussion of algorithmic design techniques, like dynamic
programming and the greedy method.
• We simplified and reorganized the presentation of code fragments.
• We have introduced STL-style iterators into our container classes, and have
presented C++ implementations for these iterators, even for complex struc-
tures such as hash tables and binary search trees.
• We have modified our priority-queue interface to use STL-style comparator
objects.
• We expanded and revised exercises, continuing our approach of dividing
them into reinforcement, creativity, and project exercises.

This book is related to the following books:

• M.T. Goodrich and R. Tamassia, Data Structures and Algorithms in Java,
John Wiley & Sons, Inc. This book has a similar overall structure to the
present book, but uses Java as the underlying language (with some modest,
but necessary pedagogical differences required by this approach).
• M.T. Goodrich and R. Tamassia, Algorithm Design: Foundations, Analysis,
and Internet Examples, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. This is a textbook for a more
advanced algorithms and data structures course, such as CS210 (T/W/C/S
versions) in the IEEE/ACM 2001 curriculum.
While this book retains the same pedagogical approach and general structure
as Data Structures and Algorithms in Java, the code fragments have been com-
pletely redesigned. We have been careful to make full use of C++’s capabilities and
design code in a manner that is consistent with modern C++ usage. In particular,
whenever appropriate, we make extensive use of C++ elements that are not part of
Java, including the C++ Standard Template Library (STL), C++ memory allocation
vii

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viii Preface
and deallocation (and the associated issues of destructors), virtual functions, stream
input and output, operator overloading, and C++’s safe run-time casting.

Use as a Textbook
The design and analysis of efficient data structures has long been recognized as a
vital subject in computing, because the study of data structures is part of the core
of every collegiate computer science and computer engineering major program we
are familiar with. Typically, the introductory courses are presented as a two- or
three-course sequence. Elementary data structures are often briefly introduced in
the first programming course or in an introduction to computer science course and
this is followed by a more in-depth introduction to data structures in the courses that
follow after this. Furthermore, this course sequence is typically followed at a later
point in the curriculum by a more in-depth study of data structures and algorithms.
We feel that the central role of data structure design and analysis in the curriculum
is fully justified, given the importance of efficient data structures in most software
systems, including the Web, operating systems, databases, compilers, and scientific
simulation systems.
With the emergence of the object-oriented paradigm as the framework of choice
for building robust and reusable software, we have tried to take a consistent object-
oriented viewpoint throughout this text. One of the main ideas behind the object-
oriented approach is that data should be presented as being encapsulated with the
methods that access and modify them. That is, rather than simply viewing data
as a collection of bytes and addresses, we think of data objects as instances of an
abstract data type (ADT), which includes a repertoire of methods for performing
operations on data objects of this type. Likewise, object-oriented solutions are often
organized utilizing common design patterns, which facilitate software reuse and
robustness. Thus, we present each data structure using ADTs and their respective
implementations and we introduce important design patterns as a way to organize
those implementations into classes, methods, and objects.
For most of the ADTs presented in this book, we provide a description of the
public interface in C++. Also, concrete data structures realizing the ADTs are
discussed and we often give concrete C++ classes implementing these interfaces.
We also give C++ implementations of fundamental algorithms, such as sorting and
graph searching. Moreover, in addition to providing techniques for using data struc-
tures to implement ADTs, we also give sample applications of data structures, such
as HTML tag matching and a simple system to maintain a play list for a digital
audio system. Due to space limitations, however, we only show code fragments of
some of the implementations in this book and make additional source code avail-
able on the companion web site.

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Preface ix

Online Resources
This book is accompanied by an extensive set of online resources, which can be
found at the following web site:

www.wiley.com/college/goodrich
Included on this Web site is a collection of educational aids that augment the
topics of this book, for both students and instructors. Students are encouraged to
use this site along with the book, to help with exercises and increase understand-
ing of the subject. Instructors are likewise welcome to use the site to help plan,
organize, and present their course materials. Because of their added value, some of
these online resources are password protected.

For the Student

For all readers, and especially for students, we include the following resources:
• All the C++ source code presented in this book.
• PDF handouts of Powerpoint slides (four-per-page) provided to instructors.
• A database of hints to all exercises, indexed by problem number.
• An online study guide, which includes solutions to selected exercises.
The hints should be of considerable use to anyone needing a little help getting
started on certain exercises, and the solutions should help anyone wishing to see
completed exercises. Students who have purchased a new copy of this book will
get password access to the hints and other password-protected online resources at
no extra charge. Other readers can purchase password access for a nominal fee.

For the Instructor

For instructors using this book, we include the following additional teaching aids:
• Solutions to over 200 of the book’s exercises.
• A database of additional exercises, suitable for quizes and exams.
• Additional C++ source code.
• Slides in Powerpoint and PDF (one-per-page) format.
• Self-contained, special-topic supplements, including discussions on convex
hulls, range trees, and orthogonal segment intersection.
The slides are fully editable, so as to allow an instructor using this book full free-
dom in customizing his or her presentations. All the online resources are provided
at no extra charge to any instructor adopting this book for his or her course.

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x Preface

A Resource for Teaching Data Structures and Algorithms

This book contains many C++-code and pseudo-code fragments, and hundreds of
exercises, which are divided into roughly 40% reinforcement exercises, 40% cre-
ativity exercises, and 20% programming projects.
This book can be used for the CS2 course, as described in the 1978 ACM Com-
puter Science Curriculum, or in courses CS102 (I/O/B versions), CS103 (I/O/B ver-
sions), CS111 (A version), and/or CS112 (A/I/O/F/H versions), as described in the
IEEE/ACM 2001 Computing Curriculum, with instructional units as outlined in
Table 0.1.

