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UNITEXT for Physics

Series Editors
Michele Cini, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Roma, Italy
Attilio Ferrari, University of Turin, Turin, Italy
Stefano Forte, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
Guido Montagna, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
Oreste Nicrosini, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
Luca Peliti, University of Napoli, Naples, Italy
Alberto Rotondi, Pavia, Italy
Paolo Biscari, Politecnico di Milano, Milan, Italy
Nicola Manini, University of Milan, Milan, Italy
Morten Hjorth-Jensen, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
UNITEXT for Physics series publishes textbooks in physics and astronomy,
characterized by a didactic style and comprehensiveness. The books are addressed
to upper-undergraduate and graduate students, but also to scientists and researchers
as important resources for their education, knowledge, and teaching.

More information about this series at https://link.springer.com/bookseries/13351

Luca Salasnich

Modern Physics
Introduction to Statistical Mechanics,
Relativity, and Quantum Physics
Luca Salasnich
Department of Physics and Astronomy
University of Padua
Padova, Italy

ISSN 2198-7882 ISSN 2198-7890 (electronic)

UNITEXT for Physics
ISBN 978-3-030-93742-3 ISBN 978-3-030-93743-0 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93743-0

© The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature
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Preface

This book contains the lecture notes prepared for two one-semester courses at the
University of Padua: “Structure of Matter”, B.Sc. in Optics and Optometrics, and
“Quantum Physics”, B.Sc. in Materials Science. These courses give an introduction
to statistical mechanics, special and general relativity, and quantum physics.
Chapter 1 briefly reviews the ideas of classical statistical mechanics introduced
by James Clerk Maxwell, Ludwig Boltzmann, Willard Gibbs, and others. Chapter 2
is mainly devoted to the special relativity of Albert Einstein but we briefly consider
also the general relativity. In Chap. 3, the quantization of light due to Max Planck
and Albert Einstein is historically analyzed, while Chap. 4 discusses the Niels Bohr
quantization of the energy levels and the electromagnetic transitions. Chapter 5 inves-
tigates the Schrödinger equation, which was obtained by Erwin Schrödinger from
the idea of Louis De Broglie to associate with each particle a quantum wavelength.
Chapter 6 describes the basic axioms of quantum mechanics, which were formu-
lated in the seminal books of Paul Dirac and John von Neumann. In this chapter,
we also discuss the stationary perturbation theory, the time-dependent perturbation
theory, and the variational principle. In Chap. 7, there are several important appli-
cation of quantum mechanics: the quantum particle in a box, the quantum particle
in the harmonic potential, and the quantum tunneling. Chapter 8 is devoted to the
study of quantum atomic physics with special emphasis on the spin of the electron,
which needs the Dirac equation for a rigorous theoretical justification. In Chap. 9,
the quantum mechanics of many identical particles at zero temperature is explained,
while in Chap. 10 the discussion is extended at finite temperature by introducing
and using the quantum statistical mechanics. The appendices on Dirac delta func-
tion, complex numbers, Fourier transform, and differential equations are a useful
mathematical aid for the reader.
The author acknowledges Dr. Fabio Sattin, Dr. Andrea Tononi, and Prof. Flavio
Toigo for their critical reading of the manuscript and their useful comments and
suggestions.

Padova, Italy Luca Salasnich

November 2021

v
Contents

1 Classical Statistical Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

1.1 Kinetic Theory of Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Maxwell Distribution of Velocities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1.2 Maxwell-Boltzmann Distribution of Energies . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.3 Single-Particle Density of States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.2 Statistical Ensembles of Gibbs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.1 Microcanonical Ensemble . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.2.2 Canonical Ensemble . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2.3 Grand Canonical Ensemble . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.2.4 Many-Particle Density of States . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.3 Heat Capacity of Gases and Solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2 Special and General Relativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.1 Electromagnetic Waves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.1.1 Lorentz Invariance of d’Alembert Operator . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.2 Lorentz Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.2.1 Thought Experiment with Light Bulb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.3 Einstein Postulates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.4 Relativistic Kinematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.4.1 Length Contraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
2.4.2 Time Dilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.4.3 Transformation of Velocities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.5 Relativistic Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.5.1 Mechanical Work and Relativistic Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.5.2 Relativistic Energy and Linear Momentum . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.5.3 Non-relativistic Limit of the Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.6 Basic Concepts of General Relativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.6.1 Spacetime Interval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2.6.2 Curved Manifolds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
2.6.3 Equivalence Principle and Einstein Equations . . . . . . . . . 32
2.6.4 Non-Relativistic Limit of General Relativity . . . . . . . . . . 34

