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Alex Nuijten and Patrick Barel

Modern Oracle Database Programming

Level Up Your Skill Set to Oracle’s Latest and Most
Powerful Features in SQL, PL/SQL, and JSON
Foreword by Chris Saxon
Alex Nuijten
Oosterhout, Noord-Brabant, The Netherlands

Patrick Barel
Almere, Flevoland, The Netherlands

ISBN 978-1-4842-9165-8 e-ISBN 978-1-4842-9166-5

https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4842-9166-5

© Alex Nuijten, Patrick Barel 2023

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively
licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is
concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of
illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in
any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and
retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or
dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.

The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks,

service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the
absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the
relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general
use.

The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the
advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate
at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the
editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the
material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have
been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional
claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.
This Apress imprint is published by the registered company APress
Media, LLC, part of Springer Nature.
The registered company address is: 1 New York Plaza, New York, NY
10004, U.S.A.
Foreword
SQL is a powerful language. With a few lines, you can answer complex
questions.
PL/SQL includes many extensions to make SQL even easier to work
with. This tight integration makes these languages perfect for data
management.
Yet it can be unclear which SQL or PL/SQL features you should use
to solve a problem. The documentation for Oracle Database is huge.
Browsing through it in the hopes of finding the syntax or feature to help
you is an endless task.
Sadly, this means many applications have pages of code re-creating
features Oracle Database offers. Often this is because the developers
were unaware this functionality was available to them.
So, I’m thrilled to see Alex and Patrick write this book. They have a
long history of sharing their knowledge to help others use Oracle
Database. Their real-world experience and willingness to help others
understand Oracle SQL and PL/SQL have led both to the deserved
recognition of Oracle ACE Director. This makes them ideal candidates to
make this guide.
Reading this book will teach you how to use the more powerful
database options, many of which are unavailable on other platforms.
It’s filled with examples to show you how this SQL and PL/SQL
language features work. But most importantly, the scripts help
illustrate when and why you should use these options.
When working with any technology, I think you should know what
features it offers. Using inbuilt functionality saves you time and
simplifies your code. Alex and Patrick have done a great job showing
you how to do this.
I’ve learned a lot from them both over the years. I hope this book
helps you write better SQL and PL/SQL too.
—Chris Saxon, Oracle Developer Advocate
Introduction
When writing a book on database technology, you have to come up with
a data set to write your examples with. We could have used the
standard EMP and DEPT tables that have been available in the SCOTT
schema forever. Still, since this is a book on modern Oracle Database
programming, we wanted to use a different data set.
Because we are both fans of Formula 1 and Oracle is a big sponsor
of the Red Bull Racing team, which happens to be the team where our
countryman Max Verstappen is driving, we went looking for a Formula
1–related data set. Of course, not all examples in this book are related
to Max; many other drivers and results also play an important role.
The Ergast Developer API (https://ergast.com/mrd/) lets
you query all kinds of motor racing data and retrieve that in multiple
formats. This site also offers all the tables in a CSV format, so we
created an F1DATA schema where we could import the data. The
original data set was a MySQL database, so we had to make some minor
tweaks to the data model.
The source files for this book can be found on GitHub at
https://github.com/Apress/modern-oracle-database-
programming.
Part I: Advanced Basics
In the first part of the book, several topics are bundled together, which
should be in the toolbox of every Oracle Database developer. Frequently
we meet experienced developers unfamiliar with collections and bulk
operations, which have been around forever. The same is true for ANSI
joins, analytic functions, row pattern matching, or conditional
compilation.
Part II: Multiple Techniques and Languages
The second part of the book highlights the integration between SQL and
PL/SQL. Keeping context switches between the SQL and PL/SQL engine
to a minimum is always better for performance.
After the introduction of JSON into Oracle Database, it has taken
flight in functionality and performance. There is a lot to learn when
dealing with JSON in the database, and there are several chapters to get
a headstart.
Part III: Oracle-Provided Functionality
Out of the box, Oracle Database has a lot of functionality ready to use. In
the third part of this book, some of these functionalities play a central
role.
Even if APEX is not used for front-end development, it offers some
very useful packages that can be used in everyday database
development. Edition-based redefinition enables zero downtime
upgrades of your bespoke application. Getting data that is currently
based on a period where it is valid can be handled by the database
without having to write complicated SQL statements.

The Schema in the Oracle Cloud

The data model used for most of the examples in this book was taken
from the Ergast motor racing data website
(https://ergast.com/mrd/) and imported into Oracle Database
19c and 21c.
A schematic display of the Ergast F1 data model is displayed in
Figure I-1. We used Oracle Always Free Cloud Services for our database.
We took the following steps to get the schemas up and running.
Assuming you already have a database created and have access to the
admin user.
Figure I-1 F1DATA schema
Execute the following scripts using the schema listed.

Schema Description Script

ADMIN Create a user F1DATA. F1Data_Create_User

F1DATA Create the tables. F1Data_Tables

F1DATA Apply the comments to the columns. F1Data_Comments

F1DATA Create public synonyms and grant F1Data_Grants_And_Synonyms
access to the tables to the public.
F1DATA Create the polymorphic table function F1Data_Separated_PTF
to split the CSV lines. The function is
explained in Chapter 8.

