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Deep Learning
 Deep Learning
A Comprehensive Guide

Shriram K. Vasudevan

Sini Raj Pulari

Subashri Vasudevan
First edition published 2022
by CRC Press
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487-​2742
and by CRC Press
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN
© 2022 Shriram K. Vasudevan, Sini Raj Pulari, and Subashri Vasudevan.
CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC
Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and
publisher cannot assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use.
The authors and publishers have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in
this publication and apologize to copyright holders if permission to publish in this form has not been
obtained. If any copyright material has not been acknowledged please write and let us know so we may
rectify in any future reprint.
Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced,
transmitted, or utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or
hereafter invented, including photocopying, microfilming, and recording, or in any information storage
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Library of Congress Cataloging‑in‑Publication Data
Names: Vasudevan, Shriram K., author. | Pulari, Sini Raj, author. | Vasudevan, Subashri, author.
Title: Deep learning: a comprehensive guide / Shriram K. Vasudevan,
Sini Raj Pulari, Subashri Vasudevan.
Description: First edition. | Boca Raton: Chapman & Hall/CRC Press, 2022. | Includes index. |
Summary: “Deep Learning: A Comprehensive Guide focuses on all the relevant topics in the
field of Deep Learning. Covers the conceptual, mathematical and practical aspects of all
relevant topics in deep learning Offers real time practical examples Provides case studies.
This book is aimed primarily at graduates, researchers and professional working in
Deep Learning and AI concepts – Provided by publisher.
Identifiers: LCCN 2021031713 (print) | LCCN 2021031714 (ebook) |
ISBN 9781032028828 (hardback) | ISBN 9781032028859 (paperback) |
ISBN 9781003185635 (ebook)
Subjects: LCSH: Deep learning (Machine learning)
Classification: LCC Q325.73 .V37 2022 (print) |
LCC Q325.73 (ebook) | DDC 006.3/1–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021031713
LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2021031714
ISBN: 978-​1-​032-​02882-​8 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-​1-​032-​02885-​9 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-​1-​003-​18563-​5 (ebk)
DOI: 10.1201/​9781003185635
Typeset in Minion Pro
by Newgen Publishing UK
Access the companion website: www.routledge.com/​9781032028828
Contents

Preface, xi
The Authors, xiii

Chapter 1 n Introduction to Deep Learning 1

1.1 INTRODUCTION 1
1.2 THE NEED: WHY DEEP LEARNING? 2
1.3 WHAT IS THE NEED OF A TRANSITION FROM
MACHINE LEARNING TO DEEP LEARNING? 2
1.4 DEEP LEARNING APPLICATIONS 4
1.4.1 Self-Driving Cars 4
1.4.2 Emotion Detection 5
1.4.3 Natural Language Processing 5
1.4.4 Entertainment 7
1.4.5 Healthcare 8
YOUTUBE SESSION ON DEEP LEARNING APPLICATIONS 9
KEY POINTS TO REMEMBER 9
QUIZ 10
FURTHER READING 10

Chapter 2 n The Tools and the Prerequisites 13

2.1 INTRODUCTION 13
2.2 THE TOOLS 14
2.2.1 Python Libraries –​Must Know 14

v
vi   n    Contents

2.2.2 The Installation Phase 16

2.3 DATASETS –​A QUICK GLANCE 27
KEY POINTS TO REMEMBER 28
QUIZ 28

Chapter 3 n Machine Learning: The Fundamentals 29

3.1 INTRODUCTION 29
3.2 THE DEFINITIONS –​YET ANOTHER TIME 30
3.3 MACHINE LEARNING ALGORITHMS 31
3.3.1 Supervised Learning Algorithms 31
3.3.2 The Unsupervised Learning Algorithms 33
3.3.3 Reinforcement Learning 35
3.3.4 Evolutionary Approach 36
3.4 HOW/​WHY DO WE NEED ML? 36
3.5 THE ML FRAMEWORK 37
3.6 LINEAR REGRESSION –​A COMPLETE
UNDERSTANDING 39
3.7 LOGISTIC REGRESSION –​A COMPLETE
UNDERSTANDING 49
3.8 CLASSIFICATION –​A MUST-​KNOW CONCEPT 50
3.8.1 SVM –​Support Vector Machines 50
3.8.2 K-​NN (K-Nearest Neighbor) 53
3.9 CLUSTERING –​AN INTERESTING CONCEPT
TO KNOW 57
3.9.1 K-​Means Clustering 58
KEY POINTS TO REMEMBER 62
QUIZ 63
FURTHER READING 63

Chapter 4 n The Deep Learning Framework 65

4.1 INTRODUCTION 65
4.2 ARTIFICIAL NEURON 66
 Contents n vii

4.2.1 Biological Neuron 66

4.2.2 Perceptron 67
4.2.2.1 How a Perceptron Works? 68
4.2.3 Activation Functions 69
4.2.4 Parameters 72
4.2.5 Overfitting 74
4.3 A FEW MORE TERMS 75
4.4 OPTIMIZERS 75
KEY POINTS TO REMEMBER 77
QUIZ 78
FURTHER READING 78

Chapter 5 n CNN –​Convolutional Neural Networks:

A Complete Understanding 81
5.1 INTRODUCTION 82
5.2 WHAT IS UNDERFITTING, OVERFITTING AND
APPROPRIATE FITTING? 82
5.3 BIAS/​VARIANCE –​A QUICK LEARNING 84
5.4 CONVOLUTIONAL NEURAL NETWORKS 84
5.4.1 How Convolution Works 88
5.4.2 How Zero Padding Works 97
5.4.3 How Max Pooling Works 106
5.4.4 The CNN Stack –​Architecture 109
5.4.5 What Is the Activation Function? 110
5.4.5.1 Sigmoid Activation Function 110
5.4.5.2 ReLU –​Rectified Linear Unit 111
5.4.6 CNN –​Model Building –​Step by Step 111
KEY POINTS TO REMEMBER 118
QUIZ 119
FURTHER READING 119
viii   n    Contents