Instructional Unit Relevant Material

PL1. Overview of Programming Languages Chapters 1 and 2
PL2. Virtual Machines Sections 14.1.1 and 14.1.2
PL3. Introduction to Language Translation Section 1.7
PL4. Declarations and Types Sections 1.1.2, 1.1.3, and 2.2.5
PL5. Abstraction Mechanisms Sections 2.2.5, 5.1–5.3, 6.1.1, 6.2.1, 6.3,
7.1, 7.3.1, 8.1, 9.1, 9.5, 11.4, and 13.1.1
PL6. Object-Oriented Programming Chapters 1 and 2 and Sections 6.2.1,
7.3.7, 8.1.2, and 13.3.1
PF1. Fundamental Programming Constructs Chapters 1 and 2
PF2. Algorithms and Problem-Solving Sections 1.7 and 4.2
PF3. Fundamental Data Structures Sections 3.1, 3.2, 5.1–5.3, 6.1–6.3, 7.1,
7.3, 8.1, 8.3, 9.1–9.4, 10.1, and 13.1.1
PF4. Recursion Section 3.5
SE1. Software Design Chapter 2 and Sections 6.2.1, 7.3.7,
8.1.2, and 13.3.1
SE2. Using APIs Sections 2.2.5, 5.1–5.3, 6.1.1, 6.2.1, 6.3,
7.1, 7.3.1, 8.1, 9.1, 9.5, 11.4, and 13.1.1
AL1. Basic Algorithmic Analysis Chapter 4
AL2. Algorithmic Strategies Sections 11.1.1, 11.5.1, 12.2, 12.3.1, and
12.4.2
AL3. Fundamental Computing Algorithms Sections 8.1.5, 8.2.2, 8.3.5, 9.2, and
9.3.1, and Chapters 11, 12, and 13
DS1. Functions, Relations, and Sets Sections 4.1, 8.1, and 11.4
DS3. Proof Techniques Sections 4.3, 6.1.3, 7.3.3, 8.3, 10.2–10.5,
11.2.1, 11.3.1, 11.4.3, 13.1.1, 13.3.1,
13.4, and 13.5
DS4. Basics of Counting Sections 2.2.3 and 11.1.5
DS5. Graphs and Trees Chapters 7, 8, 10, and 13
DS6. Discrete Probability Appendix A and Sections 9.2, 9.4.2,
11.2.1, and 11.5

Table 0.1: Material for units in the IEEE/ACM 2001 Computing Curriculum.

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Preface xi

Contents and Organization

The chapters for this course are organized to provide a pedagogical path that starts
with the basics of C++ programming and object-oriented design. We provide an
early discussion of concrete structures, like arrays and linked lists, in order to pro-
vide a concrete footing to build upon when constructing other data structures. We
then add foundational techniques like recursion and algorithm analysis, and, in the
main portion of the book, we present fundamental data structures and algorithms,
concluding with a discussion of memory management (that is, the architectural
underpinnings of data structures). Specifically, the chapters for this book are orga-
nized as follows:

1. A C++ Primer
2. Object-Oriented Design
3. Arrays, Linked Lists, and Recursion
4. Analysis Tools
5. Stacks, Queues, and Deques
6. List and Iterator ADTs
7. Trees
8. Heaps and Priority Queues
9. Hash Tables, Maps, and Skip Lists
10. Search Trees
11. Sorting, Sets, and Selection
12. Strings and Dynamic Programming
13. Graph Algorithms
14. Memory Management and B-Trees
A. Useful Mathematical Facts
A more detailed listing of the contents of this book can be found in the table of
contents.

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xii Preface

Prerequisites
We have written this book assuming that the reader comes to it with certain knowl-
edge. We assume that the reader is at least vaguely familiar with a high-level pro-
gramming language, such as C, C++, Python, or Java, and that he or she understands
the main constructs from such a high-level language, including:
• Variables and expressions.
• Functions (also known as methods or procedures).
• Decision structures (such as if-statements and switch-statements).
• Iteration structures (for-loops and while-loops).
For readers who are familiar with these concepts, but not with how they are ex-
pressed in C++, we provide a primer on the C++ language in Chapter 1. Still, this
book is primarily a data structures book, not a C++ book; hence, it does not provide
a comprehensive treatment of C++. Nevertheless, we do not assume that the reader
is necessarily familiar with object-oriented design or with linked structures, such
as linked lists, since these topics are covered in the core chapters of this book.
In terms of mathematical background, we assume the reader is somewhat famil-
iar with topics from high-school mathematics. Even so, in Chapter 4, we discuss
the seven most-important functions for algorithm analysis. In fact, sections that use
something other than one of these seven functions are considered optional, and are
indicated with a star (⋆). We give a summary of other useful mathematical facts,
including elementary probability, in Appendix A.

About the Authors

Professors Goodrich, Tamassia, and Mount are well-recognized researchers in al-
gorithms and data structures, having published many papers in this field, with ap-
plications to Internet computing, information visualization, computer security, and
geometric computing. They have served as principal investigators in several joint
projects sponsored by the National Science Foundation, the Army Research Of-
fice, the Office of Naval Research, and the Defense Advanced Research Projects
Agency. They are also active in educational technology research.
Michael Goodrich received his Ph.D. in Computer Science from Purdue Uni-
versity in 1987. He is currently a Chancellor’s Professor in the Department of Com-
puter Science at University of California, Irvine. Previously, he was a professor at
Johns Hopkins University. He is an editor for a number of journals in computer
science theory, computational geometry, and graph algorithms. He is an ACM Dis-
tinguished Scientist, a Fellow of the American Association for the Advancement of
Science (AAAS), a Fulbright Scholar, and a Fellow of the IEEE. He is a recipient of
the IEEE Computer Society Technical Achievement Award, the ACM Recognition
of Service Award, and the Pond Award for Excellence in Undergraduate Teaching.