vii
viii Contents

2.6.5 Predictions of General Relativity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35

3 Quantum Properties of Light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.1 Black-Body Radiation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.1.1 Derivation of Planck’s Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.2 Photoelectric Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.2.1 Theoretical Explanation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
3.3 Energy and Linear Momentum of a Photon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.4 Compton Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.4.1 Theoretical Explanation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.5 Pair Production . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
4 Quantum Properties of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.1 Heat Capacity of Solids: Einstein Versus Debye . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
4.2 Energy Spectra of Atoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
4.2.1 Energy Spectrum of Hydrogen Atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.3 Bohr’s Model of Hydrogen Atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
4.3.1 Derivation of Bohr’s Formula . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4.4 Energy Levels and Photons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4.5 Electromagnetic Transitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4.6 Einstein Coefficients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.7 Life-Time of an Atomic State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
4.8 Natural Line Width . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.8.1 Collisional Broadening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
4.8.2 Doppler Broadening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
4.9 Old Quantum Mechanics of Bohr, Wilson and Sommerfeld . . . . . 64
5 Wavefunction of a Quantum Particle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
5.1 De Broglie Wavelength . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
5.1.1 Explaining the Bohr Quantization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
5.2 Wave Mechanics of Schrödinger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
5.2.1 Derivation of Schrödinger’s Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
5.3 Double-Slit Experiment with Electrons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
5.4 Formal Quantization Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
5.4.1 Schrödinger Equation for a Free Particle . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
5.4.2 Schrödinger Equation for a Particle in an External
Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
5.5 Madelung Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
5.6 Stationary Schrödinger Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
5.6.1 Properties of the Hamiltonian Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
5.6.2 Orthogonality of Eigenfunctions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
6 Axiomatization of Quantum Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
6.1 Matrix Mechanics and Commutation Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
6.1.1 Momentum Representation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
6.2 Time Evolution Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
6.3 Axioms of Quantum Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Contents ix

6.4 Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85

6.4.1 Uncertainty Principle for Non-commuting
Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
6.5 Time-Independent Perturbation Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
6.6 Time-Dependent Perturbation Theory and Fermi Golden
Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
6.7 Variational Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
7 Solvable Problems in Quantum Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
7.1 One-Dimensional Square-Well Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
7.2 One-Dimensional Harmonic Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
7.2.1 Properties of Number Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
7.3 One-Dimensional Scattering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
7.4 One-Dimensional Double-Well Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
7.4.1 One-Dimensional Double-Square-Well Potential . . . . . . 106
7.5 WKB Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
7.6 Three-Dimensional Separable Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
7.6.1 Three-Dimensional Harmonic Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
8 Modern Quantum Physics of Atoms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
8.1 Electron in the Hydrogen Atom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
8.1.1 Schrödinger Equation in Spherical Polar
Coordinates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
8.1.2 Selection Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
8.2 Pauli Exclusion Principle and the Spin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
8.2.1 Semi-integer and Integer Spin: Fermions
and Bosons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
8.3 The Dirac Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
8.3.1 The Pauli Equation and the Spin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
8.3.2 Dirac Equation with a Central Potential . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
8.3.3 Relativistic Hydrogen Atom and Fine Splitting . . . . . . . . 125
8.3.4 Relativistic Corrections to the Schrödinger
Hamiltonian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
8.4 Spin Properties in a Magnetic Field . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
8.5 Stark Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
8.6 Zeeman Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
8.6.1 Strong-Field Zeeman Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
8.6.2 Weak-Field Zeeman Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
9 Quantum Mechanics of Many-Body Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
9.1 Identical Quantum Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
9.1.1 Spin-Statistics Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
9.2 Non-interacting Identical Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
9.2.1 Atomic Shell Structure and the Periodic Table
of the Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
9.3 Interacting Identical Particles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
x Contents

9.3.1 Electrons in Atoms and Molecules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145

9.4 The Hartree-Fock Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
9.4.1 Hartree for Bosons . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
9.4.2 Hartree-Fock for Fermions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
10 Quantum Statistical Mechanics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
10.1 Quantum Statistical Ensembles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
10.1.1 Quantum Microcanonical Ensemble . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
10.1.2 Quantum Canonical Ensemble . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
10.1.3 Quantum Grand Canonical Ensemble . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
10.2 Bosons and Fermions at Finite Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
10.2.1 Gas of Photons at Thermal Equlibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
10.2.2 Gas of Massive Bosons at Thermal Equlibrium . . . . . . . . 160
10.2.3 Gas of Non-interacting Fermions at Zero
Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163

Appendix A: Dirac Delta Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

Appendix B: Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Appendix C: Fourier Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Appendix D: Differential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Chapter 1
Classical Statistical Mechanics

In this chapter we first discuss the kinetic theory of ideal gases and the Maxwell
distribution of velocities at thermal equilibrium. Then we consider the more general
Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution of non-interacting particles under the effect of an
external trapping potential. Finally, we analyze the statistical ensembles of Gibbs,
which are useful tools to connect the microscopic dynamics of interacting particles
to the macroscopic behavior of a thermodynamical system.