Chapter 6 n CNN Architectures: An Evolution 121

6.1 INTRODUCTION 121
6.2 LENET CNN ARCHITECTURE 122
6.3 VGG16 CNN ARCHITECTURE 133
6.4 ALEXNET CNN ARCHITECTURE 141
6.5 OTHER CNN ARCHITECTURES AT A GLANCE 149
KEY POINTS TO REMEMBER 154
QUIZ 154
FURTHER READING 155

Chapter 7 n Recurrent Neural Networks 157

7.1 INTRODUCTION 157
7.2 CNN VS. RNN: A QUICK UNDERSTANDING 160
7.3 RNN VS. FEEDFORWARD NEURAL NETWORKS:
A QUICK UNDERSTANDING 161
7.4 SIMPLE RNN 164
7.5 LSTM: LONG SHORT-TERM MEMORY 166
7.6 GATED RECURRENT UNIT 176
KEY POINTS TO REMEMBER 182
QUIZ 182
FURTHER READING 183

Chapter 8   n   Autoencoders 185

8.1 INTRODUCTION 185
8.2 WHAT IS AN AUTOENCODER? 186
8.2.1 How Autoencoders Work 186
8.2.2 Properties of Autoencoders 190
8.3 APPLICATIONS OF AUTOENCODERS 191
8.3.1 Data Compression and Dimensionality Reduction 191
8.3.2 Image Denoising 191
8.3.3 Feature Extraction 192
8.3.4 Image Generation 192
8.3.5 Image Colorization 192
 Contents n ix

8.4 TYPES OF AUTOENCODERS 192

8.4.1 Denoising Autoencoder 193
8.4.2 Vanilla Autoencoder 193
8.4.3 Deep Autoencoder 194
8.4.4 Sparse Autoencoder 194
8.4.5 Undercomplete Autoencoder 195
8.4.6 Stacked Autoencoder 195
8.4.7 Variational Autoencoder (VAEs) 195
8.4.8 Convolutional Autoencoder 196
KEY POINTS TO REMEMBER 205
QUIZ 206
FURTHER READING 207

Chapter 9  n   Generative Models 209

9.1 INTRODUCTION 209
9.2 WHAT IS A GENERATIVE MODEL? 210
9.3 WHAT ARE GENERATIVE ADVERSARIAL
NETWORKS (GAN)? 211
9.4 TYPES OF GAN 213
9.4.1 Deep Convolutional GANs (DCGANs) 213
9.4.2 Stack GAN 214
9.4.3 Cycle GAN 214
9.4.4 Conditional GAN (cGAN) 214
9.4.5 Info GAN 214
9.5 APPLICATIONS OF GAN 215
9.5.1 Fake Image Generation 215
9.5.2 Image Modification 215
9.5.3 Text to Image/​Image to Image Generation 215
9.5.4 Speech Modification 215
9.5.5 Assisting Artists 215
9.6 IMPLEMENTATION OF GAN 217
KEY POINTS TO REMEMBER 224
x   n    Contents

QUIZ 224
FURTHER READING 224

Chapter 10 n Transfer Learning 227

10.1 WHAT IS TRANSFER LEARNING? 227
10.2 WHEN CAN WE USE TRANSFER LEARNING? 228
10.3 EXAMPLE –​1: CAT OR DOG USING TRANSFER
LEARNING WITH VGG 16 229
10.4 EXAMPLE –​2: IDENTIFY YOUR RELATIVES’
FACES USING TRANSFER LEARNING 233
10.5 THE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TRANSFER
LEARNING AND FINE TUNING 239
10.6 TRANSFER LEARNING STRATEGIES 241
10.6.1 Same Domain, Task 242
10.6.2 Same Domain, Different Task 242
10.6.3 Different Domain, Same Task 242
KEY POINTS TO REMEMBER 242
QUIZ 243
FURTHER READING 243

Chapter 11 n Intel OpenVino:​A Must-Know

Deep Learning Toolkit 245
11.1 INTRODUCTION 245
11.2 OPENVINO INSTALLATION GUIDELINES 246
KEY POINTS TO REMEMBER 259
QUIZ 259
FURTHER READING 260

Chapter 12 Interview Questions and Answers 261

YOUTUBE SESSIONS ON DEEP LEARNING
APPLICATIONS 288

Index 289
Preface

E ver since Artificial Intelligence (AI) became popular, there

has been a surge in worldwide automation. Be it in the automobile
industry, finance or farming, automation finds its place everywhere. The
more the applicability, the higher will be the demand. Machine Learning
(ML) and Deep Learning (DL) being subsets of AI, most reputed univer-
sities began offering courses on them. With a little exposure to program-
ming and analytics, one can deep dive into these subjects and become an
expert in no time.
This book aims to make the readers proficient in the DL concepts/​
mechanisms and also enables them to build products right away. The
book provides lots of real-​world examples and explains the steps to build
applications from scratch. The tools required, application setup needed,
input data, expected output –​everything is provided in a simple manner.
We are sure this book is going to be a one-​stop solution for every aspiring
DL enthusiast.
The book is arranged in the following manner. Chapter 1 covers the
introduction to DL. It has all the basics explained in a down-​to-​earth way
and prepares the readers for a smooth DL journey. Chapter 2 comes with
the details of tools required for building products and a step-​by-​step instal-
lation guide. Chapter 3 deals with the ML fundamentals that go hand in
hand with DL. Chapter 4 covers the DL framework, while Chapter 5 touches
upon the ins and outs of Convolution Neural Networks (CNN). Chapter 6
explains the CNN architectures that lay the foundation for DL, followed
by Recurrent Neural Networks (RNN) in Chapter 7. Autoencoders are
discussed in Chapter 8. Chapter 9 touches upon Generative Adversarial
Networks. Chapter 10 comes with a beautiful concept called “Transfer
Learning” which has been gaining popularity over the years. OpenVino
is an Intel product that comes with a lot of useful features for building

xi
xii   n    Preface

various DL products, and the same is discussed in Chapter 11. And at last,
Chapter 12 comes with a handy reference to the interview questions for
aspiring DL candidates.
We would like to thank Sunandhini Muralidharan and Nitin Dantu for
their efforts throughout in shaping this book.
The Authors

