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SECOND EDITION

Simulation of
Dynamic Systems
® ®
with MATLAB and Simulink
Harold Klee
Randal Allen

Boca Raton London New York

CRC Press is an imprint of the

Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business
MATLAB® is a trademark of The MathWorks, Inc. and is used with permission. The MathWorks does not warrant the
accuracy of the text or exercises in this book. This book’s use or discussion of MATLAB® software or related products
does not constitute endorsement or sponsorship by The MathWorks of a particular pedagogical approach or particular
use of the MATLAB® software.

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Taylor & Francis Group
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 To Andrew, Cassie and in loving memory
of their mother and devoted wife, Laura.

Harold Klee

To Dave Lundquist and Steve Roemerman who believed in me.

Randal Allen
This page intentionally left blank
Contents
Foreword ........................................................................................................................................ xiii
Preface............................................................................................................................................. xv
Authors........................................................................................................................................... xix

Chapter 1 Mathematical Modeling............................................................................................... 1

1.1 Introduction....................................................................................................... 1
1.1.1 Importance of Models ......................................................................... 1
1.2 Derivation of a Mathematical Model ............................................................... 4
Exercises...................................................................................................................... 8
1.3 Difference Equations ...................................................................................... 10
1.3.1 Recursive Solutions ........................................................................... 11
Exercises.................................................................................................................... 12
1.4 First Look at Discrete-Time Systems ............................................................. 13
1.4.1 Inherently Discrete-Time Systems .................................................... 17
Exercises.................................................................................................................... 20
1.5 Case Study: Population Dynamics (Single Species) ...................................... 21
Exercises.................................................................................................................... 28

Chapter 2 Continuous-Time Systems......................................................................................... 31

2.1 Introduction..................................................................................................... 31
2.2 First-Order Systems ........................................................................................ 31
2.2.1 Step Response of First-Order Systems.............................................. 32
Exercises.................................................................................................................... 36
2.3 Second-Order Systems.................................................................................... 38
2.3.1 Conversion of Two First-Order Equations to a Second-Order
Model................................................................................................. 43
Exercises.................................................................................................................... 46
2.4 Simulation Diagrams ...................................................................................... 47
2.4.1 Systems of Equations ........................................................................ 53
Exercises.................................................................................................................... 55
2.5 Higher-Order Systems .................................................................................... 56
Exercises.................................................................................................................... 58
2.6 State Variables ................................................................................................ 59
2.6.1 Conversion from Linear State Variable Form to Single
Input–Single Output Form ................................................................ 64
2.6.2 General Solution of the State Equations ........................................... 65
Exercises.................................................................................................................... 65
2.7 Nonlinear Systems .......................................................................................... 68
2.7.1 Friction .............................................................................................. 70
2.7.2 Dead Zone and Saturation ................................................................. 72
2.7.3 Backlash ............................................................................................ 73
2.7.4 Hysteresis........................................................................................... 73
2.7.5 Quantization....................................................................................... 77
2.7.6 Sustained Oscillations and Limit Cycles........................................... 78

v
vi Contents

Exercises.................................................................................................................... 82
2.8 Case Study: Submarine Depth Control System ............................................. 85
Exercises.................................................................................................................... 89

Chapter 3 Elementary Numerical Integration ............................................................................ 91

3.1 Introduction..................................................................................................... 91
3.2 Discrete-Time System Approximation of a Continuous-Time Integrator...... 92
Exercises.................................................................................................................... 94
3.3 Euler Integration ............................................................................................. 96
3.3.1 Backward (Implicit) Euler Integration .............................................. 99
Exercises.................................................................................................................. 101
3.4 Trapezoidal Integration................................................................................. 102
Exercises.................................................................................................................. 106
3.5 Numerical Integration of First-Order and Higher Continuous-Time
Systems ......................................................................................................... 107
3.5.1 Discrete-Time System Models from Simulation Diagrams ............ 107
3.5.2 Nonlinear First-Order Systems........................................................ 111
3.5.3 Discrete-Time State Equations ........................................................ 114
3.5.4 Discrete-Time State System Matrices ............................................. 118
Exercises.................................................................................................................. 119
3.6 Improvements to Euler Integration............................................................... 122
3.6.1 Improved Euler Method .................................................................. 122
3.6.2 Modified Euler Integration .............................................................. 125
Exercises.................................................................................................................. 135
3.7 Case Study: Vertical Ascent of a Diver ....................................................... 138
3.7.1 Maximum Cable Force for Safe Ascent.......................................... 144
3.7.1.1 Trial and Error ................................................................. 144
3.7.1.2 Analytical Solution .......................................................... 145
3.7.2 Diver Ascent with Decompression Stops........................................ 145
Exercises.................................................................................................................. 147

