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Machine Learning for Decision
Sciences with Case Studies
in Python
Machine Learning for Decision
Sciences with Case Studies
in Python

S. Sumathi
Suresh V. Rajappa
L. Ashok Kumar
Surekha Paneerselvam
First edition published 2022
by CRC Press
6000 Broken Sound Parkway NW, Suite 300, Boca Raton, FL 33487-2742

and by CRC Press

2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN

© 2022 S. Sumathi, Suresh V. Rajappa, L Ashok Kumar and Surekha Paneerselvam

CRC Press is an imprint of Taylor & Francis Group, LLC

Reasonable efforts have been made to publish reliable data and information, but the author and publisher cannot
assume responsibility for the validity of all materials or the consequences of their use. The authors and publishers
have attempted to trace the copyright holders of all material reproduced in this publication and apologize to copyright
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edged please write and let us know so we may rectify in any future reprint.

Except as permitted under U.S. Copyright Law, no part of this book may be reprinted, reproduced, transmitted, or
utilized in any form by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including pho-
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not available on CCC please contact mpkbookspermissions@tandf.co.uk

Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks and are used only for
identification and explanation without intent to infringe.

ISBN: 978-1-032-19356-4 (hbk)

ISBN: 978-1-032-19357-1 (pbk)
ISBN: 978-1-003-25880-3 (ebk)

DOI: 10.1201/9781003258803

Typeset in Times
by codeMantra
Contents
Preface.............................................................................................................................................. xv
Acknowledgment............................................................................................................................xvii
About the Authors............................................................................................................................xix
Introduction......................................................................................................................................xxi

Chapter 1 Introduction...................................................................................................................1
1.1 Introduction to Data Science..............................................................................1
1.1.1 Mathematics..........................................................................................1
1.1.2 Statistics................................................................................................1
1.2 Describing Structural Patterns...........................................................................2
1.2.1 Uses of Structural Patterns....................................................................2
1.3 Machine Learning and Statistics........................................................................3
1.4 Relation between Artificial Intelligence, Machine Learning, Neural
Networks, and Deep Learning...........................................................................4
1.5 Data Science Life Cycle.....................................................................................6
1.6 Key Role of Data Scientist..................................................................................8
1.6.1 Difference between Data Scientist and Machine
Learning Engineer................................................................................8
1.7 Real-World Examples.........................................................................................8
1.8 Use Cases............................................................................................................9
1.8.1 Financial and Insurance Industries.......................................................9
1.8.1.1 Fraud Mitigation....................................................................9
1.8.1.2 Personalized Pricing............................................................ 10
1.8.1.3 AML – Anti-Money Laundering......................................... 10
1.8.2 Utility Industries................................................................................. 11
1.8.2.1 Smart Meter and Smart Grid............................................... 11
1.8.2.2 Manage disaster and Outages.............................................. 11
1.8.2.3 Compliance.......................................................................... 11
1.8.3 Oil and Gas Industries......................................................................... 11
1.8.3.1 Manage Exponential Growth............................................... 11
1.8.3.2 3D Seismic Imaging and Kirchhoff.................................... 12
1.8.3.3 Rapidly Process and Display Seismic Data......................... 12
1.8.4 E-Commerce and Hi-Tech Industries.................................................. 12
1.8.4.1 Association and Complementary Products.......................... 12
1.8.4.2 Cross-Channel Analytics..................................................... 12
1.8.4.3 Event analytics..................................................................... 13
Summary..................................................................................................................... 13
Review Questions........................................................................................................ 14

Chapter 2 Overview of Python for Machine Learning................................................................ 15

2.1 Introduction...................................................................................................... 15
2.1.1 The Flow of Program Execution in Python........................................ 15
2.2 Python for Machine Learning.......................................................................... 15
2.2.1 Why Is Python Good for ML?............................................................. 16
2.3 Setting up Python............................................................................................. 16