Shriram K. Vasudevan
An academician with a blend of indus-
trial and teaching experience for 15 years.
Authored/​ co-​authored 42 books for
publishers around the world. Authored
more than 120 research papers in inter-
national journals and 30 papers for inter-
national/​national conferences. He is an
IETE Fellow, ACM Distinguished Speaker, CSI Distinguished Speaker, and
Intel Software Innovator. He has a YouTube channel –​Shriram Vasudevan –​
through which he teaches thousands of people all around the world.
Recognized/​awarded for his technical expertise by Datastax, ACM,
IETE, Proctor and Gamble Innovation Centre (India), Dinamalar, AWS
(Amazon Web Services), Sabre Technologies, IEEE Compute, Syndicate
Bank, MHRD, Elsevier, Bounce, IncubateIND, Smart India Hackathon,
Stop the Bleed, “Hack Harvard” (Harvard University), Accenture Digital
(India), Nippon Electric Company (NEC, Japan), Thought Factory (Axis
Bank Innovation Lab), Rakuten (Japan), Titan, Future Group, Institution
of Engineers of India (IEI), Ministry of Food Processing Industries
(MoFPI –​Government of India), Intel, Microsoft, Wipro, Infosys, IBM
India, SoS Ventures (USA), VIT University, Amrita University, Computer
Society of India, TBI –​TIDE, ICTACT, Times of India, the Nehru Group of
institutions, Texas Instruments, IBC Cambridge, Cisco, CII (Confederation
of Indian Industries), Indian Air Force, DPSRU Innovation & Incubation
Foundation, ELGi Equipments (Coimbatore), and so forth. Listed in many
leading biographical databases.

xiii
xiv   n    The Authors

Notable honors:
• First Indian to be selected as HDE (Huawei Developer Expert).
• NVIDIA Certified Deep Learning Instructor.
• Winner of the Harvard University “Hack Harvard” Global, 2019 and
World Hack, 2019. Winner of 50-plus hackathons.
• Selected as “Intel IoT Innovator” and inducted into the “Intel Software
Innovator” group. Awarded “Top Innovator” award –​2018, “Top
Innovator –​Innovator Summit 2019”.
• World Record Holder –​With his sister, Subashri Vasudevan (Only
siblings on the globe to have authored nine books together: Unique
World Record Books).
• Entry in Limca Book of Records for National Record –​2015.
• Entry in India Book of Records –​National Record and
Appreciation –​2017.

Sini Raj Pulari

Professor in a government university in
Bahrain, with 14 years of experience in
various Indian universities and industry,
with contributions to the teaching field
and carrying out activities to maintain and
develop research and professional activities
relevant to Computer Science Engineering.
Research interests include areas of Natural
Language Processing, recommender
systems, Information Retrieval, Deep
Learning, and Machine Learning.
She has authored 17-plus Scopus Indexed publications; guided over 30
UG and PG students for various innovative product-based and algorithmic
ideas; and was an active member of the Funded Project –​Early Warning
and Monitoring System of Elephants –​Amrita University. Member of the
International Association of Engineers (IAENG) and the Computer Society
of India (CSI). Delivered various lectures on the emerging technological
topics. Actively participated in the board of studies. Organized, presented,
and participated in various national and international technical events,
conferences, workshops, and hackathons and has been on the international
advisory committees of various international conferences.
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 CASTLE PINCKNEY.
Castle Pinckney is a small work, situated on the southern
extremity of “Shute’s Folly Island,” between the Hog and Folly
channels. Though in itself not a very considerable military work, yet,
from its position, commanding as it does the whole line of the
eastern wharves, it becomes of the utmost importance. The height of
the rampart is twenty, and the width thirty-two feet. The width of the
outer wall and of the parapet is six feet; the depth of the casemates is
twenty feet, height ten; the diameter (east and west) of the castle is
one hundred and seventy feet. The entrance is on the northern side,
on either side of which are the officers and privates’ quarters, mess-
room, &c. The armament of this castle consists of about twenty-five
pieces, 24 and 32-pounders, a few sea-coast mortars and six
columbiads.
 BOMBARDMENT OF FORT SUMTER.

Major Anderson made good use of the hour awarded to him, that
one solemn hour which stood between a peaceful, happy country, so
blessed that it had forgotten to be grateful, and the most terrible war
that ever, without cause, deluged a free soil with the blood of its own
sons. Were ever sixty minutes, since the creation of time, so
portentous with fate?
But that little band of men had no time for such thoughts. No
sooner had the deputation withdrawn than each officer and soldier
was at his post. They had two flags at the fort, a large garrison flag,
which Major Anderson raised when he took up his quarters at
Sumter, and a smaller one, called the storm-flag; the former had a
slight tip in it, and he ordered the storm-flag to be raised in its stead.
Sentinels were immediately removed from the parapets of Fort
Sumter, the posterns closed, the flag drawn up, and an order sent to
the troops not to leave the bomb-proofs, on any account, until
summoned by the drum. At 4.30 A. M. one bombshell was thrown at
Sumter, bursting immediately over the fort.
This was the first gun of the rebellion. How awfully its
reverberations have thundered through the land! How little did the
prompters of that attack upon the old flag dream of the horrors that
were to follow!
 BOMBARDMENT OF FORT
SUMTER