1.1 Kinetic Theory of Gases

The kinetic theory of gases was formulated in the period between 1738 and 1871
with the contribution of several scientists, among them Daniel Bernoulli, Mikhail
Lomonosov, August Krönig, Rudolf Clausius, James Clerk Maxwell, and Ludwig
Boltzmann. This theory is the first historical example of statistical mechanics, where
the macroscopic thermodynamics is described in terms of many microscopic parti-
cles (atoms or molecules). Actually, it was the description of the stochastic Brow-
nian motion of a mesoscopic particle in a liquid, as due to the collisions with the
microscopic particles of the liquid (made by Albert Einstein in 1905), that provided
compelling proof that atoms and molecules exist. Jean Perrin confirmed this fact
experimentally in 1908. In 1926, Perrin received the Nobel Prize in Physics “for his
work on the discontinuous structure of matter”.
At thermal equilibrium a very dilute gas is well described by the equation of state

PV =nRT , (1.1)

where P is the pressure of the gas, V is the volume of the gas container, n is the
number of moles, R = 8.314 J/(mol×K) is the gas constant, and T is the absolute
© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 1
L. Salasnich, Modern Physics, UNITEXT for Physics,
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-93743-0_1
2 1 Classical Statistical Mechanics

temperature (i.e. the temperature, usually measured in Kelvin, that is zero at the
absolute zero, where the pressure of the ideal gas becomes zero). Equation (1.1)
is known as the equation of state of ideal gases and it was formulated by Benoit
Clapeyron in 1834.
August Krönig in 1856 and Rudolf Clausius in 1857 found, independently, that
Eq. (1.1) can be derived from a microscopic kinetic theory. First of all, one observes
that the number n of moles is related to the total number N of identical particles by
the formula
N
n= , (1.2)
NA

where N A = 6.02 · 1023 is the Avogadro number. After introducing the Boltzmann
constant
R
kB = = 1.38 · 1023 J/K , (1.3)
NA

Equation (1.1) can be rewritten as

P V = N kB T . (1.4)

This equation clearly shows that the pressure P is proportional to the total number
N of identical particles and to the absolute temperature T . Thus, it is quite natural
to think that the pressure P exerted by the gas is due to the collisions of the particles
on the container walls.
Let us now consider a cubic container of side L and volume V = L 3 with N
identical particles of mass m inside. Let us choose the reference system with the
Cartesian axes (x, y, x) along the sides of the box. The force Fi,x that the i-th particle
exerts, along the x direction on the container wall that parallel to the plane (y, z), is
given by
(mvi,x ) 2 mvi,x
Fi,x = = , (1.5)
t t

where (mvi,x ) is the variation of the linear momentum in the elastic collision of
the i-th particle with the wall and t is the time interval. This time interval is not
arbitrary if the particles are only interacting with the walls of the container. In this
case
2L
t = , (1.6)
vi,x

that is the time interval between two collisions of the ith particle with the same wall.
It then follows that
2
mvi,x
Fi,x = (1.7)
L
and the pressure reads
1.1 Kinetic Theory of Gases 3

N
m  2
N
i=1 Fi,x m
P= = v = 3 N vx2  , (1.8)
L2 L 3 i=1 i,x L

introducing the statistical average of a generic quantity A shared by the N identical

particles as
1 
N
A = Ai . (1.9)
N i=1

Moreover, we assume independence with respect to the direction of propagation of

the squared velocity, namely

v 2  = vx2  + v 2y  + vz2  = 3vx2  . (1.10)

It follows that the pressure P of Eq. (1.8) can be written as

mN 2
P= v  . (1.11)
3V
Comparing Eq. (1.4) with Eq. (1.11) we obtain

1 3
mv 2  = k B T . (1.12)
2 2
This remarkable formula relates the statistical average of the kinetic energy of the
miscroscopic identical particles to the macroscopic absolute temperature T of the
gas.
In this treatment the gas is indeed ideal because its total internal energy E is
simply the sum of the kinetic energies (1/2)mvi2 of the single particles, i.e.


N
1 1 3 3
E= mvi2 = N mv 2  = N k B T = n RT . (1.13)
i=1
2 2 2 2

This is the correct formula for the internal energy of a monoatomic gas, where each
atom has only three traslational degrees of freedom. In this case the equipartition
theorem holds: at thermal equilibrium there is an associated thermal energy k B T /2
for each degree of freedom.

1.1.1 Maxwell Distribution of Velocities

In 1860 James Clerk Maxwell considered the probability distribution f (v) of finding
a particle with velocity v in a volume d 3 v for the ideal gas at thermal equilibrium.
Because f (v) is a probability distribution it must satisfy the condition of normaliza-
4 1 Classical Statistical Mechanics

tion to one, namely 

f (v) d 3 v = 1 , (1.14)
R3

where R3 is the three-dimensional space of velocities. Moreover, the statistical aver-

age of a generic observable A(v), which is a function of v, is defined as

A(v) = A(v) f (v) d 3 v . (1.15)
R3

In particular, it follows that the statistical average of the square velocity v 2 reads

v  =
2
v 2 f (v) d 3 v . (1.16)
R3

Taking into account Eqs. (1.12) and (1.16), it follows that f (v) must satisfy the
crucial condition 
kB T
v 2 f (v) d 3 v = 3 . (1.17)
R 3 m