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Preface xiii
Roberto Tamassia received his Ph.D. in Electrical and Computer Engineering
from the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign in 1988. He is the Plastech
Professor of Computer Science and the Chair of the Department of Computer Sci-
ence at Brown University. He is also the Director of Brown’s Center for Geometric
Computing. His research interests include information security, cryptography, anal-
ysis, design, and implementation of algorithms, graph drawing, and computational
geometry. He is an IEEE Fellow and a recipient of the Technical Achievement
Award from the IEEE Computer Society for pioneering the field of graph drawing.
He is an editor of several journals in geometric and graph algorithms. He previously
served on the editorial board of IEEE Transactions on Computers.
David Mount received his Ph.D. in Computer Science from Purdue University
in 1983. He is currently a professor in the Department of Computer Science at
the University of Maryland with a joint appointment in the University of Mary-
land’s Institute for Advanced Computer Studies. He is an associate editor for ACM
Transactions on Mathematical Software and the International Journal of Compu-
tational Geometry and Applications. He is the recipient of two ACM Recognition
of Service Awards.
In addition to their research accomplishments, the authors also have extensive
experience in the classroom. For example, Dr. Goodrich has taught data structures
and algorithms courses, including Data Structures as a freshman-sophomore level
course and Introduction to Algorithms as an upper-level course. He has earned sev-
eral teaching awards in this capacity. His teaching style is to involve the students in
lively interactive classroom sessions that bring out the intuition and insights behind
data structuring and algorithmic techniques. Dr. Tamassia has taught Data Struc-
tures and Algorithms as an introductory freshman-level course since 1988. One
thing that has set his teaching style apart is his effective use of interactive hyper-
media presentations integrated with the Web. Dr. Mount has taught both the Data
Structures and the Algorithms courses at the University of Maryland since 1985.
He has won a number of teaching awards from Purdue University, the University of
Maryland, and the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology. His lecture
notes and homework exercises for the courses that he has taught are widely used as
supplementary learning material by students and instructors at other universities.

Acknowledgments
There are a number of individuals who have made contributions to this book.
We are grateful to all our research collaborators and teaching assistants, who
provided feedback on early drafts of chapters and have helped us in developing
exercises, software, and algorithm animation systems. There have been a number of
friends and colleagues whose comments have lead to improvements in the text. We
are particularly thankful to Michael Goldwasser for his many valuable suggestions.

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 Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics
and of more than forty generations of followers of the Benedictine rule,
keeping age after age their vigils of labor, prayer, and fasting, but
feasting their uncloistered eyes—per gl’ occhi almeno non v’ è
clausura!—upon the massive ranges of the central Apennines and the
placid valley of the Garigliano, “the Land of Labor and the Land of
Rest.” Its golden age was the eleventh and early twelfth centuries,
when its relations with the Normans and the Papacy kept it in the
forefront of Italian politics, when two of its abbots sat upon the throne
of St. Peter, and when the greatest of them, Desiderius—as Pope
known as Victor III—built a great basilica which was adorned by
workmen from Constantinople with mosaics and with the great bronze
doors which are the chief surviving evidence of its early splendor. Men
of learning were drawn to the monastery, like the monk Constantine
the African, skilled in the science of the Greek and Arabic physicians,
whose works he translated into Latin. Manuscripts of every sort were
copied in the characteristic south-Italian hand, the Beneventan script,
which serves as a sure index of the intellectual activity throughout the
southern half of the peninsula in this period—sermons and service-
books, theological commentaries and lives of the saints, but also the
law-books of Justinian and the writings of the Latin poets and
historians with their commentators. Indeed without the scribes of
Monte Cassino the world would have lost some of its most precious
monuments of antiquity and the early Middle Ages, including on the
mediæval side the oldest of the papal registers, that of John VIII, and
on the classical, Varro, Apuleius, and the greater part of the works of
Tacitus. Nowhere else is the work of the monasteries as the preservers
of ancient learning more manifest.
The home of Greek learning in Italy was likewise to be found in
monasteries, in those Basilian foundations which had spread over
Calabria and the Basilicata in the ninth and tenth centuries and now
under Norman protection sent out new colonies like the abbey of San
Salvatore at Messina. Enriched with lands and rents and feudal
holdings, they also set themselves to the building up of libraries by
copies and by manuscripts brought from the East; but so far as we can
judge from the ancient catalogues and from the scattered fragments
which survive their dispersion, these collections were almost entirely
biblical and theological in character, including however splendid
examples of calligraphy such as the text of the Gospels, written in
silver letters on purple vellum and adorned with beautiful miniatures,
which is still preserved in the cathedral of Rossano.
Meanwhile, and largely as a result of the constant relations
between southern Italy and the Greek East, learning had spread
beyond monastery walls and ecclesiastical subjects, and had begun to
attract the attention of men from the north. An English scholar, Adelard
of Bath, who visited the south at the beginning of the twelfth century,
found a Latin bishop of Syracuse skilled in all the mathematical arts, a
Greek philosopher of Magna Græcia who discoursed on natural
philosophy, and the greatest medical school of Europe in the old
Lombard capital at Salerno, early famed as the city of Hippocrates and
the seat of the oldest university in the West. A generation later, another
Englishman, the humanist John of Salisbury, studies philosophy with a
Greek interpreter in Apulia and drinks the heavy wines of the Sicilian
chancellor; while still others profit by translations of Greek
philosophical and mathematical works from the Italian libraries. The
distinctive element in southern learning lay, however, not on the Latin
side, but in its immediate contact with Greek and Arabic scholarship,
and the chief meeting-point of these various currents of culture was the
royal court at Palermo, direct heir to the civilization of Saracen Sicily.