1. Cummings’ Point Iron Battery.

2. Fort Sumter.
3. Sullivan’s Island.
4. The Iron Floating Battery.
5. Fort Moultrie.
6. Charleston.

After the pause of a few moments the firing became general on the
part of the batteries of the secessionists, doing the greatest credit to
the artillerists. Battery after battery joined in the murderous attack.
The Major took it very calmly—divided his men into companies to
relieve each other—had their scanty breakfast prepared, which they
partook of in silence, while the iron hail was crashing against their
walls—prepared additional cartridges by tearing up the flannel shirts
of the men, their bed-clothes, etc.,—got out a supply of powder from
the magazine—and after nearly four hours’ silence, the fort at last
opened most vigorously on their assailants. Hot coffee was kept in
the boiler in the cook room for the men to partake of whenever they
pleased, and they worked the guns with a will. They fired but few
shells, for the only guns for that kind of ammunition were the
barbette guns on the open rampart, many of which were dismounted
by the continuous fire of the enemy, and the serving of which, from
the lack of casemate protection, would have rapidly thinned out the
Major’s little band.
As the number of men was so small, and the garrison so nearly
exhausted by the several months of siege which they had gone
through, it was necessary to husband their strength. The command
was therefore divided into three reliefs, or equal parties, who were to
work the different batteries by turns, each four hours.
The first relief opened upon the iron batteries at Cummings Point,
at a distance of 1,600 yards, the iron floating battery, distant 1,800
or 2,000 yards at the end of Sullivan’s Island, the enfilading battery
on Sullivan’s Island, and Fort Moultrie. This was at 7 o’clock in the
morning, Captain Doubleday firing the first gun, and all the points
named above being opened upon simultaneously. For the first four
hours the firing was kept up with great rapidity; the enthusiasm of
the men, indeed, was so spirited that the second and third reliefs
could not be kept from the guns. This accounts for the fact that
double the number of guns were at work during the first four hours
than at any other time.
Shells burst with the greatest rapidity in every portion of the work,
hurling the loose brick and stone in all directions, breaking the
windows, and setting fire to whatever woodwork they burst against.
The solid shot firing of the enemy’s batteries, and particularly of Fort
Moultrie, were directed at the barbette guns of Fort Sumter,
disabling one ten-inch columbiad, (they had but two,) one eight-inch
columbiad, one forty-two pounder, and two eight-inch sea-coast
howitzers, and also tearing a large portion of the parapet away. The
firing from the batteries on Cummings Point was scattered over the
whole of the gorge, or rear, of the fort, riddling it like a sieve. The
explosion of shells, and the quantity of deadly missiles that were
hurled in every direction and at every instant of time, made it almost
certain death to go out of the lower tier of casemates, and also made
the working of the barbette, or upper uncovered guns, which
contained all of our heaviest metals, and by which alone we could
throw shells, quite impossible. During the first day there was hardly
an instant of time that there was a cessation of the whizzing of balls,
which were sometimes coming half a dozen at once. There was not a
portion of the work which was not seen in reverse (that is, exposed
by the rear) from mortars.
 On Friday, before dinner, several of the vessels of the fleet beyond
the bar were seen through the port-holes. They dipped their flags.
The commander ordered Sumter’s flag to be dipped in return, which
was done, while the shells were bursting in every direction. [The
flagstaff was located in the parade, which is about the centre of the
open space within the fort.] Sergeant Hart saw the flag of Fort
Sumter half way down, and, supposing that it had been cut by the
enemy’s shot, rushed out through the fire to assist in getting it up.
Shortly after it had been re-raised, a shell burst and cut the halyards,
but the rope was so intertwined around the halyards, that the flag
would not fall.
The cartridges were exhausted about noon, and a party was sent to
the magazines to make cartridges of the remaining blankets and
shirts, the sleeves of the latter being readily converted into the
purpose desired. Another great misfortune was, that there was not an
instrument in the fort by which they could weigh powder, which of
course destroyed all attempt at accuracy of firing. Nor had they
tangent scales, breech sides, or other instruments with which to
point a gun.
When it became so dark as to render it impossible to see the effect
of their shot, the port-holes were closed for the night, while the
batteries of the secessionists continued their fire the whole night.
During Friday, the officers’ barracks were three times set on fire by
the shells, and three times put out under the most galling and
destructive firing. This was the only occasion on which Major
Anderson allowed the men to expose themselves without an absolute
necessity. The guns on the parapet, which had been pointed the day
before, were fired clandestinely by some of the men.
The firing of the rifled guns from the iron battery on Cummings
Point became extremely accurate in the afternoon of Friday, cutting
out large quantities of the masonry about the embrasures at every
shot, throwing concrete among the cannoneers, slightly wounding
one man, and stunning others. One piece struck Sergeant Kearnan,
an old Mexican war veteran, on the head and knocked him down.
Upon being revived, he was asked if he was hurt badly. He replied:
“No; I was only knocked down temporarily,” and he went to work
again.
 Meals were served at the guns of the cannoneers, while the guns
were being fired and pointed. The fire commenced in the morning as
soon as possible.
During Friday night the men endeavored to climb the flagstaff, for
the purpose of fastening new halyards, the old ones having been cut
by the shot, but found it impossible. The flag remained fast.
For the fourth time the barracks were set on fire early on Saturday
morning, and attempts were made to put it out. But it was soon