Chapter 4 Linear Systems Analysis ......................................................................................... 151

4.1 Introduction................................................................................................... 151
4.2 Laplace Transform........................................................................................ 151
4.2.1 Properties of the Laplace Transform ............................................... 153
4.2.2 Inverse Laplace Transform.............................................................. 159
4.2.3 Laplace Transform of the System Response................................... 160
4.2.4 Partial Fraction Expansion .............................................................. 161
Exercises.................................................................................................................. 167
4.3 Transfer Function.......................................................................................... 168
4.3.1 Impulse Function ............................................................................. 168
4.3.2 Relationship between Unit Step Function and Unit Impulse
Function........................................................................................... 169
4.3.3 Impulse Response............................................................................ 171
4.3.4 Relationship between Impulse Response and Transfer Function ... 175
4.3.5 Systems with Multiple Inputs and Outputs ..................................... 178
4.3.6 Transformation from State Variable Model to Transfer
Function........................................................................................... 184
Exercises.................................................................................................................. 187
Contents vii

4.4 Stability of Linear Time Invariant Continuous-Time Systems .................... 189

4.4.1 Characteristic Polynomial................................................................ 190
4.4.2 Feedback Control System................................................................ 194
Exercises.................................................................................................................. 198
4.5 Frequency Response of LTI Continuous-Time Systems.............................. 200
4.5.1 Stability of Linear Feedback Control Systems Based
on Frequency Response................................................................... 210
Exercises.................................................................................................................. 213
4.6 z-Transform................................................................................................... 215
4.6.1 Discrete-Time Impulse Function ..................................................... 221
4.6.2 Inverse z-Transform......................................................................... 225
4.6.3 Partial Fraction Expansion .............................................................. 226
Exercises.................................................................................................................. 233
4.7 z-Domain Transfer Function......................................................................... 234
4.7.1 Nonzero Initial Conditions .............................................................. 236
4.7.2 Approximating Continuous-Time System Transfer Functions ....... 238
4.7.3 Simulation Diagrams and State Variables....................................... 244
4.7.4 Solution of Linear Discrete-Time State Equations ......................... 248
4.7.5 Weighting Sequence (Impulse Response Function)........................ 253
Exercises.................................................................................................................. 257
4.8 Stability of LTI Discrete-Time Systems....................................................... 259
4.8.1 Complex Poles of H(z) .................................................................... 263
Exercises.................................................................................................................. 269
4.9 Frequency Response of Discrete-Time Systems .......................................... 272
4.9.1 Steady-State Sinusoidal Response................................................... 272
4.9.2 Properties of the Discrete-Time Frequency Response Function..... 274
4.9.3 Sampling Theorem .......................................................................... 278
4.9.4 Digital Filters................................................................................... 284
Exercises.................................................................................................................. 289
4.10 Control System Toolbox .............................................................................. 292
4.10.1 Transfer Function Models ............................................................... 293
4.10.2 State-Space Models ......................................................................... 293
4.10.3 State-Space=Transfer Function Conversion..................................... 295
4.10.4 System Interconnections.................................................................. 298
4.10.5 System Response............................................................................. 299
4.10.6 Continuous-=Discrete-Time System Conversion............................. 302
4.10.7 Frequency Response........................................................................ 303
4.10.8 Root Locus ...................................................................................... 305
Exercises.................................................................................................................. 309
4.11 Case Study: Longitudinal Control of an Aircraft......................................... 312
4.11.1 Digital Simulation of Aircraft Longitudinal Dynamics .................. 325
4.11.2 Simulation of State Variable Model................................................ 327
Exercises.................................................................................................................. 329
4.12 Case Study: Notch Filter for Electrocardiograph Waveform ....................... 330
4.12.1 Multinotch Filters ............................................................................ 331
Exercises.................................................................................................................. 338