* * * * *
The Sicilian court, like the kingdom, was many-tongued and
cosmopolitan, its praises being sung alike by Arabic travellers and
poets, by grave Byzantine ecclesiastics, and by Latin scholars of Italy
and the north. A Greek archimandrite, Neilos Doxopatrios, produced at
King Roger’s request a History of the Five Patriarchates directed
against the supremacy of the Pope of Rome; a Saracen, Edrisi,
prepared under his direction the greatest treatise of Arabic geography,
celebrated long afterward as “King Roger’s Book.” Under William I the
chief literary figures are likewise connected with the court: Eugene the
Emir, a Greek poet thoroughly conversant with Arabic and deeply
versed in the mathematics and astronomy of the ancients; and
Henricus Aristippus, archdeacon of Catania and for a time chief
minister of the king, a collector of manuscripts, a translator of Plato,
Aristotle, and Diogenes Laertius, and an investigator of the
phenomena connected with the eruption of Etna in a spirit which
reminds us less of the age of the schoolmen than of the death of the
younger Pliny. Such a literary atmosphere was peculiarly favorable, to
the production of translations from the Greek and Arabic into Latin, and
we can definitely connect with Sicily the versions which made known to
western Europe the Meno and Phædo of Plato, portions of the
Meteorology and of certain other works of Aristotle, the more advanced
writings of Euclid, and the Almagest of Ptolemy, the greatest of ancient
and mediæval treatises on astronomy. In a very different field we have
from Roger’s reign a Greco-Arabic psalter and an important group of
New Testament manuscripts. “While we Germans were in many
respects barbarians,” says Springer, “the ruling classes in Sicily
enjoyed the almost over-ripe fruits of an ancient culture and combined
69
Norman vigor of youth with Oriental refinement of life.”
There were lacking in the twelfth century the poetic and
imaginative elements which flourished at the court of Frederick II, but
on the scientific and philosophical sides there is clear continuity in the
intellectual history of the south from Roger II and William to Frederick II
and Manfred. At one point it is even probable that an actual material
connection can be traced, for the collection of Greek manuscripts upon
which Manfred set great store seems to have had its origin in codices
brought from Constantinople to Palermo under the first Norman kings;
and as Manfred’s library probably passed into the possession of the
Popes, it became the basis of the oldest collection of Greek
manuscripts in the Europe of the humanists. Within its limits the
intellectual movement at the court of King Roger and his son had many
of the elements of a renaissance, and like the great revival of the
fourteenth century, it owed much to princely favor. It was at the kings’
request that translations were undertaken and the works of Neilos and
Edrisi written, and it was no accident that two such scholars as
Aristippus and Eugene of Palermo occupied high places in the royal
administration. In their patronage of learning, as well as in the
enlightened and anti-feudal character of their government, the Sicilian
sovereigns, from Roger to Frederick II, belong to the age of the new
statecraft and the humanistic revival.
The art of the Sicilian kingdom, like its learning and its government,
was the product of many diverse elements, developing on the
mainland into a variety of local and provincial types, but in Sicily
combined and harmonized under the guiding will of the royal court.
Traces of direct Norman influence occur, as in the towers and exterior
decoration of the cathedral of Cefalù or in the plan of that great resort
of Norman pilgrims, the church of St. Nicholas at Bari; but in the main
the Normans, in Bertaux’s phrase, contributed little more than the
cement which bound together the artistic materials furnished by
70
others. These materials were abundant and various, the Roman
basilica and the Greek cupola, the bronze doors and the brilliant
mosaics of Byzantine craftsmen, the domes, the graceful arches and
ceilings, and the intricate arabesques of Saracen art; yet in the
churches and palaces of Sicily they were fused into a beautiful and
harmonious whole which still dazzles us with its splendor. The chief
examples of this ‘Norman’ style are to be found at Cefalù, King Roger’s
cherished foundation, where he prepared his last resting-place in the
great porphyry sarcophagus later transported to Palermo, and where
Byzantine artists worked in blue and gold wonderful pictures of Christ
and the Virgin and stately figures of archangels and saints of the
Eastern Church; at Monreale, the royal mount of William II,
commanding the inexhaustible wealth of Palermo’s Golden Shell and
serving as the incomparable site of a great cathedral, with storied
mosaics of every color covering its walls and vaulted ceiling like an
illuminated missal, and with cloisters of rare and piercing beauty; and
between them, in space and time, the palaces and churches of
Palermo—the church of the Martorana, built in the Byzantine style and
endowed with a Greek library by Roger’s admiral George of Antioch,
the Saracenic edifices of San Cataldo and San Giovanni degli Eremiti,
and the unsurpassed glories of the Cappella Palatina—all set against
the brilliant background of the Sicilian capital, which owes to the
Norman kings its unique place in the history of art.
Welcoming merchants and strangers of every land and race,
containing within itself organized communities of Greeks,
Mohammedans, and Jews, each with its own churches, mosques, or
synagogues, the Palermo of the twelfth century was a great
cosmopolitan city and the natural centre of a Mediterranean art.
Midway between Cordova and Constantinople, between Africa and
Italy, it laid them all under contribution. Travellers celebrated the
luxuriant gardens of the city and its surrounding plain, with the vast
fields of sugar cane and groves of orange, fig, and lemon, olive and
palm and pomegranate, its commodious harbor and its spacious and
busy streets, its gorgeous fabrics and abundance of foreign wares, its
walls and palaces and places of worship. “A stupendous city,” says the
71
Spanish traveller, Ibn Giobair, “elegant, graceful, and splendid, rising
before one like a temptress” ... and offering its king—“may Allah take
them from him!—every pleasure in the world.” An artist’s city, too,
distinguished by the qualities which Goethe saw in it, “the purity of its
light, the delicacy of its lines and tones, the harmony of earth and sea
and sky.”
From the highest point in the capital rose the royal palace, which
still retains, in spite of the transformations of eight centuries,
something of the massiveness and the splendor of its Norman original,
of which it preserves the great Pisan tower,—once the repository of the
royal treasure,—the royal chapel, and one of the state apartments of
King Roger’s time. Its terraces and gardens have long since
disappeared, with their marble lions and plashing fountains which
resembled the Alhambra or the great pleasure-grounds of the
Mohammedan East; but we can easily call them to life with the aid of
the Saracen poets and of the remains of the other royal residences
which surrounded the city “like a necklace of pearls.” Here, amid his
harem and his eunuchs, the officers of his court and his retinue of
Mohammedan servants, the king lived much after the manner of an
Oriental potentate. On state occasions he donned the purple and gold
of the Greek emperors or the sumptuous vestments of red samite,
embroidered with golden tigers and camels and Arabic invocations to
the Christian Redeemer, which are still preserved among the treasures
of the Holy Roman Empire at Vienna. And when, on festivals, he
entered the palace chapel, Latin in its ground-plan, Greek and Arabic
in its ornamentation, the atmosphere was likewise Oriental. As
described at its dedication in 1140, with the starry heavens of its ceiling
and the flowery meadows of its pavement, the chapel preserves its
fundamental features to-day. Dome and choir are dominated by great
Byzantine figures of Christ, accompanied by Byzantine saints and
scenes with Greek inscriptions, all executed with the fullest brilliancy of
which mosaics are capable, while the stalactite ceiling, “dripping with
all the elaborate richness of Saracen art,” seems “to re-create some
forgotten vision of the Arabian Nights.” Harmonious in design yet
infinitely varied in detail, rich beyond belief in color and in line,
reflecting alike the dim rays of its pendent lamps or the full light of the
southern sun, the Cappella Palatina is the fullest and most adequate
expression of the many-sided art of the Norman kingdom and the
unifying force of the Norman kings.