discovered that red-hot shot were being thrown into the fort with the
greatest rapidity, and it became evident that it would be impossible
to put out the conflagration. The whole garrison was then set at
work, or as many as could be spared, to remove the powder from the
magazines. It was desperate work, rolling barrels of powder through
the fire.
Ninety odd barrels had been rolled out through the flames, when
the heat became so great as to make it impossible to get out any
more. The doors were then closed and locked, and the fire spread
and became general. The wind so directed the smoke as to fill the fort
so full that the men could not see each other, and with the hot,
stifling air, it was as much as a man could do to breathe. Soon they
were obliged to cover their faces with wet cloths in order to breathe
at all, so dense was the smoke and so scorching the heat.
But few cartridges were left, and the guns were fired slowly; nor
could more cartridges be made, on account of the sparks falling in
every part of the works. A gun was fired every now and then only to
let the fleet and the people in the town know that the fort had not
been silenced. The cannoneers could not see to aim, much less where
the shot fell.
After the barracks were well on fire, the batteries directed upon
Fort Sumter increased their cannonading to a rapidity greater than
had been attained before. About this time, the shells and
ammunition in the upper service-magazines exploded, scattering the
tower and upper portions of the building in every direction. The
crash of the beams, the roar of the flames, the rapid explosion of the
shells, and the shower of fragments of the fort, with the blackness of
the smoke, made the scene indescribably terrific and grand. This
continued for several hours. Meanwhile the main gates were burned
down, the chassis of the barbette guns were burned away on the
gorge, and the upper portions of the towers had been demolished by
shells.
There was not a portion of the fort where a breath of air could be
obtained for hours, except through a wet cloth. The fire spread to the
men’s quarters, on the right hand and on the left, and endangered
the powder which had been taken out of the magazines. The men
went through the fire and covered the barrels with wet cloths, but the
danger of the fort’s blowing up became so imminent, that they were
obliged to heave the barrels out of the embrasures. While the powder
was being thrown overboard, all the guns of Moultrie, of the iron
floating battery, of the enfilade battery, and the Dahlgren battery,
worked with increased fury.
All but four barrels were thus disposed of, and those remaining
were wrapped in many thicknesses of wet woolen blankets. But three
cartridges were left, and these were in the guns. About this time the
flagstaff of Fort Sumter was shot down, some fifty feet from the
truck, this being the ninth time that it had been struck by a shot. A
man cried out, “The flag is down; it has been shot away!” In an
instant, Lieutenant Hall rushed forward and brought the flag away.
But the halyards were so inextricably tangled that it could not be
righted; it was, therefore, nailed to the staff, and planted upon the
ramparts, while batteries in every direction were playing upon them.
A few moments after, and a man was seen with a white flag tied to
his sword, who desired admission. He was admitted through an
embrasure. In a great flurry, he said he was General Wigfall, and that
he came from General Beauregard, and added that he had seen that
Sumter’s flag was down. Lieutenant Davis replied, “Oh, sir! but it is
up again.” The cannonading meanwhile continued. General Wigfall
asked that some one might hold his flag outside. Lieutenant Davis
replied, “No, sir! we don’t raise a white flag. If you want your
batteries to stop, you must stop them.” General Wigfall then held the
flag out of an embrasure. As soon as he had done this, Lieutenant
Davis directed a corporal to relieve him, as it was General Wigfall’s
flag.
Several shots struck immediately around him while he was holding
it out, when he started back, and putting the flag in Wigfall’s face,
said, “D——n it; I won’t hold that flag, for they don’t respect it. They
struck their colors, but we never did.” Wigfall replied, “They fired at
me three or four times, and I should think you ought to stand it
once.” Wigfall then placed the white flag on the outside of the
embrasure, and presented himself to Major Anderson, and said that
General Beauregard was desirous that blood should not be
unnecessarily shed, and also stated that he came from General
Beauregard, who desired to know if Major Anderson would evacuate
the fort, and that if he would do so he might choose his own terms.
After a moment’s hesitation Major Anderson replied that he would
go out on the same terms that he (Major Anderson) had mentioned
on the 11th. General Wigfall then said: “Very well; then it is
understood that you will evacuate. This is all I have to do. You
military men will arrange everything else on your own terms.” He
then departed, the white flag still waving where he had placed it, and
the stars and stripes streaming from the flagstaff which had become
the target of the rebels.
Shortly after his departure Major Lee, the Hon. Porcher Miles,
Senator Chesnut, and the Hon. Roger A. Pryor, the staff of General
Beauregard, approached the fort with a white flag, and said they had
come from General Beauregard, who had observed that the flag had
been down and raised again a few minutes afterward. The General
had sent over, desiring to know if he could render any assistance, as
he had observed the fort was on fire. (This was perhaps a delicate
mode of asking for a surrender.) Major Anderson, in reply, requested
them to thank General Beauregard for the offer, but it was too late, as
he had just agreed with General Beauregard for an evacuation. The
three persons comprising the deputation, looked at each other
blankly, and asked with whom? Major Anderson, observing that
there was something wrong, remarked that General Wigfall, who had
just left, had represented himself to be an aid to General Beauregard,
and that he had come over to make the proposition.
After some conversation among themselves, they said to Major
Anderson that Wigfall had not seen General Beauregard for two