In the cloud console, perform the following steps.

Create a bucket in your cloud environment to store the CSV files.

Create a pre-authenticated request for this bucket.
Go to Create Pre-Authenticated Request.

Figure I-2 Create a Pre-Authenticated Request menu

Fill in the details and click Create Pre-Authenticated Request.

Figure I-3 Create Pre-Authenticated Request

Copy the Pre-Authenticated Request URL and store it in a safe place. It will not be
shown again.

Figure I-4 Pre-Authenticated Request Details

Download the latest CSV files http://ergast.com/downloads/f1db_csv.zip

from the Ergast Developer API
website.
Unzip the CSV to your local
machine.
Upload the files to your bucket.
Create an object store auth token.
Go to User settings.

Figure I-5 User settings

Click Auth Tokens under Resources.

Figure I-6 Auth Tokens

Click Generate Token.

Figure I-7 Generate Token

Copy the generated token and store it in a safe place. It will not be shown again.
Figure I-8 Generated token

In the ADMIN schema, execute the following files.

Schema Description Script

ADMIN Create a credential. Replace F1Data_Create_Credential
<<Authorization Token>> with the token
you generated in the previous step.
ADMIN Import the data into the tables. Replace F1Data_Import_Data
<<URL Path (URI)>> with your Pre-
Authenticated Request URL path.
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matters had probably been obtained from the manœuvres of the war
galleys on the Rhine. But a Roman general was supposed to be able
to take command on either element as circumstances required. In
the present case Crispus more than justified his father’s choice. He
was ordered to attack and destroy Amandus, and the
peremptoriness of the order was doubtless due to the difficulty of
obtaining supplies for so large an army by land transport only. Two
actions were fought on two successive days. In the first Amandus
had both wind and current in his favour and made a drawn battle of
it. The next day the wind had veered round to the south, and
Crispus, closing with the enemy, destroyed 130 of their vessels and
5000 of their crews. The passage of the Hellespont was forced;
Amandus with the remainder of his fleet fled back to the shelter of
Byzantium, and the straits were open for the passage of
Constantine’s transports.
The Emperor pushed the siege with energy, and plied the walls so
vigorously with his engines that Licinius, aware that the capitulation
of Byzantium could not long be postponed, crossed over into Asia to
escape being involved in its fate. Even then he was not utterly
despondent of success, for he raised one of his lieutenants,
Martinianus, to the dignity of Cæsar or Augustus—a perilous
distinction for any recipient with the short shrift of Valens before his
eyes—and, collecting what troops he could, he set his fleet and army
to oppose the crossing of Constantine when Byzantium had fallen.
But holding as he did the command of the sea, the victor found no
difficulty in effecting a landing at Chrysopolis, and Licinius’s last
gallant effort to drive back the invader was repulsed with a loss of
25,000 men. Eusebius, in an exceptionally foolish chapter, declares
that Licinius harangued his troops before the battle, bidding them
carefully keep out of the way of the sacred Labarum, under which
Constantine moved to never-failing victory, or, if they had the
mischance to come near it in the press of battle, not to look
heedlessly upon it. He then goes on to ascribe the victory not to the
superior tactical dispositions of his chief or to the valour of his men,
but simply and solely to the fact that Constantine was “clad in the
breastplate of reverence and had ranged over against the numbers
of the enemy the salutary and life-giving sign, to inspire his foes with
terror and shield himself from harm.”[64] We suspect, indeed, that far
too little justice has been done to the good generalship of
Constantine, who, by his latest victory, brought to a close a brilliant
and entirely successful campaign over an Emperor whose stubborn
powers of resistance and dauntless energy even in defeat rendered
him a most formidable opponent.
Licinius fell back upon Nicomedia. His army was gone. There was
no time to beat up new recruits, for the conqueror was hard upon his
heels. He had to choose, therefore, between suicide, submission,
and flight. He would perhaps have best consulted his fame had he
chosen the proud Roman way out of irreparable disaster and taken
his life. Instead he begged that life might be spared him. The request
would have been hopeless, and would probably never have been
made, had he not possessed in his wife, Constantia, a very powerful
advocate with her brother. Constantia’s pleadings were effectual:
Constantine consented to see his beaten antagonist, who came
humbly into his presence, laid his purple at the victor’s feet, and
sued for life from the compassion of his master. It was a humiliating
and an un-Roman scene. Constantine promised forgiveness,
admitted the suppliant to the Imperial table, and then relegated him
to Thessalonica to spend the remainder of his days in obscurity.
Licinius did not long survive. Later historians, anxious to clear
Constantine’s character of every stain, accused Licinius of plotting
against the generous Emperor who had spared him. Others declared
that he fell in a soldiers’ brawl: one even says that the Senate
passed a decree devoting him to death. It is infinitely more probable
that Constantine repented of his clemency. No Roman Emperor
seems to have been able to endure for long the existence of a
discrowned rival, however impotent to harm. Eutropius expressly
states that Licinius was put to death in violation of the oath which
Constantine had sworn to him.[65] Eusebius says not a word of
Licinius’s life having been promised him; he only remarks, “Then
Constantine, dealing with the accursed of GOD and his associates
according to the rules of war, handed them over to fitting
punishment.”[66] A pretty euphemism for an act of assassination!
So died Licinius, unregretted by any save the zealous advocates
of paganism, in the city where he himself had put to death those two
hapless ladies, Prisca and Valeria. The best character sketch of him
is found in Aurelius Victor, who describes him as grasping and
avaricious, rough in manners and of excessively hasty temper, and a
sworn foe to culture, which he used to say was a public poison and
pest (virus et pestem publicum), notably the culture associated with
the study and practice of the law. Himself of the humblest origin, he
was a good friend to the small farmers’ interests; while he was a
martinet of the strictest type in all that related to the army. He
detested the paraphernalia of a court, in which Constantine
delighted, and Aurelius Victor says that he made a clean sweep
(vehemens domitor) of all eunuchs and chamberlains, whom he
described as the moths and shrew-mice of the palace (tineas
soricesque palatii). Of his religious policy we shall speak elsewhere;
of his reign there is little to be said. It has left no impress upon
history, and Licinius is only remembered as the Emperor whose
misfortune it was to stand in the way of Constantine and his
ambitions. Constantine threw down his statues; revoked his edicts;
and if he spared his young son, the Cæsar Licinianus, the clemency
was due to affection for the mother, not to pity for the child.
Martinianus, the Emperor at most of a few weeks, had been put to
death after the defeat of Chrysopolis, and Constantine reigned alone
with his sons. The Roman Empire was united once more.
 CHAPTER VIII
LAST DAYS OF PERSECUTION