* * * * *
Brilliant but ephemeral, precocious but lacking in permanent
results—such are the judgments commonly passed upon the Sicilian
kingdom and its civilization. At best the kingdom seems to reach no
farther than Frederick II, and of him Freeman has said that, though
qualified by genius to start some great movement or begin some new
era, he seemed fated to stand at the end of everything which he
touched—the mediæval empire, the Sicilian kingdom, the Norman-
72
Hohenstaufen line. In the field of government these statements are
in the main true: the rapid changes of dynasties and the deep political
decline into which the south ultimately fell destroyed the unity of its
political development and nullified the work of Norman state-building,
so that the enduring results of Norman statesmanship and Norman law
must be sought in the north and not in Italy. That, however, is not the
whole of the story, and in the field of culture influences less palpable,
but none the less real, flowed from the Norman stream into the general
currents of European civilization. So long as the Renaissance of the
fourteenth and fifteenth centuries was looked upon as simply the
negation of the Middle Ages by a return to classical antiquity, figures
such as King Roger and Frederick II were merely ‘sports,’ isolated
flashes of genius and modernity without any relation to their own times
or to the greater movement which followed. Since, however, we have
come to view the Renaissance in its larger aspects as far more than a
classical revival, its relations to the Middle Ages are seen to have been
much more intimate and important than was once supposed. The
evolution is at times rapid, but the Trecento grows out of the centuries
which preceded as naturally as it grew into the Quattrocento which
followed. The place of Italy in this process is universally recognized;
the place of southern Italy is sometimes overlooked. We are too prone
to forget that Niccola Pisano was also called Nicholas of Apulia; that
Petrarch owed much to his sojourn at the Neapolitan court; that
Boccaccio learned his Greek from a Calabrian; that the first notes of a
new Italian literature were sounded at the court of Frederick II. Many
phases of the relation between south and north in this transitional
period are still obscure, but of the significance of the southern
contribution there is now reasonable assurance. Moreover, the
continuity between the intellectual movement under Roger and William
I and that under Frederick II and later can be followed in some detail in
the history of individual manuscripts and authors. When humanists like
Petrarch and Salutati read Plato’s Phædo or Ptolemy’s Almagest, their
libraries show that they used the Latin versions of the Sicilian
translators of the twelfth century. The learning of the southern kingdom
may have been a faint light, but it was handed on, not extinguished.
For our general understanding of the Normans and their work, it is
well that we should trace them in the lands where their direct influence
grows faint and dim, as well as in those where their descendants still
rule. Only a formal and mechanical view of history seeks to ticket off
particular races against particular regions as the sole sources of
population and power; only false national pride conceives of any
people as continually in the vanguard of civilization. Races are mixed
things, institutions and civilization are still more complex, and no
people can claim to be a unique and permanent source of light and
strength. Outside of Normandy the Normans were but a small folk, and
sooner or later they inevitably lost their identity. They did their work
pre-eminently not as a people apart, but as a group of leaders and
energizers, the little leaven that leaveneth the whole lump. Wherever
they went, they showed a marvellous power of initiative and of
assimilation; if the initiative is more evident in England, the assimilation
is more manifest in Sicily. The penalty for such activity is rapid loss of
identity; the reward is a large share in the general development of
civilization. If the Normans paid the penalty, they also reaped the
reward, and they were never more Norman than in adopting the
statesmanlike policy of toleration and assimilation which led to their
ultimate extinction. Plus ça change, plus c’est la même chose!

BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTE
 The best general account of the Norman kingdom is that of
Chalandon, who carries its history to 1194 and gives also a
provisional description of its institutions and an unsatisfactory
chapter on its civilization. E. Caspar, Roger II (Innsbruck, 1904), is
the best book on the reign; Curtis, Roger of Sicily, is convenient.
G. B. Siragusa, Il regno di Guglielmo I (Palermo, 1885–86), and I.
La Lumia, Storia della Sicilia sotto Guglielmo il Buono (Florence,
1867), need revision. For Constance, T. Toeche, Kaiser Heinrich
VI (Leipzig, 1867), is still useful.

* * * * *
The treatment of Sicilian institutions by E. Mayer, Italienische
Verfassungsgeschichte (Leipzig, 1909), is too juristic. There is an
excellent book on the chancery by K. A. Kehr, Die Urkunden der
normannisch-sicilischen Könige (Innsbruck, 1902); and on the
duana there are important monographs by Amari, in the Memorie
dei Lincei, third series, ii, pp. 409–38 (1878); and by C. A. Garufi,
in Archivio storico italiano, fifth series, xxvii, pp. 225–63 (1901).
For local administration see the valuable study of Miss E. Jamison,
The Norman Administration of Apulia and Capua, in Papers of the
British School at Rome, vi, pp. 211–481 (1913). See also H.
Niese, Die Gesetzgebung der normannischen Dynastie im
Regnum Siciliae (Halle, 1910); Haskins, “England and Sicily in the
Twelfth Century,” in English Historical Review, xxvi, pp. 433–47,
641–65 (1911); W. Cohn, Die Geschichte der normannisch-
sicilischen Flotte (Breslau, 1910); R. Straus, Die Juden im
Königreich Sizilien (Heidelberg, 1910); F. Zechbauer, Das
mittelalterliche Strafrecht Siziliens (Berlin, 1908); and various
studies in the Miscellanea Salinas (Palermo, 1907) and the
Centenario Michele Amari (Palermo, 1910). The commerce of the
Sicilian kingdom is described by A. Schaube, Handelsgeschichte
der romanischen Völker (Munich, 1906).

* * * * *
For Monte Cassino in this period see E. A. Loew, The
Beneventan Script (Oxford, 1914), with the works there cited; R.
Palmarocchi, L’abbazia di Montecassino e la conquista normanna
(Rome, 1913). On the Greek monasteries, see Gay, L’Italie
méridionale; P. Batiffol, L’abbaye de Rossano (Paris, 1891); K.
Lake, “The Greek Monasteries in South Italy,” in Journal of
Theological Studies, iv, v (1903–04); and F. LoParco, Scolario-
Saba, in Atti of the Naples Academy, new series, i (1910). The
best account of Saracen culture in Sicily is still that of Amari. On
the south-Italian and Sicilian translators, see O. Hartwig, “Die
Uebersetzungsliteratur Unteritaliens in der normannisch-
staufischen Epoche,” in Centralblatt für Bibliothekswesen, iii, pp.
161–90, 223–25, 505 (1886); Haskins and Lockwood, The Sicilian
Translators of the Twelfth Century and the First Latin Version of
Ptolemy’s Almagest, in Harvard Studies in Classical Philology, xxi,
pp. 75–102 (1910); Haskins, ibid., xxiii, pp. 155–166; xxv, pp. 87–
105. On the Sicilian origin of the Greek MSS. of the papal library,
see J. L. Heiberg, in Oversigt of the Danish Academy, 1891, pp.
305–18; F. Ehrle, in Festgabe Anton de Waal (Rome, 1913), pp.
348–51. The connection of the intellectual movement of the twelfth
century with the renaissance under Frederick II is well brought out
by Niese, “Zur Geschichte des geistigen Lebens am Hofe Kaiser
Friedrichs II,” in Historische Zeitschrift, cviii, pp. 473–540 (1912).
In general see F. Novati, Le origini, in course of publication in the
Storia letteraria d’Italia (Milan, since 1897).

* * * * *
The development of art in the south in this period is treated by
A. Venturi, Storia dell’ arte italiana (Rome, 1901 ff.), ii, ch. 3; iii, ch.
2. See also C. Diehl, L’art byzantin dans l’Italie méridionale (Paris,
1894). For the continental territories there is an excellent account
in E. Bertaux, L’art dans l’Italie méridionale (Paris, 1904). There is
nothing so good for Sicily, although there are monographs on
particular edifices. Diehl, Palerme et Syracuse (Paris, 1907), is a
good sketch with illustrations; Miss C. Waern, Mediæval Sicily
(London, 1910), is more popular. Freeman has a readable essay
on “The Normans at Palermo,” in his Historical Essays, third
series, pp. 437–76. See also A. Springer, “Die mittelalterliche
Kunst in Palermo,” in his Bilder aus der neueren Kunstgeschichte
(Bonn, 1886), i, pp. 157–208; and A. Goldschmidt, “Die
normannischen Königspaläste in Palermo,” in Zeitschrift für
Bauwesen, xlviii, coll. 541–90 (1898). Interesting aspects of
twelfth-century Palermo are depicted in the Bern codex of Peter of
Eboli, reproduced by Siragusa for the Istituto Storico Italiano
(1905) and by Rota for the new edition of Muratori (1904–10).
Surviving portions of the royal costume are reproduced by F. Bock,
Die Kleinodien des heil.-römischen Reiches (Vienna, 1864).