days. Major Anderson replied that Wigfall’s offer and its acceptance
had placed him in a peculiar position. They then requested him to
place in writing what General Wigfall had said to him, and they
would lay it before General Beauregard.
Before this reached General Beauregard, he sent his Adjutant-
General and other members of his staff, including the Hon. Roger A.
Pryor and Governor Manning, proposing the same conditions which
Major Anderson had offered to go out upon, with the exception only
of not saluting the flag. Major Anderson said that he had already
informed General Beauregard that he was going out. They asked him
if he would not accept of the terms without the salute. Major
Anderson told them, No; but that it should be an open point.
General Beauregard sent down to say that the terms had been
accepted, and that he would send the Isabel or any other vessel at his
command to convey Major Anderson and the troops to any port in
the United States which he might elect.
No braver men ever lived than the defenders of Fort Sumter; but
the ardor and endurance of musician Hall of Company E was
remarked by every man in Sumter, and the company presented him
with a testimonial. He was at the firing of the first guns, and fought
on all day, and would not accept either of the three reliefs. He was up
at the first shot the next day, and worked without cessation till night.
His example and words of cheer had great effect. This is the more
worthy of remark as he belonged to the musicians, and was not
obliged to enter into the engagement at all.
Mr. Hart, a volunteer from New York, particularly distinguished
himself in trying to put out the flames in the quarters, with shells and
shot crashing around him. He was ordered away by Major Anderson,
but begged hard to be permitted to remain and continue his
exertions.
Never did famished men work more bravely than those who
defended that fortress, knowing, as they did, that if successfully
defended and held by them, there was not even a biscuit left to divide
among them. They never would have left it while a protecting wall
stood around them, had they been provided with provision and
ammunition. Every man was true and faithful to his post; hunger and
want of ammunition alone caused them to leave Fort Sumter. They
were exposed to a most terrible fire from all quarters, and it was only
by exercising the utmost care that the officers were enabled to
preserve the men from a terrible slaughter. Fort Sumter in itself was
hardly worth the holding; had there been the full fighting
complement of men within its walls, the fort would not have afforded
suitable protection for one-half of them. The enemy’s shot rained in
upon and about them like hail, and more men in Sumter would only
have made greater havoc. As it was, the garrison proved fortunate in
having escaped without the loss of one of those brave men who were
willing to die for the flag which waved over them.
The evacuation took place about 9½ o’clock on Sunday morning,
after the burial with military honors of private Daniel Hough, who
had been killed by the bursting of a gun. The men had been all the
morning preparing cartridges for the purpose of firing a salute of one
hundred guns. This done, the embarkation took place, the band
meanwhile playing Yankee Doodle.
 STORMING OF FORT SUMTER, VIEWED
FROM THE LAND.
A person who witnessed the bombardment of Fort Sumter from
the harbor, gives this graphic account:
The terrific firing reached an awful climax at ten o’clock at night.
The heavens were obscured by rain clouds, and it was as dark as
Erebus. The guns were heard distinctly, the wind blowing in shore.
Sometimes a shell would burst in mid-air, directly over Fort Sumter.
Nearly all night long the streets were thronged with people, full of
excitement and enthusiasm. The house-tops, the battery, the
wharves, the shipping,—in fact every available place was taken
possession of by the multitude.
The discharges of cannon gradually diminished as the sun rose. All
the clouds, which rendered the night so dark and dismal,
disappeared as day began to break, while the air became most
beautiful, balmy, and refreshing. The streets were filled again with
persons, male and female, old and young, white and black; some
went to the battery, some to the wharves, and some to the steeples of
the churches.
A few random shots were fired from the Confederate batteries, to
which Fort Sumter only replied occasionally. Soon it became evident
that Sumter was on fire, and all eyes were rivetted upon it. The dense
smoke that issued from it was seen gradually to rise from the
ramparts. Some supposed that this was merely a signal from Major
Anderson to call in the fleet to aid him.
At this time the fleet was in the offing quietly riding at anchor, and
could clearly be distinguished. Four vessels were ranged in line
directly over the bar, apparently blockading the port. Their long,
black hulls and smoke stacks proved them to be Federal steamers.
Every one anxiously waited to see what they would do. The suspense
was very exciting. On all sides could be heard,
“Will the vessels come in and engage the batteries? If they do not
they are cowardly poltroons.”
 Every person on the battery fully expected that the engagement
would become general. By the aid of glasses, it was believed that a
movement was being made to this end by two of the war ships, and it
was thought that the sand would soon begin to fly from the Morris
Island batteries.
At ten o’clock in the morning, attention was again rivetted on Fort
Sumter, which was now beyond a doubt on fire. The flames were
seen to burst from the roofs of the houses within its walls, and dense
columns of smoke shot quickly upward.
At this time Major Anderson scarcely fired a shot. The guns on the
ramparts of Fort Sumter had no utterance in them. Burst shells and
grape scattered like hail over the doomed fort, and drove the soldiers
under cover.
From the Iron Battery at Cummings Point a continuous fire was
kept up. Its rifled cannon played sad havoc with that portion of Fort
Sumter facing it. The firing from the Floating Battery and from Fort
Moultrie continued very regular and accurate. Standing on the
Charleston battery, and looking seaward, you have on the right a
mortar battery and Fort Johnson, distant from the city two and a half