Each particle of the gas is characterized by its kinetic energy

1 2 1  
mv = m vx2 + v 2y + vz2 , (1.18)
2 2
and, due to the isotropy of the problem with respect to the velocity, it is quite natural
to assume that

f (v) = C f 0 (v 2 ) = C f 0 (vx2 + v 2y + vz2 ) = C f 0 (vx2 ) f 0 (v 2y ) f 0 (vz2 ) , (1.19)

where C is a constant fixed by the normalization to one, Eq. (1.14). The only function
f 0 (x) that satisfies the equation

f 0 (x + y + z) = f 0 (x) f 0 (y) f 0 (z) (1.20)

is the exponential function, i.e.

f 0 (x) = eαx , (1.21)

and it means that

f 0 (v 2 ) = eα(vx +v y +vz ) ,
2 2 2
(1.22)

where α is a constant fixed by Eq. (1.17). It is then straightforward to find

 3/2
m m
C= and α=− . (1.23)
2πk B T 2k B T
1.1 Kinetic Theory of Gases 5

Fig. 1.1 Maxwell 0.4

distribution (v) of the
0.35
particle speed v = |v| for kBT = 1
three values of the 0.3 kBT = 2
temperature T . In the plot we
kBT = 3
choose units such that m = 1 0.25

Φ (v)
0.2

0.15

0.1

0.05

0
0 1 2 3 4 5
v

In conclusion, the Maxwell distribution of the velocities is given by

 3/2
m − 2kmv T
2
f (v) = e B . (1.24)
2πk B T

For historical reasons one usually introduces the parameter

1
β= (1.25)
kB T

and the Maxwell distribution then reads

 3/2
mβ mv 2
f (v) = e−β 2 . (1.26)
2π

It is important to stress that, adopting spherical coordinates and taking into account
the spherical symmetry of the problem we have d 3 v = 4πv 2 dv, and we can also
introduce  
mβ 3/2 2 −β mv2
(v) = 4πv f (|v|) = 4π
2
v e 2 (1.27)
2π

that is the probability distribution of the modulus v = |v| of the velocity v, and it is
such that (Fig. 1.1)  +∞
(v) dv = 1 . (1.28)
0

We immediately find
 +∞
8 kB T
v = v (v) dv = (1.29)
0 π m
 Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics
 The vegetable diet, so called, is very favorable to reproduction in
the human species. See how Ireland, a small island comparatively,
sends its inhabitants all over Great Britain and the wide extent of the
United States. Yet the mass of Irish people, as every one knows,
subsist, while in their own country, mainly on potatoes and sour
milk, or a diet equally simple. The celebrated Dr. Cheyne remarked,
from much experience, that the total milk and seed diet (meaning by
seed, farinaceous substances generally), persevered in for two years,
was in almost all cases sufficient to enable the barren to become
pregnant by the appropriate means.
Fortify and invigorate the general health, observing at the same
time the strictest “temperance in all things.” These are the means by
which to overcome that, to many, unfortunate state, barrenness.
You, then, who may be in the condition we have been considering,
if you wish to be cured of it, leave none of the tonic means, none of
the good rules of health untried. If you are faithful in every thing, so
may you expect to succeed. But if it should be found that it is not
possible for you to conceive, you will yet have the satisfaction of
knowing that your toils have not been in vain; your health will
become so much improved as to reward you a thousand-fold for
every good thing you do.
I ought to remark also, before closing, that when a woman who has
been for a time barren becomes again pregnant, she must be very
careful of herself during this period, as with a little imprudence
abortion is very likely to occur.
 LETTER XXII.
THE PELVIS AND ITS ORGANS.

General Description—Differences between the Male and Female Pelvis—The

Bladder and Urethra—The Vagina—The Uterus and its Appendages.

Before entering upon the subject of labor and its phenomena, it is

proper that I should give you some idea of the parts more
immediately concerned in parturition. In doing this, I propose for
the most part to adopt the plain and concise description of these
structures given by Mr. Erasmus Wilson, of London, whose work on
anatomy stands as high as any other that has ever been written.
 THE PELVIS.
The pelvis, considered as a whole, is divisible into a false and true
pelvis; the former is the expanded portion, bounded on each side by
the ossa ilii, and separated from the true pelvis by the linea
iliopectinea. The true pelvis is all that portion which is situated
beneath the iliopectinea. This line forms the margin or brim of the
true pelvis, while the included area is called the inlet. The form of the
inlet is heart-shaped, obtusely pointed in front at the symphysis
pubis, expanded on each side, and encroached upon behind by a
projection of the upper part of the sacrum, which is named the
promontory. The cavity is somewhat encroached upon at each side
by a smooth quadrangular plane of bone, corresponding with the
internal surface of the acetabulum, and leading to the spine of the
ischium. In front are two fossæ around the obturator foramina, for
lodging the obturator internus muscle, at each side. The inferior
termination of the pelvis is very irregular, and is termed the outlet. It
is bounded in front by the convergence of the rami of the ischium
and pubes, which constitute the arch of the pubes; on each side by
the tuberosity of the ischium, and by two irregular fissures formed by
the greater and lesser sacro-ischiatic notches; and behind by the
lateral borders of the sacrum, and by the coccyx.
 A FEMALE PELVIS.