THE END
 FOOTNOTES
1
La France, p. 161.
2
Pages normandes, dedication.
3
Mont-Saint-Michel and Chartres, p. 55.
4
Ystoire de li Normant (ed. Delarc), p. 10.
5
Historia Sicula, i, 3.
6
Gesta Regum (Rolls Series), p. 306.
7
Ed. LePrévost, iii, p. 474; cf. p. 230.
8
Roman de Rou (ed. Andresen), ii, lines 9139–56.
9
H. W. C. Davis, England under the Normans and Angevins, p.
3.
10
Mont-Saint-Michel and Chartres, p. 4.
11
ii, 14, as translated by Keary, Vikings, p. 136.
12
Corpus Poeticum Boreale, i, p. 257.
13
Corpus Poeticum Boreale, i, pp. 236–40.
14
Corpus Poeticum Boreale, i, p. 265 f.
15
Corpus Poeticum Boreale, i, pp. 268–70.
16
Ibid., i, p. 281 f.
17
Germanic Origins (New York, 1892), p. 305 f.
18
Corpus Poeticum Boreale, i, p. 373.
19
Ibid., ii, p. 345.
20
“Primitive Iceland,” in his Studies in History and Jurisprudence
(Oxford, 1901), pp. 263 ff.
21
Pollock and Maitland, History of English Law, i, p. 66.
22
History of the Norman Conquest (third edition), ii, pp. 164–67.
23
Norman Conquest, ii, p. 166.
24
Translated by Giles (London, 1847), pp. 461–63.
25
Fulk Rechin, in Chroniques des comtes d’Anjou (ed.
Marchegay), p. 378 f; (ed. Halphen and Poupardin, Paris,
1913), pp. 235–37.
26
Luchaire, Les quatre premiers Capétiens, in Lavisse, Histoire
de France (Paris, 1901), ii, 2, p. 176.
27
W. S. Ferguson, Greek Imperialism, p. 1.
28
Salzmann, Henry II, where the continental aspects of Henry’s
reign are dismissed in a brief chapter on “foreign affairs.” The
heading would be more appropriate to the account of Henry’s
campaigns in Ireland.
29
Benedict of Peterborough, ii, p. xxxiii.
30
Benedict of Peterborough, ii, p. xxxi.
31
Recueil des actes de Henri II, Introduction, p. 1; cf. p. 151.
32
Delisle, p. 166, from Madox, Exchequer, i, p. 390.
33
The English Constitution, p. 3.
34
Origin of the English Constitution (London, 1872), p. 20 f.
35
Stubbs, Benedict of Peterborough, ii, p. xxxv.
36
Poole, The Exchequer in the Twelfth Century, pp. 42–57;
Haskins, “The Abacus and the King’s Curia,” in English
Historical Review, xxvii, pp. 101–06.
37
Salzmann, Henry II, p. 176.
38
Pollock and Maitland, History of English Law, i, p. 142.
39
Pollock and Maitland, i, p. 141.
40
Giraldus Cambrensis (Rolls Series), viii, p. 283.
41
Salzmann, Henry II, p. 214.
42
Constitutional History, i, p. 551.
43
See the extracts from the chroniclers translated in T. A. Archer,
The Crusade of Richard I (London, 1888), pp. 285 ff.
44
Guillaume le Breton, Philippide, v, lines 316–27.
45
Le Château-Gaillard, in Mémoires de l’Académie des
Inscriptions, xxxvi, 1, p. 330.
46
The Loss of Normandy, p. 449.
47
General View of the Political History of Europe (translated by
Charles Gross), p. 64.
48
William the Conqueror, p. 2.
49
Armitage, Early Norman Castles of the British Isles, p. 359.
50
The Loss of Normandy, pp. 298 ff.
51
Printed by Delisle, Études sur la classe agricole, pp. 668 ff.
52
Kirche und Staat, p. 41.
53
Robert of Torigni (ed. Delisle), i, p. 344.
54
The text is printed in the Bibliothèque de l’École des Chartes,
xxi, pp. 120 ff.
55
Ordericus Vitalis (ed. Le Prévost), iii, p. 431.
56
Guillaume de Jumièges, Gesta Normannorum Ducum (ed.
Marx), Société de l’Histoire de Normandie, 1914.
57
La littérature normande avant l’annexion, p. 22.
58
Gallia Christiana, xi, instr., coll. 219–23; Mortet, Recueil de
textes relatifs à l’histoire de l’architecture (Paris, 1911), pp. 71–
75.
59
Norman Conquest, iii, p. 109.
60
Mont-Saint-Michel and Chartres, p. 4.
61
Delarc, Les Normands en Italie, p. 35.
62
Bertaux, L’art dans l’Italie méridionale, p. 15.
63
Aimé, Ystoire de li Normant, p. 124.
64
William of Malmesbury, Gesta Regum, p. 322.
65
Geoffrey Malaterra, ii, p. 1.
66
Massachusetts Historical Society Collections, fourth series, vi,
p. 65.
67
Laodicea ad mare, not the Phrygian Laodicea of the
Apocalypse.
68
The phrase is Amari’s: Storia dei Musulmani di Sicilia, iii, p.
365.
69
Bilder aus der neueren Kunstgeschichte, i, p. 159.
70
L’art dans l’Italie méridionale, p. 344.
71
His description is translated by Amari, Biblioteca arabo-sicula
(Turin, 1888), i, pp. 155 ff.; and by Schiaparelli, Ibn Gubayr
(Rome, 1906), pp. 328 ff. Cf. Waern, Mediæval Sicily, pp. 64 ff.
72
“The Emperor Frederick the Second,” in Historical Essays, first
series, p. 291.
 INDEX