miles. Half a mile from Fort Johnson is the Iron Battery of
Cummings Point, mounting three ten-inch columbiads, three sixty-
four-pounders, three mortars, and one rifled cannon. Cummings
Point is only fifteen hundred yards from Fort Sumter, and so any one
can imagine what havoc the regular fire of the Cummings Point
battery must have created.
The men working the guns made them terribly effective. The sand
redoubt was scarcely injured by the weak fire Major Anderson kept
up on the battery. It was commanded by Major Stevens, of the
Citadel Cadets. Under his direction each shell that was fired found a
destination within Fort Sumter, and during the entire bombardment
scarcely one missile of this character missed its mark.
On the other side of the harbor, directly opposite Fort Sumter, is
one of the strongest sides of Fort Moultrie. During the last three
months it has been strengthened by every appliance that military art
could suggest. Its marlons, moats, glaces, and embrasures are
perfectly protected. The weak walls of the fort were made perfectly
secure for the gunners while at work. From this point throughout the
engagement vast numbers of shot and heavy balls were discharged.
 Behind this, and near Sullivan’s Island, the Floating Battery was
stationed, with two sixty-four and two forty-two pounders. Its sides
of iron and palmetto logs were impenetrable. Every shot from it told
on Fort Sumter, and the men in charge of it were so secure in their
position, that some of them indulged in soldiers’ pastimes, while
others played five cent ante, euchre and bluff.
The Mortar Battery at Mount Pleasant was five hundred yards
from the Floating Battery, and was mounted with two mortars within
excellent range of Fort Sumter. The shells from this mortar were
thrown with great precision. You now have all the positions of the
works bearing directly on Fort Sumter.
All through Friday morning the greatest activity at all points was
displayed. Three times Major Anderson’s barracks were set on fire,
and twice he succeeded in putting out the flames, and to do this it
was necessary to employ all his force in passing along water. To get
water it was necessary for some of his men to go outside the walls,
and hand the buckets in through the port-holes, during all which
time they were exposed to a most terrific fire from the various
batteries.
This last expedient was not resorted to until the fort was on fire for
the third time, and the flames had increased to an alarming pitch.
Meantime, Major Anderson’s guns were silent. He allowed his men
to be exposed to the galling fire upon them but for a few moments,
and then ordered them in and shut the batteries as the smoke was
too thick to work them. At noon the flames burst from every quarter
of Fort Sumter, and its destruction appeared inevitable.
 NAVAL EXPEDITION FOR THE RELIEF OF
SUMTER.
The Government had sent a well-laden fleet to the relief of Fort
Sumter, a portion of which arrived in Charleston harbor time enough
to witness the bombardment of the fort, without the power to help its
heroic garrison.
This fleet left New York and Washington from the 6th to the 9th of
April. It consisted of the sloop-of-war, Pawnee, 10 guns, and 200
men; Pocahontas, 5 guns, 110 men; cutter Harriet Lane, 5 guns, 110
men; accompanied by the transport Baltic, and the steam-tugs
Yankee and Uncle Ben, with additional men and stores. Owing to
stormy weather, the vessels were unable to reach the Charleston
coast at the appointed time. The Pawnee, Harriet Lane, and the
Baltic arrived at the rendezvous on the morning of the 12th April, but
the Pocahontas did not join them until the next day. The steamtug
Yankee lost her smoke-stack in the storm which dispersed the fleet,
and did not reach the neighborhood of Charleston till after the
departure of her consorts, and eventually returned to New York.
Nothing was heard of the Uncle Ben until the 30th of April, when
intelligence was received that she had been captured by the
insurgents off the coast of North Carolina.
The orders of the expedition were, that unarmed boats should first
be sent to the fort with stores only; but if these were fired upon,
every effort was to be made to relieve the fort by stratagem or force.
The vessels of war and the Baltic proved of too heavy draft for any
hopes of passing the bar, and the steam-tugs which were to have
been sent in with supplies, failed to make their appearance. The
attack on the fort, before any measures of a peaceable character
could be adopted for its relief, left no alternative but force, to the
commandant of the fleet, if the object of his expedition was to be
accomplished. A consultation of officers was held at four o’clock on
the afternoon of the 12th, and the following plan was agreed upon:
the Pawnee and the Harriet Lane were to remain at anchor during
the night; at dawn, on the 13th, the Pawnee was to hoist out her
armed launches, and the Baltic was to put her boats alongside,
freighted with the provisions and troops designed for the fort. The
war vessels were then to tow the boats as far as possible on their
perilous journey, when they were to be cast off, and allowed to
pursue their course toward the fort, relying upon the guns of the
men-of-war, and what aid might be extended from Sumter, to protect
them from the batteries and flotilla of armed boats, which were in
readiness to dispute their advance. During the night the Baltic went
aground on Rattlesnake Shoals, and the plan agreed upon was, from
necessity, relinquished. The conflagration of the barracks of the fort
having precipitated its evacuation earlier than was anticipated, the
officers of the fleet abandoned other plans for its relief.
At two o’clock on the 14th of April, Major Anderson and the
garrison of Fort Sumter were received on board the Baltic, and the
fleet shortly after sailed for New York. The flag of the fort was borne
at the mast-head of the Baltic as she entered the bay of New York,
where it was saluted by guns from every fort in the harbor, and
hailed by the shouts of more than a hundred thousand people, who
lined the wharves of the city. It was also raised over the equestrian
statue of Washington in Union Square, in that city, when the great
Union meeting was held on the afternoon of Saturday, April 20.
 THE NATION’S RESPONSE.