In a previous chapter we gave a brief account of the terrible

sufferings inflicted upon the Church during the persecution which
followed the edicts of Diocletian. They continued for many years
almost without interruption, but with varying intensity. When, for
example, Diocletian celebrated his Vicennalia a general amnesty
was proclaimed which must have opened the prison doors to many
thousands of Christians. Eusebius expressly states that the amnesty
was for “all who were in prison the world over,” and there is no hint
that liberty was made conditional upon apostasy. None the less, it is
certain that a great number of Christians were still kept in the cells—
on the pretext that they were specially obnoxious to the civil power—
by governors of strong anti-Christian bias. The sword of persecution
was speedily resumed and wielded as vigorously as before down to
the abdication of Diocletian and Maximian.
Then came another lull. With Constantius as the senior Augustus
the persecution came to an end in the West, and even in the East
there was an interval of peace. For Maximin, who was soon to
develop into the most ferocious of all the persecutors,—so St.
Jerome speaks of him in comparison with Decius and Diocletian,—
gave a brief respite to the Christians in his provinces of Egypt,
Cilicia, Palestine, and Syria.

“When I first visited the East,” Maximin wrote,[67] some years later,
in referring to his accession, “I found that a great number of persons
who might have been useful to the State had been exiled to various
places by the judges. I ordered each one of these judges no longer
to press hardly upon the provincials, but rather to exhort them by
kindly words to return to the worship of the gods. While my orders
were obeyed by the magistrates, no one in the countries of the East
was exiled or ill-treated, but the provincials, won over by kindness,
returned to the worship of the gods.”