v
vi Contents

2.3.1 Python on Windows............................................................................ 16

2.3.2 Python on Linux.................................................................................. 17
2.3.2.1 Ubuntu................................................................................. 17
2.4 Python Basics................................................................................................... 17
2.4.1 Python Operators................................................................................ 18
2.4.1.1 Arithmetic Operators........................................................... 18
2.4.1.2 Comparison Operators......................................................... 18
2.4.1.3 Assignment Operators......................................................... 18
2.4.1.4 Logical Operators................................................................ 18
2.4.1.5 Membership Operators........................................................ 19
2.4.2 Python Code Samples on Basic Operators.......................................... 19
2.4.2.1 Arithmetic Operators........................................................... 19
2.4.2.2 Comparison Operators......................................................... 21
2.4.2.3 Logical Operators................................................................ 22
2.4.2.4 Membership Operators........................................................ 23
2.4.3 Flow Control........................................................................................24
2.4.3.1 If & elif Statement...............................................................24
2.4.3.2 Loop Statement....................................................................25
2.4.3.3 Loop Control Statements.....................................................26
2.4.4 Python Code Samples on Flow Control Statements........................... 26
2.4.4.1 Conditional Statements........................................................26
2.4.4.2 Python if...else Statement.................................................... 27
2.4.4.3 Python if…elif…else Statement..........................................28
2.4.4.4 The For Loop....................................................................... 29
2.4.4.5 The range() Function........................................................... 29
2.4.4.6 For Loop with else............................................................... 31
2.4.4.7 While Loop.......................................................................... 31
2.4.4.8 While Loop with else.......................................................... 32
2.4.4.9 Python Break and Continue................................................. 32
2.4.4.10 Python Break Statement...................................................... 32
2.4.4.11 Python Continue Statement................................................. 33
2.4.5 Review of Basic Data Structures and Implementation in Python.......34
2.4.5.1 Array Data Structure...........................................................34
2.4.5.2 Implementation of Arrays in Python................................... 35
2.4.5.3 Linked List........................................................................... 36
2.4.5.4 Implementation of Linked List in Python........................... 36
2.4.5.5 Stacks and Queues............................................................... 38
2.4.5.6 Queues.................................................................................40
2.4.5.7 Implementation of Queue in Python.................................... 41
2.4.5.8 Searching............................................................................. 42
2.4.5.9 Implementation of Searching in Python..............................44
2.4.5.10 Sorting.................................................................................46
2.4.5.11 Implementation of Bubble Sort in Python........................... 47
2.4.5.12 Insertion Sort....................................................................... 47
2.4.5.13 Implementation of Insertion Sort in Python........................ 49
2.4.5.14 Selection Sort....................................................................... 51
2.4.5.15 Implementation of Selection Sort in Python....................... 52
2.4.5.16 Merge Sort........................................................................... 52
2.4.5.17 Implementation of Merge Sort in Python............................ 53
2.4.5.18 Shell Sort............................................................................. 54
2.4.5.19 Quicksort............................................................................. 55
Contents vii

2.4.5.20 Data Structures in Python with Sample Codes................... 55

2.4.5.21 Python Code Samples for Data Structures in Python......... 58
2.4.6 Functions in Python............................................................................ 68
2.4.6.1 Python Code Samples for Functions................................... 68
2.4.6.2 Returning Values from Functions........................................ 68
2.4.6.3 Scope of Variables............................................................... 69
2.4.6.4 Function Arguments............................................................ 70
2.4.7 File Handling....................................................................................... 74
2.4.8 Exception Handling............................................................................. 74
2.4.9 Debugging in Python.......................................................................... 75
2.4.9.1 Packages.............................................................................. 75
2.5 Numpy Basics................................................................................................... 75
2.5.1 Introduction to Numpy........................................................................ 76
2.5.1.1 Array Creation..................................................................... 76
2.5.1.2 Array Slicing....................................................................... 77
2.5.2 Numerical Operations......................................................................... 77
2.5.3 Python Code Samples for Numpy Package......................................... 78
2.5.3.1 Array Creation..................................................................... 78
2.5.3.2 Class and Attributes of ndarray—.ndim.............................. 82
2.5.3.3 Class and Attributes of ndarray—.shape............................. 82
2.5.3.4 Class and Attributes of ndarray—ndarray.size,
ndarray.Itemsize, ndarray.resize.......................................... 83
2.5.3.5 Class and Attributes of ndarray—.dtype............................. 83
2.5.3.6 Basic Operations..................................................................84
2.5.3.7 Accessing Array Elements: Indexing.................................. 85
2.5.3.8 Shape Manipulation............................................................. 88
2.5.3.9 Universal Functions (ufunc) in Numpy................................90
2.5.3.10 Broadcasting........................................................................90
2.5.3.11 Args and Kwargs................................................................. 91
2.6 Matplotlib Basics..............................................................................................92
2.6.1 Creating Graphs with Matplotlib........................................................ 93
2.7 Pandas Basics...................................................................................................94
2.7.1 Getting Started with Pandas...............................................................94
2.7.2 Data Frames........................................................................................ 95
2.7.3 Key Operations on Data Frames......................................................... 95
2.7.3.1 Data Frame from List.......................................................... 95
2.7.3.2 Rows and Columns in Data Frame......................................96
2.8 Computational Complexity...............................................................................97
2.9 Real-world Examples........................................................................................97
2.9.1 Implementation using Pandas.............................................................. 98
2.9.2 Implementation using Numpy............................................................. 98
2.9.3 Implementation using Matplotlib........................................................ 98
Summary.....................................................................................................................99
Review Questions...................................................................................................... 100
Exercises for Practice................................................................................................ 101