1. The last lumbar vertebra. 2, 2. The intervertebral substance

connecting the last lumbar vertebra with the fourth and sacrum. 3.
The promontory of the sacrum. 4. The anterior surface of the
sacrum, on which its transverse lines and foramina are seen. 5.
The tip of the coccyx. 6, 6. The iliac fossæ, forming the lateral
boundaries of the false pelvis. 7. The anterior superior spinous
process of the ilium; left side. 8. The anterior inferior spinous
process. 9. The acetabulum. a. The notch of the acetabulum. b.
The body of the ischium. c. Its tuberosity. d. The spine of the
ischium seen through the obturator foramen. e. The os pubis. f.
The symphysis pubis. g. The arch of the pubes. h. The angle of the
os pubis. i. The spine of the pubes; the prominent ridge between h
and i is the crest of the pubes. k, k. The pectineal line of the pubes.
l, l. The ilio-pectineal line; m, m. The prolongation of this line to
the promontory of the sacrum. The line represented by h, i, k, k, l,
l, and m, m, is the brim of the true pelvis. n. The ilio-pectineal
eminence. o. The smooth surface which supports the femoral
vessels. p, p. The great sacro-ischiatic notch.
 The pelvis is placed obliquely with regard to the trunk of the body,
so that the inner surface of the ossa pubis is directed upward, and
would support the superincumbent weight of the viscera. The base of
the sacrum rises nearly four inches above the level of the upper
border of the symphysis pubis and the apex of the coccyx, somewhat
more than half an inch above its lower border. If a line were carried
through the central axis of the inlet, it would impinge by one
extremity against the umbilicus, and by the other against the middle
of the coccyx. The axis of the inlet is therefore directed downward
and backward, while that of the outlet points downward and
forward, and corresponds with a line drawn from the upper part of
the sacrum, through the center of the outlet. The axis of the cavity
represents a curve, which corresponds very nearly with the curve of
the sacrum, the extremities being indicated by the central points of
the inlet and outlet. A knowledge of the direction of these axes is
most important to the surgeon, as indicating the line in which
instruments should be used in operations upon the viscera of the
pelvis, and the direction of force in the removal of calculi from the
bladder; and to the accoucher, as explaining the course taken by the
fetus during parturition.
There are certain striking differences between the male and female
pelvis. In the male the bones are thicker, stronger, and more solid,
and the cavity deeper and narrower. In the female the bones are
lighter and more delicate, the iliac fossæ are large, and the ilia
expanded; the inlet, the outlet, and the cavity, are large, and the
acetabula farther removed from each other; the cavity is shallow, the
tuberosities widely separated, the obturator foramina triangular, and
the span of the pubic arch greater. The precise diameter of the inlet
and outlet, and the depth of the cavity, are important considerations
to the accoucher.
The contents of the pelvis are, the bladder, vagina, uterus with its
appendages, and the rectum. Some portion of the small intestines
also occupies the upper part of its cavity.
 THE BLADDER.
This is in relation with the os pubis in front, with the uterus
behind, from which it is usually separated by a convolution of small
intestine, and with the neck of the uterus and vagina beneath. The
form of the female bladder corresponds with that of the pelvis, being
broad from side to side, and often bulging more on one side than on
the other. This is particularly evident after frequent parturition. The
coats of the bladder are the same as those of the male.
 THE URETHRA.
This is about an inch and a half in length, and is lodged in the
upper wall of the vagina in its course downward and forward,
beneath the arch of the os pubis, to the meatus urinarius. It is lined
by mucous membrane, which is disposed in longitudinal folds, and is
continuous internally with that of the bladder, and externally with
the vulva; the mucous membrane is surrounded by a proper coat of
elastic tissue, to which the muscular fibres of the detrusor urinæ are
attached. It is to the elastic tissue that is due the remarkable
dilatability of the female urethra, and its speedy return to its original
diameter. The meatus is encircled by a ring of fibrous tissue, which
prevents it from distending with the same facility as the rest of the
canal; hence it is sometimes advantageous in performing this
operation, to divide the margin of the meatus slightly with the knife.
 THE VAGINA.
This is a membranous canal, leading from the vulva to the uterus,
and corresponding in direction with the axis of the outlet of the
pelvis. It is constricted at its commencement, but near the uterus
becomes dilated, and is closed by the contact of the anterior with the
posterior wall. Its length is variable; but it is always longer upon the
posterior than upon the anterior wall, the former being usually about
five or six inches in length, and the latter four or five. It is attached to
the cervix of the uterus, which latter projects into the upper
extremity of the canal.
In structure, the vagina is composed of a mucous lining, a layer of
erectile tissue, and an external tunic of contractile fibrous tissue,
resembling the dartos of the scrotum. The upper fourth of the
posterior wall is covered, on its pelvic surface, by the peritoneum,
while in front the peritoneum is reflected from the upper part of the
cervix of the uterus to the posterior surface of the bladder. On each
side it gives attachment, superiorly to the broad ligaments of the
uterus, and inferiorly to the pelvic fascia and levatores ani.
The mucous membrane presents a number of transverse papillæ
or rugæ, upon its upper and lower surfaces, which extend outward
on each side from a middle raphé. The transverse papillæ and raphé
are more apparent upon the upper than upon the lower surface, and
the two raphé are called the columns of the vagina. The mucous
membrane is covered by a thin cuticular epithelium, which is
continued from the labia, and terminates by a fringed border at
about the middle of the cervix uteri.
The middle, or erectile layer, consists of erectile tissue enclosed
between two layers of fibrous membrane; this layer is thickest near
the commencement of the vagina, and becomes gradually thinner as
it approaches the uterus.
The external, or dartoid layer of the vagina, serves to connect it to
the surrounding viscera. Thus it is very closely adherent to the under
surface of the bladder, and drags that organ down with it in
prolapsus uteri. To the rectum it is less closely connected, and that
intestine is therefore less frequently affected in prolapsus.
The uterus is a flattened organ, of a pyriform shape, having the
base directed upward and forward, and the apex downward and
backward in the line of the axis of the inlet of the pelvis, and forming