Abacus, 106 f.
Abruzzi, 196, 204, 222 f.
Adams, Henry, quoted, 12, 22, 188 f.
Adelaide, countess, 210.
Adelard of Bath, 177, 179, 238.
Africa, 196 f., 222, 232.
Aimé of Monte Cassino, 13, 200 f.
Alençon, 63, 178.
Alexander II, Pope, 74, 79, 165, 175.
Alfred, king, 34.
Alphonso VIII, king, 90.
Amalfi, 197 f., 204, 213, 232.
Amari, M., 216, 248;
quoted, 234.
Anacletus II, Pope, 210.
Andeli, 134.
Angers, 61–63.
Angoulême, 160.
Anjou, counts of, 61, 85;
relations with Normandy, 61–63, 85, 100, 112, 131, 136 f.
Anna Comnena, quoted, 201.
Anselm, 175–78.
Antioch, 212;
principality, 214–16.
Apulia, 186, 197–211, 222 f., 228, 238, 246.
Aquitaine, 87 f., 90, 100, 120 f., 136.
Arabic elements in Sicilian state, 226–30, 235, 238–44.
Architecture, Norman, 9–12, 102, 186–89;
Sicilian, 189, 241–44.
Archives, Norman, 9, 66 f., 105, 178.
Argentan, 10, 71, 133, 139, 153.
Arlette, mother of William the Conqueror, 53, 166.
Arnulf of Chocques, patriarch, 212.
Arnulf, bishop of Lisieux, 167.
Arthur, duke of Brittany, 136–39.
Assizes, Anglo-Norman, 94, 100, 111 f., 161;
Sicilian, 230 f., 234.
Aversa, 200, 204, 206.
Avranches, 172, 175, 178.
Avranchin, 28.
Avre, 7.

Bailli, 103, 145.

Barfleur, 132, 160.
Bari, 189, 197, 202, 232, 241.
Baudri of Bourgueil, 76.
Bayeux, 10, 46, 49, 67, 76, 150 f., 162, 166, 172, 187;
Black Book, 111.
See Odo, Turold, Richard, Philip d’Harcourt.
Bayeux Tapestry, 76 f., 80, 84, 151, 167.
Bayonne, 161.
Bec, 171, 185;
schools, 175 f.;
library, 177–80.
Becket, 4, 100, 118, 168.
Bellême, 154.
Benevento, 198, 203.
Benoît de Sainte-More, 184.
Bertaux, E., quoted, 197, 241.
Bessin, 10, 28.
Bibliographical notes, 24 f., 51, 83 f., 114 f., 147, 189–91, 216 f.,
247–49.
Bisignano, 201.
Bocage, 10.
Boccaccio, 246.
Bocherville, Saint-Georges de, 169, 187.
Bohemond I, prince of Antioch, 207, 213–16.
Böhmer, H., quoted, 165.
Bonneval, 154.
Bordeaux, 88.
Boutmy, E., quoted, 101.
Breteuil, 154, 160.
Brittany, 6–8, 10, 57, 61, 75, 88, 136–39.
Bryce, James, Viscount, quoted, 43.
Buchanan, James, 17 f.
Bury St. Edmund’s, 173.

Caen, 10 f., 71, 133, 139, 143, 153, 160, 166, 172, 184;
abbeys, 12, 58, 160, 163, 171, 174, 186–88, 213.
Calabria, 176, 198, 201–11, 222, 226, 237, 246.
Caliphs, Fatimite, 196, 230.
Campania, 197, 222.
Canada, Normans in, 3 f., 13, 16.
Canaries, Normans in, 4, 13.
Canne, 199.
Canosa, 214.
Canterbury, 56, 81, 175.
Canute, king, 52, 54, 74, 194.
Cappella Palatina, 242–44.
Capua, 198, 207, 223, 228.
Carentan, 172.
Carlyle, Thomas, quoted, 101, 173.
Castles, Norman, 68 f., 102, 133–35, 139, 150–53, 163, 209.
Castrogiovanni, 209.
Caux, 8.
Cefalù, 189, 241.
Cerisy, 187.
Chancery, of Henry II, 96–99;
of Sicilian kingdom, 226 f.
Channel Islands, 144 f., 172, 184.
Charlemagne, 18, 31 f., 80, 86, 193 f.
Charles VII, king of France, 144.
Charles of Anjou, king of Naples, 221.
Charles the Simple, 27, 45.
Charte aux Normands, 142.
Charter, Great, 140, 142.
Chartres, cathedral, 169–71, 186, 194;
school, 177.
Château Gaillard, 9, 134 f., 139.
Chaucer, his ‘povre persoun,’ 169.
Cherbourg, 4 f., 59, 162.
Chinon, 116.
Chronicle, Anglo-Saxon, quoted, 32, 34, 55–58.
Church, Norman, 67, 71 f., 81, 100, 164 ff.;
the Greek, 198, 203, 209, 223, 225, 237, 241.
Civitate, 203.
Classics, Latin, in Norman libraries, 179;
at Monte Cassino, 235–37;
Greek, in Sicily, 239 f., 246.
Clermont, 211.
Clovis, 207.
Cluny, 164.
Colombières, 116.
Commerce, Norman, 4, 73, 81, 160–63;
Sicilian, 231–33, 242;
Viking, 37.
Compostela, 16, 193, 217.
Conan, 163.
Conches, 154.
Conquest, Norman, of England, 72–81;
its results, 81–83, 100 ff., 145 f.;
of Italy, 198 ff.;
the two compared, 223–25.
Constance, empress, 220.
Constantine the African, 236.
Constantinople, 194–96, 212, 214, 235 f., 240.
Corneille, 4, 12.
Cotentin, 28, 50.
Courcy, 154.
Coutances, 169, 172, 200;
cathedral, 10, 186 f.
See Geoffrey de Mowbray.
Coutume de Normandie, 11, 48 f., 108, 142, 145.
Crusades, Normans in, 2, 89, 91, 100, 127–31, 184, 208, 211–
17.
Curia regis, 103, 108, 227 f.

Danegeld, 34, 104.

Danelaw, 31.
Daudet, Alphonse, quoted, 5.
Davis, H. W. C., quoted, 15.
Delarc, O., quoted, 196.
Delbrück, H., quoted, 77 f.
Delisle, L., 4, 114, 189 f.;
quoted, 97.
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