Chapter 3 Data Analytics Life Cycle for Machine Learning.................................................... 103

3.1 Introduction.................................................................................................... 103
3.2 Data Analytics Life Cycle.............................................................................. 104
3.2.1 Phase 1 – Data Discovery.................................................................. 104
viii Contents

3.2.2 Phase 2 – Data Preparation and Exploratory Data Analysis............. 107

3.2.2.1 Exploratory Data Analysis................................................. 110
3.2.3 Phase 3 – Model Planning................................................................. 136
3.2.4 Phase 4 – Model Building................................................................. 139
3.2.5 Phase 5 – Communicating Results.................................................... 140
3.2.6 Phase 6 – Optimize and Operationalize the Models......................... 140
Summary................................................................................................................... 142
Review Questions...................................................................................................... 143

Chapter 4 Unsupervised Learning............................................................................................. 145

4.1 Introduction.................................................................................................... 145
4.2 Unsupervised Learning.................................................................................. 145
4.2.1 Clustering.......................................................................................... 147
4.3 Evaluation Metrics for Clustering.................................................................. 147
4.3.1 Distance Measures............................................................................ 148
4.3.1.1 Minkowski Metric............................................................. 149
4.3.2 Similarity Measures.......................................................................... 149
4.4 Clustering Algorithms.................................................................................... 150
4.4.1 Hierarchical and Partitional Clustering Approaches........................ 150
4.4.2 Agglomerative and Divisive Clustering Approaches........................ 150
4.4.3 Hard and Fuzzy Clustering Approaches........................................... 150
4.4.4 Monothetic and Polythetic Clustering Approaches........................... 151
4.4.5 Deterministic and Probabilistic Clustering Approaches................... 151
4.5 k-Means Clustering......................................................................................... 151
4.5.1 Geometric Intuition, Centroids......................................................... 151
4.5.2 The Algorithm................................................................................... 152
4.5.3 Choosing k......................................................................................... 152
4.5.4 Space and Time Complexity............................................................. 153
4.5.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of k-Means Clustering.................... 153
4.5.5.1 Advantages......................................................................... 153
4.5.5.2 Disadvantages.................................................................... 153
4.5.6 k-Means Clustering in Practice Using Python.................................. 154
4.5.6.1 Illustration of the k-Means Algorithm Using Python........ 154
4.5.7 Fuzzy k-Means Clustering Algorithm............................................... 157
4.5.7.1 The Algorithm................................................................... 158
4.5.8 Advantages and Disadvantages of Fuzzy k-Means Clustering......... 158
4.6 Hierarchical Clustering.................................................................................. 159
4.6.1 Agglomerative Hierarchical Clustering............................................ 159
4.6.2 Divisive Hierarchical Clustering....................................................... 161
4.6.3 Techniques to Merge Cluster............................................................. 161
4.6.4 Space and Time Complexity............................................................. 163
4.6.5 Limitations of Hierarchical Clustering............................................. 163
4.6.6 Hierarchical Clustering in Practice Using Python............................ 163
4.6.6.1 DATA_SET....................................................................... 164
4.7 Mixture of Gaussian Clustering..................................................................... 165
4.7.1 Expectation Maximization................................................................ 166
4.7.2 Mixture of Gaussian Clustering in Practice Using Python............... 168
4.8 Density-Based Clustering Algorithm............................................................. 169
4.8.1 DBSCAN (Density-Based Spatial Clustering of
Applications with Noise)................................................................... 169
Contents ix