a considerable angle with the course of the vagina. It is convex on its
posterior surface, and somewhat flattened upon its anterior aspect.
In the unimpregnated state it is about three inches in length, two in
breadth across its broadest part, and one in thickness, and is divided
into fundus, body, cervix, and os uteri. At the period of puberty, the
uterus weighs about one ounce and a half: after parturition, from two
to three ounces; and at the ninth month of utero-gestation, from two
to four pounds.
The fundus and body are inclosed in a duplicature of peritoneum,
which is connected with the two sides of the pelvis, and forms a
transverse septum between the bladder and rectum. The folds
formed by this duplicature of peritoneum on either side of the organ
are the broad ligaments of the uterus. The cervix is the lower portion
of the organ; it is distinguished from the body by a well-marked
constriction; to its upper part is attached the upper extremity of the
vagina, and at its extremity is an opening, which is nearly round in
the virgin, and transverse after parturition; the os uteri, bounded
before and behind by two labia, the anterior labium being the most
thick, and the posterior somewhat the longest. The opening of the os
uteri is of considerable size, and is named the orificium uteri
externum; the canal then becomes narrowed, and at the upper end of
the cervix is constricted into a smaller opening, the orificium
internum. At this point the canal of the cervix expands into the
shallow triangular cavity of the uterus, the inferior angle
corresponding with the orificium internum, and the two superior
angles, which are funnel-shaped, and represent the original
bicornute condition of the organ, with the commencement of the
Fallopian tubes. In the canal of the cervix uteri are two or three
longitudinal folds, to which numerous oblique folds converge, so as
to give the idea of branches from the stem of a tree; hence this
appearance has been denominated the arbor vitæ uterina. Between
these folds, and around the os uteri, are numerous mucous follicles.
It is the closure of the mouth of one of these follicles, and the
subsequent distention of the follicle, with its proper secretion, that
occasion those vesicular appearances so often noticed within the
mouth and cervix of the uterus, called the ovula of Naboth.
Structure.—The uterus is composed of three tunices: of an
external, or serous coat, derived from the peritoneum, which
constitutes the duplicatures on each side of the organ, called the
broad ligaments; of a middle, or muscular coat, which gives
thickness and bulk to the uterus; and of an internal, or mucous
membrane, which lines its interior, and is continuous, on the other
hand, with the mucous lining of the Fallopian tubes, and on the other
with that of the vagina. In the unimpregnated state, the muscular
coat is exceedingly condensed in texture, offers considerable
resistance to section with the scalpel, and appears to be composed of
whitish fibers, inextricably interlaced and intermingled with blood-
vessels. In the impregnated uterus the fibers are of large size, and
distinct, and are disposed in two layers, superficial and deep. The
superficial layer consists of fibers, which pursue a vertical direction,
some being longitudinal and others oblique. The longitudinal fibers
are found principally upon the middle line, forming a thin plane
upon the anterior and posterior face of the organ, and upon its
fundus. The oblique fibers occupy chiefly the sides and fundus. At
the angles of the uterus, the fibers of the superficial layer are
continued outward upon the Fallopian tubes, and into the round
ligaments and ligaments of the ovaries. The deep layer consists of
two hollow cones of circular fibers, having their apex at the openings
of the Fallopian tubes, and by their bases intermingling with each
other on the body of the organ. These fibers are continuous with the
deep muscular layer of the Fallopian tubes, and indicate the
primitive formation of the uterus by the blending of these two canals.
Around the cervix uteri the muscular fibers assume a circular form,
interlacing with and crossing each other at acute angles. The mucous
membrane is provided with a columnar ciliated epithelium, which
extends from the middle of the cervix uteri to the extremities of the
Fallopian tubes.
Vessels and Nerves.—The arteries of the uterus are the uterine,
from the internal iliac, and the spermatic, from the aorta. The veins
are very large and remarkable; in the impregnated uterus they are
called sinuses, and consist of canals, channeled through the
substance of the organ, being merely lined by the internal membrane
of the veins. They terminate on each side of the uterus in the uterine
plexuses. The lymphatics terminate in the lumbar glands.
The nerves of the uterus are derived from the hypogastric and
spermatic plexuses, and from the sacral plexus. They have been
made the subject of special investigation by Dr. Robert Lee, who has
successfully repaired the omission made by Dr. William Hunter, in
this part of the anatomy of the organ. In his numerous dissections of
the uterus, both in the unimpregnated and gravid state, Dr. Lee has
made the discovery of several large nervous ganglia and plexuses.
The principal of these, situated on each side of the cervix uteri,
immediately behind the ureter, he terms the hypogastric ganglion; it
receives the greater number of the nerves of the hypogastric and
sacral plexus, and distributes branches to the uterus, vagina, bladder,
and rectum. Of the branches to the uterus, a large fasciculus
proceeds upward by the side of the organ, toward its angle, where
they communicate with branches of the spermatic plexus, and form
another large ganglion, which he designates the spermatic ganglion,
and which supplies the fundus uteri. Besides these, Dr. Lee describes
vesical and vagina ganglia, and interior and posterior subperitoneal
ganglia, and plexuses, which communicate with the preceding, and
constitute an extensive nervous rete over the entire uterus. Dr. Lee
concludes his observations by remarking: “These dissections prove
that the human uterus possesses a great system of nerves, which
enlarges the coats, blood-vessels, and absorbents during pregnancy,
which returns, after parturition, to its original condition before
conception takes place. It is chiefly by the influence of these nerves
that the uterus performs the varied functions of menstruation,
conception, and parturition, and it is solely by their means that the
whole fabric of the nervous system sympathizes with the different
morbid affections of the uterus. If these nerves of the uterus could
not be demonstrated, its physiology and pathology would be
completely inexplicable.”
 APPENDAGES OF THE UTERUS.
The appendages of the uterus are inclosed by the lateral
duplicatures of peritoneum, called the broad ligaments. They are the
Fallopian tubes and ovaries.
 VISCERA OF THE FEMALE
PELVIS.