Chapter 5 Simulink® ................................................................................................................ 341

5.1 Introduction................................................................................................... 341
5.2 Building a Simulink® Model........................................................................ 341
viii Contents

5.2.1 Simulink® Library ........................................................................... 342

5.2.2 Running a Simulink® Model........................................................... 345
Exercises.................................................................................................................. 347
5.3 Simulation of Linear Systems ...................................................................... 349
5.3.1 Transfer Fcn Block.......................................................................... 350
5.3.2 State-Space Block............................................................................ 353
Exercises.................................................................................................................. 362
5.4 Algebraic Loops ........................................................................................... 363
5.4.1 Eliminating Algebraic Loops .......................................................... 364
5.4.2 Algebraic Equations ........................................................................ 367
Exercises.................................................................................................................. 369
5.5 More Simulink® Blocks ............................................................................... 371
5.5.1 Discontinuities ................................................................................. 377
5.5.2 Friction ............................................................................................ 377
5.5.3 Dead Zone and Saturation ............................................................... 377
5.5.4 Backlash .......................................................................................... 379
5.5.5 Hysteresis......................................................................................... 380
5.5.6 Quantization..................................................................................... 381
Exercises.................................................................................................................. 382
5.6 Subsystems ................................................................................................... 385
5.6.1 PHYSBE.......................................................................................... 386
5.6.2 Car-Following Subsystem ............................................................... 386
5.6.3 Subsystem Using Fcn Blocks.......................................................... 389
Exercises.................................................................................................................. 392
5.7 Discrete-Time Systems ................................................................................. 393
5.7.1 Simulation of an Inherently Discrete-Time System ........................ 394
5.7.2 Discrete-Time Integrator.................................................................. 397
5.7.3 Centralized Integration .................................................................... 398
5.7.4 Digital Filters................................................................................... 402
5.7.5 Discrete-Time Transfer Function .................................................... 404
Exercises.................................................................................................................. 408
5.8 MATLAB® and Simulink® Interface ........................................................... 411
Exercises.................................................................................................................. 417
5.9 Hybrid Systems: Continuous- and Discrete-Time Components .................. 420
Exercises.................................................................................................................. 423
5.10 Monte Carlo Simulation ............................................................................... 424
5.10.1 Monte Carlo Simulation Requiring Solution
of a Mathematical Model ................................................................ 428
Exercises.................................................................................................................. 434
5.11 Case Study: Pilot Ejection............................................................................ 437
Exercises.................................................................................................................. 441
5.12 Case Study: Kalman Filtering ...................................................................... 442
5.12.1 Continuous-Time Kalman Filter...................................................... 442
5.12.2 Steady-State Kalman Filter.............................................................. 443
5.12.3 Discrete-Time Kalman Filter........................................................... 443
5.12.4 Simulink® Simulations .................................................................... 444
5.12.5 Summary.......................................................................................... 455
Exercise ................................................................................................................... 456
Contents ix

Chapter 6 Intermediate Numerical Integration......................................................................... 457

6.1 Introduction................................................................................................... 457
6.2 Runge–Kutta (RK) (One-Step Methods)...................................................... 457
6.2.1 Taylor Series Method ...................................................................... 458
6.2.2 Second-Order Runge–Kutta Method............................................... 459
6.2.3 Truncation Errors............................................................................. 461
6.2.4 High-Order Runge–Kutta Methods ................................................. 466
6.2.5 Linear Systems: Approximate Solutions Using RK Integration ..... 467
6.2.6 Continuous-Time Models with Polynomial Solutions .................... 469
6.2.7 Higher-Order Systems ..................................................................... 471
Exercises.................................................................................................................. 478
6.3 Adaptive Techniques .................................................................................... 481
6.3.1 Repeated RK with Interval Halving................................................ 481
6.3.2 Constant Step Size (T ¼ 1 min)....................................................... 485
6.3.3 Adaptive Step Size (Initial T ¼ 1 min) ............................................ 485
6.3.4 RK–Fehlberg ................................................................................... 486
Exercises.................................................................................................................. 490
6.4 Multistep Methods ........................................................................................ 492
6.4.1 Explicit Methods ............................................................................. 493
6.4.2 Implicit Methods ............................................................................. 495
6.4.3 Predictor–Corrector Methods .......................................................... 498
Exercises.................................................................................................................. 502
6.5 Stiff Systems................................................................................................. 503
6.5.1 Stiffness Property in First-Order System ........................................ 504
6.5.2 Stiff Second-Order System.............................................................. 506
6.5.3 Approximating Stiff Systems with Lower-Order Nonstiff
System Models ................................................................................ 509
Exercises.................................................................................................................. 522
6.6 Lumped Parameter Approximation of Distributed Parameter Systems ....... 526
6.6.1 Nonlinear Distributed Parameter System ........................................ 531
Exercises.................................................................................................................. 534
6.7 Systems with Discontinuities........................................................................ 535
6.7.1 Physical Properties and Constant Forces Acting
on the Pendulum BOB .................................................................... 543
Exercises.................................................................................................................. 549
6.8 Case Study: Spread of an Epidemic ............................................................. 552
Exercises.................................................................................................................. 559