4.8.2 Space and Time Complexity............................................................. 171

4.8.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of DBSCAN.................................... 171
4.8.3.1 Advantages......................................................................... 171
4.8.3.2 Disadvantages.................................................................... 171
4.8.4 DBSCAN in Practice Using Python.................................................. 172
Summary................................................................................................................... 174
Review Questions...................................................................................................... 174

Chapter 5 Supervised Learning: Regression............................................................................. 177

5.1 Introduction.................................................................................................... 177
5.2 Supervised Learning – Real-Life Scenario.................................................... 177
5.3 Types of Supervised Learning........................................................................ 178
5.3.1 Supervised Learning – Classification............................................... 178
5.3.1.1 Classification – Predictive Modeling................................. 179
5.3.2 Supervised Learning – Regression................................................... 179
5.3.2.1 Regression Predictive Modeling........................................ 180
5.3.3 Classification vs. Regression............................................................. 180
5.3.4 Conversion between Classification and Regression Problems.......... 181
5.4 Linear Regression........................................................................................... 181
5.4.1 Types of Linear Regression............................................................... 182
5.4.1.1 Simple Linear Regression.................................................. 183
5.4.1.2 Multiple Linear Regression............................................... 184
5.4.2 Geometric Intuition........................................................................... 186
5.4.3 Mathematical Formulation................................................................ 187
5.4.4 Solving Optimization Problem.......................................................... 201
5.4.4.1 Maxima and Minima......................................................... 201
5.4.4.2 Gradient Descent...............................................................202
5.4.4.3 LMS (Least Mean Square) Update Rule...........................205
5.4.4.4 SGD Algorithm..................................................................205
5.4.5 Real-World Applications...................................................................206
5.4.5.1 Predictive Analysis............................................................206
5.4.5.2 Medical Outcome Prediction.............................................208
5.4.5.3 Wind Speed Prediction......................................................208
5.4.5.4 Environmental Effects Monitoring....................................209
5.4.6 Linear Regression in Practice Using Python....................................209
5.4.6.1 Simple Linear Regression Using Python...........................209
5.4.6.2 Multiple Linear Regression Using Python........................ 212
Summary................................................................................................................... 215
Review Questions...................................................................................................... 215

Chapter 6 Supervised Learning: Classification......................................................................... 219

6.1 Introduction.................................................................................................... 219
6.2 Use Cases of Classification............................................................................. 219
6.3 Logistic Regression........................................................................................ 219
6.3.1 Geometric Intuition........................................................................... 220
6.3.2 Variants of Logistic Regression........................................................ 222
6.3.2.1 Simple Logistic Regression............................................... 222
6.3.2.2 Multiple Logistic Regression............................................. 223
6.3.2.3 Binary Logistic Regression............................................... 223
x Contents

6.3.2.4 Multiclass Logistic Regression..........................................224

6.3.2.5 Nominal Logistic Regression............................................224
6.3.2.6 Ordinal Logistic Regression.............................................. 226
6.3.3 Optimization Problem....................................................................... 226
6.3.4 Regularization................................................................................... 226
6.3.5 Real-World Applications................................................................... 227
6.3.5.1 Medical Diagnosis............................................................. 227
6.3.5.2 Text Classification.............................................................. 227
6.3.5.3 Marketing........................................................................... 227
6.3.6 Logistic Regression in Practice using Python................................... 228
6.3.6.1 Variable Descriptions........................................................ 231
6.3.6.2 Checking for Missing Values............................................. 231
6.3.6.3 Converting Categorical Variables to a
Dummy Indicator............................................................... 234
6.4 Decision Tree Classifier.................................................................................. 236
6.4.1 Important Terminology in the Decision Tree.................................... 236
6.4.2 Example for Decision Tree................................................................ 237
6.4.3 Sample Decision Tree........................................................................ 238
6.4.4 Decision Tree Formation................................................................... 238
6.4.5 Algorithms Used for Decision Trees.................................................240
6.4.5.1 ID3 Algorithm...................................................................240
6.4.5.2 C 4.5 Algorithm................................................................. 241
6.4.5.3 CART Algorithm............................................................... 241
6.4.6 Overfitting and Underfitting.............................................................. 241
6.4.6.1 Overfitting.......................................................................... 241
6.4.6.2 Underfitting........................................................................ 242
6.4.6.3 Pruning to Avoid Overfitting............................................. 243
6.4.7 Advantages and Disadvantages.........................................................244
6.4.7.1 Advantages.........................................................................244
6.4.7.2 Disadvantages....................................................................244
6.4.8 Decision Tree Examples.................................................................... 245
6.4.9 Regression Using Decision Tree....................................................... 262
6.4.10 Real-World Examples........................................................................266
6.4.10.1 Predicting Library Book....................................................266
6.4.10.2 Identification of Tumor...................................................... 267
6.4.10.3 Classification of Telescope Image..................................... 269
6.4.10.4 Business Management....................................................... 269
6.4.10.5 Fault Diagnosis.................................................................. 271
6.4.10.6 Healthcare Management.................................................... 271
6.4.10.7 Decision Tree in Data Mining........................................... 271
6.4.11 Decision Trees in Practice Using Python.......................................... 273
6.5 Random Forest Classifier............................................................................... 279
6.5.1 Random Forest and Their Construction............................................280
6.5.2 Sampling of the Dataset in Random Forest...................................... 281
6.5.2.1 Creation of Subset Data..................................................... 285
6.5.3 Pseudocode for Random Forest......................................................... 286
6.5.3.1 Pseudocode for Prediction in Random Forest................... 287
6.5.4 Regression Using Random Forest..................................................... 287
6.5.5 Classification Using Random Forest................................................. 288
6.5.5.1 Random Forest Problem for Classification – Examples.... 293
6.5.6 Features and Properties of Random Forest....................................... 295
Contents xi