Direct contradiction is given to this boast as to the number of

Christian apostates by the fact that, within a twelvemonth, the new
Cæsar grew tired of seeking to kill Christianity by kindness and
revoked his recent rescript of leniency. Maximin developed into a
furious bigot. He fell wholly under the influence of the more fanatical
priests and became increasingly devoted to magic, divination, and
the black arts. Lactantius declares that not a joint appeared at his
table which had not been taken from some victim sacrificed by a
priest at an altar and drenched with the wine of libation. Edict
followed edict in rapid succession, until, in the middle of 306, what
Eusebius describes as “a second declaration of war” was issued,
which ordered every magistrate to compel all who lived within his
jurisdiction to sacrifice to the gods on pain of being burnt alive.
House to house visitations were set on foot that no creature might
escape, and the common informer was encouraged by large rewards
to be active in his detestable occupation. It would seem indeed as if
the Christians in the provinces of Maximin suffered far more severely
than any of their brethren. The most frightful bodily mutilations were
practised. Batches of Christians were sentenced to work in the
porphyry mines of Egypt or the copper mines of Phænos in
Palestine, after being hamstrung and having their right eyes burnt
out with hot irons. The evidence of Lactantius, who says that the
confessors had their eyes dug out, their hands and feet amputated,
and their nostrils and ears cut off, is corroborated by Eusebius and
the authors of the Passions.
Palestine seems to have had two peculiarly brutal governors,
Urbanus and Firmilianus. The latter in a single day presided at the
execution of twelve Christians, pilgrims from Egypt on their way to
succour the unfortunate convicts in the copper mines of Palestine,
whose deplorable condition had awakened the active sympathy of
the Christian East. These bands of pilgrims had to pass through
Cæsarea, where the officers of Firmilianus were on the watch for
them, and as soon as they confessed that they were Christians they
were haled before the tribunal, where their doom was certain. A
distinguishing feature of the persecution in the provinces of Maximin
was the frequency of outrages upon Christian women and the
fortitude with which many of the victims committed suicide rather
than suffer pollution. The story of St. Pelagia of Antioch is typical.
Maximin sent some soldiers to conduct her to his palace. They found
her alone in her house and announced their errand. With perfect
composure this girl of fifteen asked permission to retire in order to
change her dress, and then, mounting to the roof, threw herself
down into the street below. Eusebius, himself an eye-witness of this
persecution, gives many a vivid story of the fury of Maximin and his
officials, and of the cold-blooded calculation with which he sought to
draw new victims into the net of the law. In 308 he issued an edict
ordering every city and village thoroughly to repair any temple which,
for whatever reason, had been allowed to fall into ruins. He
increased tenfold the number of priesthoods, and insisted upon daily
sacrifices. The magistrates were again strictly enjoined to compel
men, women, children, and slaves alike to offer sacrifice and partake
of the sacrificial food. All goods exposed for sale in the public
markets were to be sprinkled with lustral water, and even at the
entrance to the public baths, officials were to be placed to see that
no one passed through the doors without throwing a few grains of
incense on the altar. Maximin, in short, was a religious bigot, who
combined with a zealous observance of pagan ritual a consuming
hatred of Christianity.
There are not many records of what was taking place in the
provinces of Galerius, while Maximin was thus terrorising Syria and
Egypt. But the Emperor had begun to see that the persecution, upon
which he had entered with such zest some years before, was bound
to end in failure. The terrible malady which attacked him in 310
would tend to confirm his forebodings. Like Antiochus Epiphanius,
Herod the Great, and Herod Agrippa, Galerius became, before death
released him from his agony, a putrescent and loathsome spectacle.
His physicians could do nothing for him. Imploring deputations were
sent to beg the aid of Apollo and Æsculapius. Apollo prescribed a
remedy, but the application only left the patient worse, and
Lactantius quotes with powerful effect the lines from Virgil which
describe Laocoon in the toils of the serpents, raising horror-stricken
cries to Heaven, like some wounded bull as it flies bellowing from the
altar. Was it when broken by a year’s constant anguish that Galerius
exclaimed that he would restore the temple of God and make
amends for his sin? Was he, as Lactantius says, “compelled to
confess GOD”? Whether that be so or not, here is the remarkable
edict which the shattered Emperor found strength to dictate. It
deserves to be given in full:

“Among the measures which we have constantly taken for the

well-being and advantage of the State, we had wished to regulate
everything according to the ancient laws and public discipline of the
Romans, and especially to provide that the Christians, who had
abandoned the religion of their ancestors, should return to a better
frame of mind.
“For, from whatever reason, these Christians were the victims of
such wilfulness and folly that they not only refused to follow the
ancient customs, which very likely their own forefathers had
instituted, but they made laws for themselves according to their
fancy and caprice, and gathered together all kinds of people in
different places.
“Eventually, when our commands had been published that they
should conform to long established custom, many submitted from
fear, and many more under the compulsion of punishment.
“But since the majority have obstinately held out and we see that
they neither give the gods their worship and due, nor yet adore the
God of the Christians, we have taken into consideration our
unexampled clemency and followed the dictation of the invariable
mercifulness, which we shew to all men.
“We have, therefore, thought it best to extend even to these
people our fullest indulgence and to give[68] them leave once more to
be Christians, and rebuild their meeting places, provided that they do
nothing contrary to discipline.
“In another letter we shall make clear to the magistrates the
course which they should pursue.
 “In return for our indulgence the Christians will, in duty bound, pray
to their God for our safety, for their own, and for that of the State,
that so the State may everywhere be safe and prosperous, and that
they themselves may dwell in security in their homes.”

This extraordinary edict was issued at Nicomedia on the last day

of April, 311. It is as abject a confession of failure as could be
expected from an Emperor. Galerius admits that the majority of
Christians have stubbornly held to their faith in spite of bitter
persecution, and now, as they are determined to sin against the light
and follow their own caprice, more in sorrow than in anger, he will
recognise their status as Christians and give them the right of
assembly, provided they do not offend against public discipline. But
the special interest of this edict lies in the Emperor’s request that the
Christians will pray for him, in the despairing hope that Christ may
succeed, where Apollo has failed, in finding a remedy for his
grievous case. Galerius was ready to clutch at any passing straw.
The edict bore the names of Galerius, of Constantine, and of
Licinius. Maxentius, who at this time ruled Italy, was not recognised
by Galerius, so the absence of his name causes no surprise.
Maximin’s name is also absent, but we find one of his præfects,
Sabinus, addressing shortly afterwards a circular letter to all the
Governors of Cilicia, Syria, and Egypt, in which the signal was given
to stop the persecution. Like Galerius, Maximin declared that the
sole object of the Emperors had been to lead all men back to a pious
and regular life, and to restore to the gods those who had embraced
alien rites contrary to the spirit of the institutions of Rome. Then the
letter continued:

“But since the mad obstinacy of certain people has reached such a
pitch that they are not to be shaken in their resolution either by the
justice of the imperial command or by the fear of imminent
punishment, and since, actuated by these motives, a very large
number have brought themselves into positions of extreme peril, it
has pleased their Majesties in their great pity and compassion to
send this letter to your Excellency.
 “Their instructions are that if any Christian has been apprehended,
while observing the religion of his sect, you are to deliver him from all
molestation and annoyance and not to inflict any penalty upon him,
for a very long experience has convinced the Emperors that there is
no method of turning these people from their madness.
“Your Excellency will therefore write to the magistrates, to the
commander of the forces, and to the town provosts, in each city, that
they may know for the future that they are not to interfere with the
Christians any more.”