Chapter 7 Simulation Tools ..................................................................................................... 561

7.1 Introduction................................................................................................... 561
7.2 Steady-State Solver....................................................................................... 562
7.2.1 Trim Function.................................................................................. 564
7.2.2 Equilibrium Point for a Nonautonomous System ........................... 565
Exercises.................................................................................................................. 574
7.3 Optimization of Simulink® Models.............................................................. 576
7.3.1 Gradient Vector ............................................................................... 585
7.3.2 Optimizing Multiparameter Objective Functions Requiring
Simulink® Models ........................................................................... 587
x Contents

7.3.3 Parameter Identification................................................................... 590

7.3.4 Example of a Simple Gradient Search ............................................ 591
7.3.5 Optimization of Simulink® Discrete-Time System Models............ 599
Exercises.................................................................................................................. 605
7.4 Linearization ................................................................................................. 610
7.4.1 Deviation Variables ......................................................................... 611
7.4.2 Linearization of Nonlinear Systems in State Variable Form .......... 619
7.4.3 Linmod Function ............................................................................. 623
7.4.4 Multiple Linearized Models for a Single System ........................... 627
Exercises.................................................................................................................. 633
7.5 Adding Blocks to the Simulink® Library Browser ...................................... 637
7.5.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 637
7.5.2 Summary.......................................................................................... 645
Exercise ................................................................................................................... 645
7.6 Simulation Acceleration ............................................................................... 645
7.6.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 645
7.6.2 Profiler ............................................................................................. 647
7.6.3 Summary.......................................................................................... 647
Exercise ................................................................................................................... 648

Chapter 8 Advanced Numerical Integration ............................................................................ 649

8.1 Introduction................................................................................................... 649
8.2 Dynamic Errors (Characteristic Roots, Transfer Function).......................... 649
8.2.1 Discrete-Time Systems and the Equivalent
Continuous-Time Systems............................................................... 650
8.2.2 Characteristic Root Errors ............................................................... 653
8.2.3 Transfer Function Errors ................................................................. 664
8.2.4 Asymptotic Formulas for Multistep Integration Methods............... 669
8.2.5 Simulation of Linear System with Transfer Function H(s) ............ 672
Exercises.................................................................................................................. 677
8.3 Stability of Numerical Integrators ................................................................ 680
8.3.1 Adams–Bashforth Numerical Integrators ........................................ 680
8.3.2 Implicit Integrators .......................................................................... 687
8.3.3 Runga–Kutta (RK) Integration ........................................................ 692
Exercises.................................................................................................................. 700
8.4 Multirate Integration ..................................................................................... 702
8.4.1 Procedure for Updating Slow and Fast States:
Master=Slave ¼ RK-4=RK-4 ............................................................ 706
8.4.2 Selection of Step Size Based on Stability ....................................... 707
8.4.3 Selection of Step Size Based on Dynamic Accuracy ..................... 708
8.4.4 Analytical Solution for State Variables........................................... 712
8.4.5 Multirate Integration of Aircraft Pitch Control System .................. 714
8.4.6 Nonlinear Dual Speed Second-Order System ................................. 717
8.4.7 Multirate Simulation of Two-Tank System .................................... 723
8.4.8 Simulation Trade-Offs with Multirate Integration .......................... 725
Exercises.................................................................................................................. 728
8.5 Real-Time Simulation................................................................................... 730
8.5.1 Numerical Integration Methods Compatible
with Real-Time Operation............................................................... 733
8.5.2 RK-1 (Explicit Euler) ...................................................................... 734
Contents xi