6.5.6.1 Features.............................................................................. 295

6.5.6.2 Properties........................................................................... 296
6.5.7 Advantages and Disadvantages of Random Forest........................... 296
6.5.7.1 Advantages......................................................................... 296
6.5.7.2 Disadvantages.................................................................... 296
6.5.8 Calculation of Error Using Bias and Variance.................................. 296
6.5.8.1 Bias.................................................................................... 296
6.5.8.2 Variance............................................................................. 296
6.5.8.3 Properties of Bias and Variance........................................ 297
6.5.9 Time Complexity............................................................................... 297
6.5.10 Extremely Randomized Tree............................................................. 297
6.5.11 Real-World Examples........................................................................ 298
6.5.11.1 Machine Fault Diagnosis................................................... 298
6.5.11.2 Medical Field..................................................................... 298
6.5.11.3 Banking............................................................................. 299
6.5.11.4 E-Commerce......................................................................300
6.5.11.5 Security..............................................................................300
6.5.12 Random Forest in Practice Using Python.........................................300
6.6 Support Vector Machines...............................................................................306
6.6.1 Geometric Intuition...........................................................................307
6.6.2 Mathematical Formulation................................................................ 310
6.6.2.1 Maximize Margin with Noise........................................... 312
6.6.2.2 Slack Variable ξi ................................................................ 312
6.6.3 Loss Minimization............................................................................ 315
6.6.4 Dual Formulation.............................................................................. 317
6.6.5 The Kernel Trick............................................................................... 320
6.6.6 Polynomial Kernel............................................................................. 320
6.6.6.1 Mercer’s Theorem.............................................................. 322
6.6.6.2 Radial Basis Function (RBF) Kernel................................. 322
6.6.6.3 Other Domain-Specific Kernel.......................................... 323
6.6.6.4 Sigmoid Kernel.................................................................. 323
6.6.6.5 Exponential Kernel............................................................ 323
6.6.6.6 ANOVA Kernel.................................................................. 323
6.6.6.7 Rational Quadratic Kernel................................................. 323
6.6.6.8 Multiquadratic Kernel........................................................ 323
6.6.6.9 Inverse Multiquadratic Kernel........................................... 323
6.6.6.10 Circular Kernel.................................................................. 324
6.6.6.11 Bayesian Kernel................................................................. 324
6.6.6.12 Chi-Square Kernel............................................................. 324
6.6.6.13 Histogram Intersection Kernel.......................................... 324
6.6.6.14 Generalized Histogram Intersection Kernel...................... 324
6.6.7 nu SVM............................................................................................. 324
6.6.8 SVM Regression................................................................................ 325
6.6.9 One-Class SVM................................................................................ 326
6.6.10 Multiclass SVM................................................................................. 326
6.6.10.1 One against All.................................................................. 326
6.6.10.2 One against One................................................................ 327
6.6.10.3 Directed Acyclic Graph SVM........................................... 327
6.6.11 SVM Examples................................................................................. 328
6.6.12 Real-World Applications................................................................... 341
6.6.12.1 Classification of Cognitive Impairment............................. 341
xii Contents