1. The symphysis pubis; to the upper part of which the tendon of

the rectus muscle is attached. 2. The abdominal parietes. 3. The
collection of fat, forming the projection of the mons Veneris. 4.
The urinary bladder. 5. The entrance of the left ureter. 6. The
canal of the urethra, converted into a mere fissure by the
contraction of its walls. 7. The meatus urinarius. 8. The clitoris,
with its præputiam, divided through the middle. 9. The left
nympha. 10. The left labium majus. 11. The meatus of the vagina,
narrowed by the contraction of its sphincter. 12. The canal of the
vagina, upon which the transverse rugæ are apparent. 13. The
thick wall of separation between the base of the bladder and the
vagina. 14. The wall of separation between the vagina and rectum.
15. The perineum. 16. The os uteri. 17. Its cervix. 18. The fundus
uteri. The cavitas uteri is seen along the center of the organ. 19.
The rectum, showing the disposition of its mucous membrane. 20.
The anus. 21. The upper part of the rectum, invested by the
 peritoneum. 22. The recto-uterine fold of the peritoneum. 23. The
utero-vesical fold. 24. The reflexion of the peritoneum, from the
apex of the bladder upon the urachus to the internal surface of the
abdominal parietes. 25. The last lumbar vertebra. 26. The sacrum.
27. The coccyx.