8.5.3 RK-2 (Improved Euler) ................................................................... 734

8.5.4 RK-2 (Modified Euler) .................................................................... 735
8.5.5 RK-3 (Real-Time Incompatible) ..................................................... 735
8.5.6 RK-3 (Real-Time Compatible)........................................................ 736
8.5.7 RK-4 (Real-Time Incompatible) ..................................................... 736
8.5.8 Multistep Integration Methods ........................................................ 736
8.5.9 Stability of Real-Time Predictor–Corrector Method....................... 738
8.5.10 Extrapolation of Real-Time Inputs.................................................. 740
8.5.11 Alternate Approach to Real-Time Compatibility: Input Delay....... 746
Exercises.................................................................................................................. 753
8.6 Additional Methods of Approximating Continuous-Time
System Models ............................................................................................. 754
8.6.1 Sampling and Signal Reconstruction .............................................. 754
8.6.2 First-Order Hold Signal Reconstruction.......................................... 759
8.6.3 Matched Pole-Zero Method............................................................. 760
8.6.4 Bilinear Transform with Prewarping............................................... 763
Exercises.................................................................................................................. 765
8.7 Case Study: Lego Mindstormse NXT ........................................................ 767
8.7.1 Introduction ..................................................................................... 767
8.7.2 Requirements and Installation ......................................................... 769
8.7.3 Noisy Model .................................................................................... 769
8.7.4 Filtered Model ................................................................................. 773
8.7.5 Summary.......................................................................................... 779
Exercise ................................................................................................................... 779

References .................................................................................................................................... 781

Index............................................................................................................................................. 785
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Foreword
As the authors point out in the preface, there is not yet extant a universally accepted definition of the
term simulation. Another approach to defining the field would be ‘‘the art of reproducing the behavior
of a system for analysis without actually operating that system.’’ The authors have written a seminal
text covering the simulation design and analysis of a broad variety of systems using two of the most
modern software packages available today. The material is presented in a particularly adept fashion
enabling students new to the field to gain a thorough understanding of the basics of continuous
simulation in a single semester and providing, at the same time, a more advanced treatment of the
subject for researchers and simulation professionals. The authors’ extensive treatment of continuous
and discrete linear system fundamentals opens the door to simulation for individuals without formal
education in a traditional engineering curriculum.
However defined, simulation is becoming an increasingly important component of curricula in
engineering, business administration, the sciences, applied mathematics, and the like. This text will
be a valuable resource for study in courses using simulation as a tool for understanding processes
that are not amenable to study in other ways.

Chris Bauer, PhD, PE, CMSP

Orlando, Florida

Simulation has come a long way since the days analog computers filled entire rooms. Yet, it is more
important than ever that simulations be constructed with care, knowledge, and a little wisdom, lest
the results be gibberish or, worse, reasonable but misleading. Used properly, simulations can give us
extraordinary insights into the processes and states of a physical system. Constructed with care,
simulations can save time and money in today’s competitive marketplace.
One major application of simulation is the simulator, which provides interaction between a
model and a person through some interface. The earliest simulator, Ed Link’s Pilot Maker aircraft
trainer, did not use any of the simulation techniques described in this book. Modern simulators,
however, such as the National Advanced Driving Simulator (NADS), cannot be fully understood
without them.
The mission of the NADS is a lofty one: to save lives on U.S. highways through safety research
using realistic human-in-the-loop simulation. This is an example of the importance simulation has
attained in our generation. The pervasiveness of simulation tools in our society will only increase
over time; it will be more important than ever that future scientists and engineers be familiar with
their theory and application.
The content for Simulation of Dynamic Systems with MATLAB® and Simulink® is arranged to
give the student a gradual and natural progression through the important topics in simulation.
Advanced concepts are added only after complete examples have been constructed using funda-
mental methods. The use of MATLAB and Simulink provides experience with tools that are widely
adopted in industry and allow easy construction of simulation models.
May your experience with simulation be enjoyable and fruitful and extend throughout your
careers.

Chris Schwarz, PhD

Iowa City, Iowa

xiii
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