6.6.12.2 Preprocessing..................................................................... 342

6.6.12.3 Feature Extraction............................................................. 342
6.6.12.4 SVM Classification............................................................ 342
6.6.12.5 Procedure........................................................................... 342
6.6.12.6 Performance Analysis........................................................ 343
6.6.12.7 Text Categorization............................................................ 343
6.6.12.8 Handwritten Optical Character Recognition.....................344
6.6.12.9 Natural Language Processing............................................344
6.6.12.10 Cancer Prediction.............................................................. 345
6.6.12.11 Stock Market Forecasting.................................................. 345
6.6.12.12 Protein Structure Prediction..............................................346
6.6.12.13 Face Detection Using SVM...............................................346
6.6.13 Advantages and Disadvantages of SVM........................................... 347
6.7 SVM Classification in Practice Using Python................................................ 347
6.7.1 Support Vectors................................................................................. 347
6.7.2 What Is a Hyperplane?......................................................................348
Summary................................................................................................................... 349
Review Questions...................................................................................................... 349

Chapter 7 Feature Engineering.................................................................................................. 351

7.1 Introduction.................................................................................................... 351
7.2 Feature Selection............................................................................................ 352
7.2.1 Wrapper Methods.............................................................................. 353
7.2.1.1 Forward Selection.............................................................. 353
7.2.1.2 Backward Elimination....................................................... 353
7.2.1.3 Exhaustive Feature Selection............................................. 354
7.2.2 Featured Methods.............................................................................. 354
7.3 Factor Analysis............................................................................................... 355
7.3.1 Types of Factor Analysis................................................................... 355
7.3.2 Working of Factor Analysis.............................................................. 355
7.3.3 Terminologies.................................................................................... 356
7.3.3.1 Definition of Factor............................................................ 356
7.3.3.2 Factor Loading................................................................... 356
7.3.3.3 Eigenvalues........................................................................ 356
7.3.3.4 Communalities................................................................... 356
7.3.3.5 Factor Rotation.................................................................. 356
7.3.3.6 Selecting the Number of Factors....................................... 356
7.4 Principal Component Analysis....................................................................... 357
7.4.1 Center the Data.................................................................................. 357
7.4.2 Normalize the Data........................................................................... 357
7.4.3 Estimate the Eigen decomposition.................................................... 357
7.4.4 Project the Data................................................................................. 357
7.5 Eigenvalues and PCA..................................................................................... 359
7.5.1 Usage of eigendecomposition in PCA............................................... 359
7.6 Feature Reduction........................................................................................... 361
7.6.1 Factor Analysis Vs. Principal Component Analysis......................... 362
7.7 PCA Transformation in Practice Using Python............................................. 362
7.8 Linear Discriminant Analysis........................................................................364
7.8.1 Mathematical Operations in LDA..................................................... 365
7.9 LDA Transformation in Practice Using Python............................................. 368
Contents xiii

7.9.1 Implementation of Scatter within the Class (Sw).............................. 368

7.9.2 Implementation of Scatter between Class (Sb).................................. 369
Summary................................................................................................................... 371
Review Questions...................................................................................................... 371

Chapter 8 Reinforcement Engineering...................................................................................... 373

8.1 Introduction.................................................................................................... 373
8.2 Reinforcement Learning................................................................................. 373
8.2.1 Examples of Reinforcement Learning.............................................. 375
8.3 How RL Differs from Other ML Algorithms?............................................... 376
8.3.1 Supervised Learning......................................................................... 376
8.4 Elements of Reinforcement Learning............................................................ 376
8.4.1 Policy................................................................................................. 376
8.4.2 Reward Signal................................................................................... 377
8.4.3 Value Function.................................................................................. 377
8.4.3.1 Examples of Rewards........................................................ 377
8.4.4 Model of the Environment................................................................ 378
8.4.5 The Reinforcement Learning Algorithm.......................................... 378
8.4.6 Methods to Implement Reinforcement Learning in ML................... 379
8.5 Markov Decision Process............................................................................... 379
8.5.1 Preliminaries..................................................................................... 379
8.5.2 Value Functions................................................................................. 380
8.6 Dynamic Programming.................................................................................. 381
8.6.1 Policy Evaluation............................................................................... 382
8.6.2 Policy Improvement.......................................................................... 383
8.6.3 Policy Iteration.................................................................................. 385
8.6.4 Efficiency of Dynamic Programming............................................... 385
8.6.5 Dynamic Programming in Practice using Python............................ 386
Summary................................................................................................................... 387
Review Questions...................................................................................................... 387