In other words, the prisons were to be emptied and the mad

sectaries to be let alone. The bigot was obliged to bow, however
reluctantly, to the wishes and commands of the senior Augustus,
even though Galerius was a broken and dying man.
Nevertheless, within six months we find Maximin devising new
schemes for troubling the Christians. Eusebius tells us with what joy
the edict of toleration had been welcomed, with what triumph the
Christians had quitted their prisons, and with what enthusiastic
exultation the bands of Christian confessors, returning from the
mines to their own towns and villages, were received by the
Christian communities in the places through which they passed.
Those whose testimony to their faith had not been so sure and clear,
those who had bowed the knee to Baal under the shadow of torture
and death, humbly approached their stouter-hearted brethren and
implored their intercession. The Church rose from the persecution
proudly and confidently, and with incredible speed renewed its
suspended services and repaired its broken organisation. Maximin
issued an order forbidding Christians to assemble after dark in their
cemeteries, as they had been in the habit of doing, in order to
celebrate the victory of their martyrs over death. Such assemblies,
the Emperor said, were subversive of morality: they were to be
allowed no more. This must have warned the Christians how little
reliance was to be placed in the promises of Maximin, and shortly
afterwards they had another warning. Maximin made a tour through
his provinces and in several cities received petitions in which he was
urged to give an order for the absolute expulsion of all Christians. No
doubt it was known that such a request would be well pleasing to
Maximin, but at the same time it undoubtedly points to the existence
of a strong anti-Christian feeling. At Antioch, which was under the
governorship of Theotecnus, the petitioners, according to Eusebius,
said that the expulsion of the Christians would be the greatest boon
the Emperor could confer upon them, but the full text of one of these
petitions has been found among the ruins of a small Lycian township
of the name of Aricanda. It runs as follows:

“To the Saviours of the entire human race, to the august Cæsars,
Galerius Valerius Maximinus, Flavius Valerius Constantinus, Valerius
Licinianus Licinius, this petition is addressed by the people of the
Lycians and the Pamphylians.
“Inasmuch as the gods, your congeners, O divine Emperor, have
always crowned with their manifest favours those who have their
religion at heart and offer prayers to them for the perpetual safety of
our invincible masters, we have thought it well to approach your
immortal Majesty and to ask that the Christians, who for years have
been impious and do not cease to be so, may be finally suppressed
and transgress no longer, by their wicked and innovating cult, the
respect that is owing to the gods.
“This result would be attained if their impious rites were forbidden
and suppressed by your divine and eternal decree, and if they were
compelled to practise the cult of the gods, your congeners, and pray
to them on behalf of your eternal and incorruptible Majesty. This
would clearly be to the advantage and profit of all your subjects.”

Eusebius records two replies of the Emperor to petitions of this

character. One is contained in a letter to his præfect, Sabinus, and
relates to Nicomedia. The other is a document copied by Eusebius
from a bronze tablet set up on a column in Tyre. Maximin expatiates
at great length on the debt, which men owe to the gods, and
especially to Jupiter, the presiding deity of Tyre, for the ordered
succession of the seasons, and for keeping within their appointed
bounds the overwhelming forces of Nature. If there have been
calamities and cataclysms, to what else, he asks, can they be
attributed than to the “vain and pestilential errors of the villainous
Christians?” Those who have apostatised and have been delivered
from their blindness are like people who have escaped from a furious
storm or have been cured of some deadly malady. To them life offers
once more its bounteous blessings. Then the Emperor continues:

“But if they still persist in their detestable errors, they shall be

banished, in accordance with your petition, far from your city and
your territory, that so this city of Tyre, completely purified, as you
most properly desire it to be, may yield itself wholly to the worship of
the gods.
“But that you may know how agreeable your petition has been to
us, and how, even without petition on your part, we are disposed to
heap favours upon you, we grant you in advance any favour you
shall ask, however great, in reward for your piety.
“Ask, therefore, and receive, and do so without hesitation. The
benefit which shall accrue to your city will be a perpetual witness of
your devotion to the gods.”