The first gun that boomed against Fort Sumter struck the great
American Union with a shock that vibrated from the centre to its
outer verge. Every heart, true or false to the great Union, leaped to
the sound, either in patriotism or treason, on that momentous day.
The North and South recoiled from each other; the one in
amazement at the audacity of this first blow against the Union, the
other rushing blindly after a few leaders, who had left them little
choice of action, and no power of deliberation. The first news of the
attack took the Government at Washington almost by surprise.
President Lincoln and his Cabinet had not allowed themselves to
believe that a civil war could absolutely break out in the heart of a
country so blessed, so wealthy, and so accustomed to peace. True,
political strife had waged fearfully; sections had clamored against
sections, factions North had battled with factions South; but in a
country where free speech and a free press were a crowning glory, a
war of words and ideas could hardly have been expected to culminate
in one of the most terrible civil wars that will crimson the world’s
record.
The first boom of the cannon’s blackened lips—the first shot
hurled against the stars and stripes, aroused the Government from
its hopes of security. Scarcely had the telegraph wires ceased to
tremble under the startling news, before the Cabinet assembled in
President Lincoln’s council chamber, and when it broke up, a
proclamation, calling for seventy-five thousand troops, had been
decided upon, and Congress was to be convened on the Fourth of
July.
The startling news, this prompt action, and the defenceless state of
Washington, filled the country with wild excitement. It was known
that the South had been for months drilling troops; that large
portions of Virginia and Maryland were ready for revolt, and many
believed that bodies of men were organized and prepared for an
attack on the capital. Had this been true, had a considerable number
of men marched upon Washington any time within four days after
the news from Fort Sumter reached it, nothing could have saved it
from capture, and probably, destruction. With only a handful of
troops, and exposed at every point, no effectual resistance could have
been made. The news reached Washington on Sunday; the next day
such troops as could be mustered, appeared on parade. Pickets were
stationed outside the town; horses were galloped furiously from
point to point, and the first faint indication of this most awful civil
war dawned upon a people so used to peace, that its import could not
be wholly realized.
Smothered alarm prevailed in the city; a military guard was placed
each night in the White House, and great anxiety was felt for the
arrival of troops, which had been hastily summoned from the North.
That week the near friends of the President were under painful
apprehensions for his safety. It was known to a few persons that the
very gang of men who had planned his death at Baltimore, were in
the neighborhood of the capital, plotting against him there. It was
even known that a design existed by which a sudden descent of swift
riders was to be made on the White House, with the bold object of
killing Lincoln in his cabinet, or carrying him off by force into
Virginia. The night-guard in the Presidential mansion was but small,
and by day Lincoln had always been imprudently accessible.
The persons believed to be in this plot were brave, reckless men,
accustomed to adventures of every kind, and quite capable of
carrying out a programme of abduction or bloodshed under more
difficult circumstances than surrounded this enterprise. But men of
reckless action are seldom prudent in speech; the wild project was
too exciting for proper reticence. By a few incautious words, dropped
here and there, this treasonable design was fathomed; the friends of
President Lincoln warned, and the whole thing quietly defeated, for
the gang soon ascertained that their treason had been discovered,
and, as its success depended on a surprise of the President’s
household, the project was abandoned.
Meantime the news of Fort Sumter, and the call for troops, had
shot its lightning along every telegraph in the Union; the response
was an instantaneous uprising of the people, such as no country on
earth ever witnessed before.
The great majesty of the Union had been insulted and set at
defiance, and as one man, thousands upon thousands rushed around
the worshipped banner of their country, firm in their patriotism, and
terrible in their determination that it should never be trailed in the
dust, or torn with hostile shot, unavenged.
The proclamation of President Lincoln calling for volunteers, was
answered by the voices of freemen from every hill-top and valley, and
almost fabulous numbers stood ready and anxious to devote
themselves to the vindication of the national honor. Wild indeed was
the enthusiasm that ran from heart to heart, linking the great west
and the east together. But one sentiment found expression from any
lip among the excited populace, and that sentiment was, the Union
should be sustained at all hazards. Wealth, life, everything must be
counted as dust till the Union had redeemed itself. Who in New York
does not remember how the city was ablaze with flags and tri-colored
bunting on the memorable day, when, “the Seventh regiment,”
responded to the call? Never did a finer or braver body of young men
pass down Broadway. Although their arms were not now corded or
hands hardened by labor, their prompt action was a living proof that
gentle breeding can be associated with hearts of oak, with stern
determination, coolness and discretion. Leaping to their arms at the
first note of danger, impatient of delay and thrilling with the hope of
weaving in their peace-won wreaths laurels earned by hard fighting,
this regiment marched from its armory, the very first of the Empire
State to obey the call to arms. Their object was war. They hoped
ardently that it was no light duty which might fall upon them. They
expected to meet hard work and hard fighting too before the capital
was reached, for danger menaced them on all sides. Baltimore had
risen in revolt even while they were arming for the march and they
fully depended on fighting their way through its turbulent streets.
On the 19th of April, at the very time revolt broke out in Baltimore,
a very different scene was going on in New York.
Amidst unparalleled enthusiasm the volunteer soldiers of New
England and New York struck hands on their march to the rescue of
the national capital. And beautiful the streets looked, with bannered
parapets, peopled roofs, windows thronged with sympathetic beauty,
and sidewalks densely packed with multitudes of excited and
applauding citizens.
But it required only a single glance at the faces of this great
multitude to become convinced that no mere gala or festive purpose
had called out this magnificent demonstration. In every eye burned
the unquenchable fire of patriotic ardor, and in every heart was the
aspiration to join in defence of one common country. Old men, who
must have seen the earlier struggles of our history, came forth to
bless the young soldiers on their march to take share in a grander
and more noble struggle than any the American continent had yet
witnessed.
Mothers, with tears of joyous pride half blinding them, helped to
buckle on the accoutrements of their sons, and kissed them as they
went forth to battle. Sisters and sweethearts, fathers and wives,
friends and relatives, all were represented, and had their individual
characteristics in the immense concourse of life which held
possession of Broadway.
Perhaps if there could have risen from the dead one of the old
Girondists, after being bloodily put away to repose during the great
French Revolution, and if he had been dropped down in New York,—
by allowing a little for advance in costumes and architecture, he
might have seen many curious points of resemblance between the
scenes and those of seventy years ago in Paris. Then the inspiration
of liberty ran through the people, and the most powerful aristocracy
of Europe was destroyed. The result of the struggle which broke out
in New York, and in the streets of Baltimore, in one day, time has yet
to reveal.
The children of New York, the Seventh regiment, the pets and
pride of her society, were going forth to their first war duty. Eight
hundred chosen young men, with threads woven to hold them,
wherever they went, to the million hearts they left behind—moved
down Broadway and started for the capital.
Eight hundred young citizens, each with musket and knapsack,
borne along calmly and impassively on a tide of vocal patriotism,
making the air resonant with shouts and warm with the breath of
prayer.
 With that regiment went young Winthrop, on that memorable day,
who afterwards passed from the literary fame he had so richly
earned, to military glory at the battle of Big Bethel. There also was
O’Brien, one of the most promising poets of the age, doomed like
Winthrop to reap bloody laurels, and fill a soldier’s grave. Let no one
say that the Empire State was not nobly represented in these young
soldiers. Gentlemen as they were, one and all, no man was heard to
complain of hard work, soldiers’ fare, or no fare at all, as sometimes
happened to them. How cheerful they were in the cedar groves for
two days and nights—how they endured the hardships of a bivouac
on soft earth—how they digged manfully in the trenches. With what
supreme artistic finish their work was achieved—how they cleared
the brushwood from the glacis—how they blistered their hands and
then hardened them with toil—how they chafed at being obliged to
evade Baltimore, and how faithfully they guarded Washington and
achieved the object for which they were sent, will be best given in a
description of the march from Annapolis of which O’Brien has left a
brilliant record.
Nor were their services in protecting the capital all that the
Seventh regiment of New York has given to its country. Many a
regiment which has since won lasting fame on the battle-field has
been officered to some extent from its ranks.
Two days after the departure of the Seventh regiment, the Seventy-
first, since renowned for its bravery at Bull Run, the Sixth, and
Twelfth, all city regiments of New York, took the same glorious track,
and were hailed with like enthusiasm. In military drill and social
position, some of these regiments were not inferior to the Seventh,
and their departure was witnessed by a concourse of people equal to
that which filled the streets on the 19th.
It was with pride that a city saw her first quota of soldiers
departing en route for Washington, to take the Empire share with the
troops of other loyal states in the contest now inaugurated. The
spectacle, instead of being a great pageant, had all the grandeur and
solemnity of a step in one of those crises of events which involve
individual and national life—engraving new names and new
dynasties upon the tablets of history.
As if to make the departure of these troops more memorable, a
large American flag, forty feet long by twenty wide, was flung out
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