Chapter 9 Case Studies for Decision Sciences Using Python.................................................... 389

9.1 Use Case 1 − Retail Price Optimization Using Price Elasticity of
Demand Method............................................................................................. 389
9.1.1 Background....................................................................................... 389
9.1.2 Understanding the Data..................................................................... 390
9.1.3 Conclusion.........................................................................................400
9.2 Use Case 2 − Market Basket Analysis (MBA)................................................ 401
9.2.1 Introduction....................................................................................... 401
9.2.2 Understating the Data........................................................................ 401
9.2.3 Conclusion......................................................................................... 412
9.3 Use Case 3 − Sales Prediction of a Retailer.................................................... 412
9.3.1 Background....................................................................................... 412
9.3.2 Understanding the Data..................................................................... 413
9.3.3 Conclusion......................................................................................... 418
9.4 Use Case 4 − Predicting the Cost of Insurance Claims for a
Property and Causalty (P&C) Insurance Company....................................... 419
9.4.1 Background....................................................................................... 419
9.4.2 Understanding the Data..................................................................... 419
xiv Contents

9.5 Use Case 5 − E-Commerce Product Ranking and Sentiment Analysis.......... 430
9.5.1 Background....................................................................................... 430
9.5.2 Understanding the Data..................................................................... 431
Summary................................................................................................................... 441
Review Questions...................................................................................................... 442

Appendix: Python Cheat Sheet for Machine Learning............................................................. 443

Bibliography..................................................................................................................................449
Index............................................................................................................................................... 453
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 The Project Gutenberg eBook of The botanist's
repository for new and rare plants; vol. 05 [of 10]
This ebook is for the use of anyone anywhere in the United States
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Title: The botanist's repository for new and rare plants; vol. 05 [of
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Author: active 1799-1828 Henry Cranke Andrews

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Language: English

Original publication: London: The author, 1797

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*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK THE BOTANIST'S

REPOSITORY FOR NEW AND RARE PLANTS; VOL. 05 [OF 10] ***
 INDEX
to the plants contained in vol. v.
ERRATA.
Alphabetical Index to the 1st. 2d. 3d. 4th. and 5th. Volume of
the Botanist’s Repository.

Vol. V.
 of the
Botanist’s Repository
Comprising
Colour’d Engravings

of

New and Rare Plants

ONLY

With Botanical Descriptions &c.

——in——

Latin and English,

after the

Linnæan System.

by

H. Andrews

Botanical Painter Engraver, &c.

 PLATE CCLXXXIX.

P R O T E A C O R D ATA .
Heart-shape-leaved Protea.
CLASS IV. ORDER I.
TETRANDRIA MONOGYNIA. Four Chives. One Pointal.
ESSENTIAL GENERIC CHARACTER.
Corolla 4-fida, seu 4-petala. Antheræ lineares, insertæ petalis infra
apicem. Calyx, proprius, nullus. Semina solitaria.
Blossom four-cleft or four petals. Tips linear, inserted into the petals
below the ends. Cup, proper, none. Seeds solitary.
See Protea formosa, Pl. XVII. Vol. I.
SPECIFIC CHARACTER.

Protea foliis cordatis.

Protea with heart-shaped leaves.
REFERENCE TO THE PLATE.
1. A Floret before the petals have separated, natural
size.
2. The same, magnified, after the bursting of the petals.
3. The Pointal and Seed-bud, natural size.
The Heart-shape-leaved Protea was introduced to Britain in the year
1792, from the Cape of Good Hope, by Messrs. Lee and Kennedy; at whose
nursery it is now, this present month of March, 1803, in flower for the first
time in this country. The plant is only found on the mountains of that part of
the Cape called Hottentots Holland; the stem, in its native state, laying on
the ground, seldom more than a foot in length, and the flowers proceeding
from it near its base. It is rather delicate, should be kept in a very airy part of
the green-house, and planted in a light loamy soil. It is propagated by
cuttings, made in the month of April, and kept under a common hand-glass,
the pot being plunged in a shady border.
Of this Protea there is a good figure in Thunberg’s Dissertatio de Protea,
Upsal, quarto edition, 1781, Plate 5, fig. 1.
 PLATE CCXC.