Evidently the Christians had not yet come to the end of their
troubles. Those who read this circular letter, for it seems to have
been sent round from city to city, must have expected the
persecution to break out anew at any moment. We do not know to
what extent the edict was observed. If it had been generally acted
upon, we should certainly have heard more of it, inasmuch as it must
have entailed a widespread exodus from the provinces of Maximin.
But of this there is no evidence. We imagine rather that this circular
was merely a preliminary sharpening of the sword in order to keep
the Christians in a due state of apprehension.
Maximin, however, continued his anti-Christian propaganda with
unabated zeal, and with greater cunning and better devised system
than before. His court at Antioch was the gathering place of all the
priests, magicians, and thaumaturgists of the East, who found in him
a generous patron. We hear of a new deity being invented by
Theotecnus, or rather of an old deity being invested with new
attributes. Zeus Philios, or Jupiter the Friendly was the name of this
god, to whom a splendid statue was erected in Antioch, and to
whose shrine a new priesthood, with new rites, was solemnly
dedicated. The god was provided with an attendant oracle to speak
in his name; what more natural than that the first response should
order the banishment of all Christians from the city? Very noteworthy,
too, was the re-appearance of a vigorous anti-Christian literature.
Maximin set on his pamphleteers to write libellous parodies of the
Christian doctrines and encouraged the more serious
controversialists on the pagan side to attack the Christian religion
wherever it was most vulnerable. The most famous of these
productions was one which bore the name of The Acts of Pilate and
purported to be a relation by Pilate himself of the life and conduct of
Christ. It was really an old pamphlet rewritten and brought up to
date, full, as Eusebius says, of all conceivable blasphemy against
Christ and reducing Him to the level of a common malefactor.
Maximin welcomed it with delight. He had thousands of copies
written and distributed; extracts were cut on brass and stone and
posted up in conspicuous places; the work was appointed to be read
frequently in public, and—what shews most of all the fury and
cunning of Maximin—it was appointed to be used as a text-book in
schools throughout Asia and Egypt. There was no more subtle
method of training bigots and poisoning the minds of the younger
generation amongst Christianity. Some of the Emperor’s devices,
however, were much more crude. For example, the military
commandant of Damascus arrested half a dozen notorious women
of the town and threatened them with torture if they did not confess
that they were Christians, and that they had been present at
ceremonies of the grossest impurity in the Christian assemblies.
Maximin ordered the precious confession thus extorted to be set up
in a prominent place in every township.
But the Emperor was not merely a furious bigot. There is evidence
that he fully recognised the wonderful strength of the Christian
ecclesiastical organisation and contrasted it with the essential
weakness of the pagan system. In this he anticipated the Emperor
Julian. Paganism was anything but a church. Its framework was
loose and disconnected. There were various colleges of priests,
some of which were powerful and had branches throughout the
Empire, but there was little connection between them save that of a
common ritual. There was also little doctrine save in the special
mysteries, where membership was preceded by formal initiation.
Maximin sought to institute a pagan clergy based upon the Christian
model, with a definite hierarchy from the highest to the lowest. There
were already chief priests of the various provinces, who had borne
for long the titles of Asiarch, Pontarch, Galatarch, and Ciliciarch in
their respective provinces. Maximin developed their powers on the
model of those of the Christian bishops, giving them authority over
subordinates and entrusting them with the duty of seeing that the
sacrifices were duly and regularly offered. He tried to raise the
standard of the priesthood by choosing its members from the best
families, by insisting on the priests wearing white flowing robes, by
giving them a guard of soldiers and full powers of search and arrest.
Evidently, Maximin was something more than the lustful,
bloodthirsty tyrant who appears in the pages of Lactantius and the
ecclesiastical historians. He dealt the Church much shrewder—
though not less ineffectual—blows than his colleagues in
persecution. With such an Emperor another appeal to the faggot and
the sword was inevitable, and the death of Galerius was the signal
for a renewal of the persecution. This time Maximin struck directly at
the most conspicuous figures in the Christian Church and counted
among his victims Peter, the Patriarch of Alexandria, and three other
Egyptian bishops—Methodus, Bishop of Tyre, Basiliscus, Bishop of
Comana in Bithynia, and Silvanus, Bishop of Emesa in Phœnicia. In
Egypt the persecution was so sharp that it drew Saint Antony from
his hermit’s cell in the desert to succour the unfortunate in
Alexandria. He escaped with his life, probably because he was
overlooked or disdained, or because the mighty influence which he
was to exercise upon the Church had not yet declared itself. This
persecution was followed by a terrible drought, famine, and
pestilence. Eusebius,[69] in a vigorous chapter, describes how
parents were driven by hunger to sell not only their lands but also
their children, how whole families were wiped out, how the pestilence
seemed to mark down the rich for its special vengeance, and how in
certain townships the inhabitants were driven to kill all the dogs
within their walls that they might not feed on the bodies of the
unburied dead. Amid these horrors the Christians alone remained
calm. They alone displayed the supreme virtue of charity in tending
the suffering and ministering to the dying. From the pagans
themselves, says Eusebius, was wrung the unwilling admission that
none but the Christians, in the sharp test of adversity, shewed real
piety and genuine worship of God.[70]
Maximin’s reign, however, was fast drawing to a close. After
becoming involved in a war with Tiridates of Armenia, from which he
emerged with little credit to himself, he entered into an alliance with
Maxentius, the ruler of Italy, against Constantine and Licinius, but did
not invade the territory of the latter until Maxentius had already been
overthrown. As we have seen, Maximin was utterly routed and, after
a hurried flight to beyond the Taurus, he there, according to
Eusebius,[71] gathered together his erstwhile trusted priests,
thaumaturgists, and soothsayers, and slew them for the proved
falsehood of their prophecy. More significant still, when he found that
his doom was certain, he issued a last religious edict in the vain
hope of appeasing the resentment of the Christians and their God.
The document is worth giving in full:

“The Emperor Cæsar Caius Valerius Maximinus, Germanicus,

Sarmaticus, pious, happy, invincible, august.
“We have always endeavoured by all means in our power to
secure the advantage of those who dwell in our provinces, and to
contribute by our benefits at once to the prosperity of the State and
to the well-being of every citizen. Nobody can be ignorant of this,
and we are confident that each one who puts his memory to the test,
is persuaded of its truth.
“We found, however, some time ago that, in virtue of the edict
published by our divine parents, Diocletian and Maximian, ordering
the destruction of the places where the Christians were in the habit
of assembling, many excesses and acts of violence had been
committed by our public servants and that the evil was being
increasingly felt by our subjects every day, inasmuch as their goods
were, under this pretext, unwarrantably seized.
“Consequently, we declared last year by letters addressed to the
Governors of the Provinces that if any one wished to attach himself
to this sect and practise this religion, he should be allowed to please
himself without interference and no one should say him nay, and the
Christians should enjoy complete liberty and be sheltered from all
fear and all suspicion.
“However, we have not been able entirely to shut our eyes to the
fact that certain of the magistrates misunderstood our instructions,
with the result that our subjects distrusted our words and were
nervous about resuming the religion of their choice. That is why, in
order to do away with all disquietude and equivocation for the future,
we have resolved to publish this edict, by which all are to understand
that those who wish to follow this sect have full liberty to do so, and
that, by the indulgence of our Majesty, each man may practise the
religion he prefers or that to which he is accustomed.
“It is also permitted to them to rebuild the houses of the LORD.
Moreover, so that there may be no mistake about the scope of our
indulgence, we have been pleased to order that all houses and
places, formerly belonging to the Christians, which have either been
confiscated by the order of our divine parents, or occupied by any
municipality, or sold or given away, shall return to their original
ownership, so that all men may recognise our piety and our
solicitude.”

The bigot must have been brought very low and reduced to the
last depths of despair before he set his seal to such a document as
this. One can see that it was drawn up by Maximin with a copy of the
Edict of Milan before him, and that he hoped, by this tardy and
clumsy recognition of the principle of absolute liberty of conscience
for all men, to make the Christians forget his brutalities. Doubtless,
the Christians of Cilicia and Syria looked to Constantine in far off
Gaul as a model prince and emperor, and heard with joy of the
steady advance of Constantine’s ally, Licinius. The latter would come
in their eyes in the guise of a liberator, and prayers for his success
would be offered up in every Christian church of the persecuted
East. Maximin sought to repurchase their loyalty: it was too late. His
absurd pretext that his orders had been misunderstood by his
provincial governors would deceive no one. He had been the
shrewdest enemy with whom the Church had had to cope; his edict
of recantation was read with chilly suspicion or cold contempt, which
was changed into hymns of rejoicing when the Christians heard that
the tyrant had poisoned himself and died in agony, while his
conqueror, Licinius, had drowned the fallen Empress in the Orontes
and put to death her children, a boy of eight and a girl of seven.
Those who had suffered persecution for ten years may be pardoned
their exultation that there was no one left alive to perpetuate the
names of their persecutors.[72]
Throughout this time the West had escaped very lightly. Even
Maxentius had begun his reign by seeking to secure the good-will of
the Christians. Eusebius, indeed, makes the incredible statement[73]
that in order to please and flatter the Roman people he pretended to
embrace the Christian faith and “assumed the mask of piety.”
Probably all he did was to leave the Christians of Rome in peace.
The chair of St. Peter had remained empty for four years after the
death of Bishop Marcellinus. In 308 Marcellus was elected to fill it
and the Church was organised afresh. But it was rent with internal
dissensions. There was a large section which insisted that the
brethren who had been found weak during the recent persecution
should be received back into the fold without penance and reproach.
Marcellus stood out for discipline; the quarrel became so
exacerbated that Maxentius exiled the Bishop, who shortly
afterwards died. A priest named Eusebius was then chosen Pontiff,
but the schismatics elected a Pontiff of their own, Heraclius by name,
and the rival partisans quarrelled and fought in the streets.
Maxentius, with strict impartiality, exiled both. The record of this
schism is preserved in the curious epitaph composed by Pope
Damasus for the tomb of Eusebius:

“Heraclius forbade the lapsed to bewail their sins; Eusebius taught

them to repent and weep for their wrong-doing. The people were
divided into factions, raging and furious: then came sedition,
bloodshed, war, discord, strife.[74] Forthwith both were driven away
by the cruelty of the tyrant. While the Bishop preserved intact the
bonds of peace, he endured his exile gladly on the Trinacrian
shores, knowing that God was his judge, and so passed from this
world and from life.”
 On the confession of Damasus himself, the state of the Roman
Church warranted the interference of Maxentius if it resulted in
“sedition, bloodshed, war, discord, and strife,” and the “cruelty of the
tyrant” in this particular case is not proven. Eusebius died in Sicily in
310; in the following year Miltiades was elected Bishop, and
Maxentius restored to the Roman Christians their churches and
cemeteries, which for eight years had been in the hands of the civil
authorities.
The overthrow of Maxentius by Constantine, the destruction of
Maximin by Licinius, the publication of the Edict of Milan, and the
apparent sincerity of the two Emperors in their anxiety to restore
peace and security, were naturally hailed by the Christians
throughout the Empire with the liveliest joy. On every side stately
churches began to rise from the ground, and as the triumph of
Christianity over its enemies was incontestable, converts came
flocking in by the thousand to receive what Eusebius calls “the
mysterious signs of the Saviour’s Passion.” The only troublers of the
Church were members of the Church herself, like the extravagant
Donatists in Africa. The canons of the Council of Ancyra, which was
held soon after the death of Maximin, shew how the ecclesiastical
authorities imposed varying penances upon those who had shrunk
from their duty as soldiers of Christ in the recent persecution,
varying, that is to say, according to the extent of their shortcomings.
Some had apostatised and themselves turned persecutors; some
had sacrificed at the first command; some had endured prison, but
had shrunk from torture; some had suffered torture, but quailed
before the stake; some had bribed the executioners only to make a
show of torturing them; some had attended the sacrificial feasts, but
had substituted other meats. The punishments range from ten years
of probation and every degree of penance, down to a few months’
deprivation of the comforts and communions of the Church.
New dangers, however, speedily threatened. Constantine and
Licinius quarrelled between themselves and, after two stubborn
battles, agreed upon a fresh division of the world. For eight years,
from 315 to 323, this partition lasted, but, as the Emperors again
drifted apart, Licinius became more and more anti-Christian. His
rivalry with Constantine accounts for the change. Licinius suspected
Constantine of intriguing with his Christian subjects just as
Constantine regarded the pagan element in his own provinces as the
natural focus of disaffection against his rule. Licinius had no definite
Christian beliefs; he had been the friend and nominee of Galerius;
and, like Galerius, he never got rid of the suspicion that the Christian
assemblies were a danger to the public security. The Christians had
aided him against Maximin: he thought they would do the same for
Constantine against himself. Eusebius[75] likens him to a twisted
snake, wriggling along and concealing its poisoned fangs, not daring
to attack the Church openly for fear of Constantine, but dealing it
constant and insidious blows.
The simile was well chosen. Licinius seems to have opened his
campaign against the Christians by forbidding the bishops in his
provinces to leave their dioceses and take part in their usual synods
and councils. They were to remain at home, he said, and mind their
own business and not plot treason against their Emperor under the
pretext of perfecting the discipline of the Church. Another edict,
which came with poor grace from a man whose own excesses were
notorious, forbade Christian men and women to meet for common
worship in their churches: they were to worship apart, so that their
morals might not be exposed to danger. On the same pretext,
bishops and priests were only allowed to give teaching and
consolation to their own sex; Christian women must find women
teachers and advisers. Eusebius tells us[76] that these edicts excited
universal ridicule. It was too late to revive the old stories of gross
immorality taking place at the communion services, and there was
fresh cause for mocking laughter when Licinius forbade the
Christians to assemble in their churches within the towns and
ordered them to go outside the gates and meet, if they must meet, in
the open air. This was necessary, he said, on the grounds of public
health; the atmosphere beyond the gates was purer. Licinius’s theory
of hygiene was perfectly sound; its application was ludicrous.
These were the first steps leading, as his subjects must have
known only too well, straight to persecution. After a time Licinius
threw over bodily the Edict of Milan. He purged his court and his
army in the old way. The choice was sacrifice or dismissal, and some
pretext was usually made to tack on to official dismissal a
confiscation of goods. Licinius, says Eusebius, thirsted for gold like a
very Tantalus. Aurelius Victor says[77] he had all the mean, sordid
avarice of a peasant. And the Christians, of course, were fair game.
He pillaged their churches, robbed them of their goods, sentenced
them to exile and to the mines, or ruined them just as effectually by
insisting on their becoming magistrates. Bloodshed followed, and
Licinius aimed his severest blows at the bishops. He accused them
of omitting his name in their prayers for the welfare of the Emperor
and the State, though they carefully remembered that of
Constantine; and, if none were actually put to death, many suffered
imprisonment, torture, and mutilation. The story of the martyrs and
confessors in the Licinian persecution is very like that of those who
suffered under Diocletian and Maximin. But the fate of the forty
soldier martyrs of the Twelfth Legion (Fulminata) deserves special
mention. They had refused to sacrifice, and, by order of their
general, were stripped naked and ordered to remain throughout a
winter’s night upon a frozen pond, exposed to the elements. At the
side of the pond was a building, where the water for the town baths
was heated. Apparently no guard was kept. The martyrs were free to
make their way to the warmth and shelter if they wished it, but only
at the price of apostasy. One of them, after enduring bravely for
many hours, crawled towards the warmth, but died of exhaustion as
soon as he had crossed the threshold. The sight so affected the
pagan attendant of the bath that he flung off his clothes in
uncontrollable emotion, and with the shout, “I too am a Christian,”
took the place of the weak brother who had just lost the martyr’s
crown. In the morning the forty were found dead and their bodies
were burnt at the stake. It was said that one of them was found to be
still breathing, and the executioners put him apart from the rest. His
mother, afraid lest he should miss entering heaven by the side of his
brave companions in glory, herself placed him in the cart to be borne
to the stake.
Another moving story of the Licinian persecution is that of Gordius
of Cæsarea, in Cappadocia. He had fled from his home to live the
life of a hermit among the mountains, when suddenly an impulse
came upon him to return and testify to the truth. The people were all
assembled in the Circus, intent upon some public spectacle, when