The Fallopian tubes or oviducts—the uterine trumpets of the

French writers—are situated in the upper border of the broad
ligaments, and are connected with the superior angles of the uterus.
They are somewhat trumpet-shaped, being much smaller at the
uterine than at the free extremity, and narrower in the middle than
at either end. Each tube is about four or five inches in length, and
more or less flexuous in its course. The canal of the Fallopian tube is
exceedingly minute; its inner extremity opens by means of the
ostium uterinum into the upper angle of the cavity of the uterus, and
the opposite end into the cavity of the peritoneum. The free or
expanded extremity of the Fallopian tube presents a double, and
sometimes a triple series of small processes or fringes, which
surround the margin of the trumpet or funnel-shaped opening, the
ostium abdominale. This fringe-like appendage to the end of the
tube has gained for it the appellation of the fimbriated extremity;
and the remarkable manner in which this circular fringe applies itself
to the surface of the ovary during sexual excitement, the additional
title of morsus diaboli. One of the processes, longer than the rest, or,
according to Cruveilhier, a distinct ligamentous cord, is attached to
the distal end of the ovary, and serves to guide the tube in its seizure
of that organ.
The Fallopian tube is composed of three tunices: an external and
loose investment derived from the peritoneum; a middle or muscular
coat, consisting of circular (internal) and longitudinal (external)
fibers, continuous with those of the uterus; and an external or lining
mucous membrane, which is continuous, on the one hand, with the
mucous membrane of the uterus, and at the opposite extremity with
the peritoneum. In the minute canal of the tube, the mucous
membrane is thrown into longitudinal folds or rugæ, which indicate
the adaptation of the tube to dilatation.
The ovaries are two oblong, flattened, and oval bodies of a whitish
color, situated in the posterior layer of peritoneum of the broad
ligaments. They are connected to the upper angles of the uterus at
each side by means of a rounded cord, consisting chiefly of muscular
fibers derived from the uterus, the ligament of the ovary.
In structure, the ovary is composed of a cellulo-fibrous
parenchyma or stroma, traversed by blood-vessels, and inclosed in a
capsule consisting of three layers: a vascular layer, which is situated
most internally, and sends processes inward to the interior of the
organ; a middle or fibrous layer of considerable density; and an
external investment of peritoneum. In the cells of the stroma of the
ovary, the small vesicles or ovisacs of the future ova, the Graafian
vesicles, as they have been termed, are developed. There are usually
about fifteen fully-formed Graafian vesicles in each ovary; and Dr.
Martin Barry has shown that countless numbers of microscopic
ovisacs exist in the parenchyma of the organ, and that very few out of
these are perfected so as to produce ova.
After conception, a yellow spot, the corpus luteum, is found in one
or both ovaries. The corpus luteum is a globular mass of yellow,
spongy tissue, traversed by white areolar bands, and containing in its
center a small cavity, more or less obliterated, which was originally
occupied by the ovum. The interior of the cavity is lined by a
puckered membrane, the remains of the ovisac. In recent corpora
lutea, the opening by which the ovum escaped from the ovisac
through the capsule of the ovary, is distinctly visible; when closed, a
small cicatrix may be seen upon the surface of the ovary in the
situation of the opening. A similar appearance to the preceding, but
of smaller size, and without a central cavity, is sometimes met with in
the ovaries of the virgin; this is false corpus luteum.
Vessels and Nerves.—The arteries of the ovaries are the spermatic;
their nerves are derived from the spermatic plexus.
The round ligaments are two muscular and fibrous cords situated
between the layers of the broad ligaments, and extending from the
upper angles of the uterus, and along the spermatic canals to the
labia majora, in which they are lost. They are accompanied by a small
artery, by several filaments of the spermatic plexus of nerves, and by
a plexus of veins. The latter occasionally become varicose, and form a
small tumor at the external abdominal ring, which has been
mistaken for inguinal hernia. The round ligaments serve to retain the
uterus in its proper position in the pelvis, and during utero-gestation
to draw the anterior surface of the organ against the abdominal
parietes.
 LETTER XXIII.
ANATOMY OF THE FETUS.

Its Length and Weight—It Osseous, Muscular, and Vascular Systems—The Fetal
Circulation—Nervous System—Organs of Sense—Its Lungs, Heart, and other
Internal Organs.

As a matter of natural science, rather than one of real practical

utility, to you for whom I write these letters, I present you with a
description of some of the more important characteristics of the
fetus. In doing this I acknowledge myself indebted to Mr. Wilson, the
distinguished anatomist before referred to.
The medium weight of a child of the full period, at birth, is seven
pounds, and its length seventeen inches; the extremes of weight are
four pounds and three quarters, and ten pounds; and the extremes of
measurement fifteen and twenty inches. The head is of large size,
and lengthened from before backward; the face small. The upper
extremities are greatly developed, and the thorax expanded and full.
The upper part of the abdomen is large, from the great size of the
liver; the lower part is small and conical; and the lower extremities
are very small in proportion to the rest of the body. The external
genital organs are very large, and fully developed, and the
attachment of the umbilicus is one inch farther from the vertex of the
head than from the soles of the feet; and one inch farther from the
ensiform cartilage than from the symphysis pubis.
 OSSEOUS SYSTEM.
The development of the osseous system is treated of in the various
works on anatomy. The ligamentous system presents no peculiarity
deserving of remark.
 MUSCULAR SYSTEM.
The muscles of the fetus at birth are large and fully formed; they
are of a lighter color than those of the adult, and of softer texture.
The transverse striæ on the fibers of animal life are not
distinguishable until the sixth month of fetal life.
 VASCULAR SYSTEM.
The circulating system presents several peculiarities: 1st. In the
heart; there is a communication between the two auricles by means
of the foramen ovale. 2d. In the arterial system; there is a
communication between the pulmonary artery and descending aorta,
by means of a large trunk, the ductus arteriosus. 3d. Also in the
arterial system; the internal iliac arteries, under the name of
hypogastric and umbilical, are continued from the fetus to the
placenta, to which they return the blood which has circulated in the
system of the fetus. 4th. In the venous system; there is a
communication between the umbilical vein and the inferior vena
cava, called the ductus venosus.