A P O N O G E T O N D I S TA C H Y O N .
Broad-leaved Aponogeton.
CLASS XI. ORDER IV.
DODECANDRIA TETRAGYNIA. Twelve Chives. Four Pointals.
GENERIC CHARACTER.
Calyx nullus, nisi squama spathacea externum latus floris cingens,
simplex, sessilis, ovata, obtusa, integra, erecta, glabra, colorata.
Corolla nulla.
Stamina. Filamenta undecim ad novemdecim, superioribus floribus
pauciora, intra spatham et capsulas inserta, subulata, glabra, alba, spatha
multoties breviora. Antheræ erectæ, bifidæ.
Pistilla. Germina plerumque quatuor, raro tria seu quinque. Styli nulli.
Stigmata subulata, incurvata.
Pericarpium. Capsulæ quatuor, rarius tres seu quinque, ovatæ, subulato-
acutæ, exteriore latere gibbæ, interiore planæ, glabræ, unilocularis.
Semina, in quacumque capsula tria, basi capsula affixa, sessilia, obovata,
obtusissima, sub-compressa, glabra.
Empalement none, except a sheathing scale surrounding the outer side of
the flower, simple, sitting close, egg-shaped, obtuse, intire, upright, smooth,
coloured.
Blossom none.
Chives. Threads eleven to nineteen, in the upper flowers fewer, inserted
between the spathe and the capsules, awl-shaped, smooth, white, much
shorter than the spathe. Tips upright, two-cleft.
Pointals. Seed-buds often four, seldom three or five. Shafts none.
Summits awl-shaped, turned inwards.
Seed-vessel. Capsules four, seldom three or five, egg-shaped, pointed,
awl-shaped, unequally swelled on the outside, flat on the inner, smoothed,
one-celled.
 Seeds in each capsule three, fixed to the base of it, sitting close, inversely
egg-shaped, very blunt, rather flattish, smooth.
SPECIFIC CHARACTER.
Aponogeton spica bifida; foliis eliptico-lanceolatis, natantibus; bracteis
integris; floribus polyandris.
Aponogeton with a two-branched spike; leaves eliptically lance-shaped,
floating; floral leaves entire; flowers with many chives.
REFERENCE TO THE PLATE.
1. A Floret, with its floral leaf, magnified.
2. The Seed-buds and Summits, magnified.
This Genus of Plants in the Catalogue of the Kew Garden, is placed to the
Class Heptandria, and perhaps, with as much propriety as where it now
stands in Thunberg, Schreber, &c. for the number of chives in almost every
floret differs in this, and all the other species, from six to twenty. It is there
said to have been introduced to us in 1788 from the Cape of Good Hope by
Mr. F. Masson. It is found near Cape Town in most of the brooks; is very
sweet scented, and flowers from April till November. As an aquatic it is very
desirable for those who cultivate those plants, the fragrance of the flowers
being nearly equal to our Nymphæa alba, or White Water Lily; and this,
added to the contrasted effect of the deep brown antheræ upon the pure
white floral leaves, which indeed have the appearance of blossoms, give the
whole an indescribable trait of beauty, peculiar to itself. Our figure was
taken from a plant in the Hibbertian collection.
 PLATE CCXCI.

SENECIO PSEUDO-CHINA.
China-root Groundsel.
CLASS XIX. ORDER II.
SYNGENESIA POLYGAMIA SUPERFLUA. Tips united. Superfluous
Pointals.
GENERIC CHARACTER.
Calyx. Communis calyculatus, conicus, truncatus; squamis subulatis,
plurimis, in cylindrum superne contractum, parallelis, contiguis, æqualibus,
paucioribus basin imbricatim tegentibus, apicibus emortuis.
Corolla. Composita, calyce altior; Corullulæ hermaphroditæ tubulosæ,
numerosæ in disco; Femineæ ligulatæ in radio (si quæ adsint).
Propria hermaphroditi infundibuliformis; limbo reflexo, quinquefido.
Femineis (si quæ) oblonga, obsolete tridentata.
Stamina. Hermaphroditis; filamenta quinque, capillaria, minima. Anthera
cylindracea, tubulosa.
Pistillum utrisque; germen ovatum. Stylus filiformis, longitudine
staminum. Stigmata duo, oblonga, revoluta.
Pericarpium nullum. Calyx conico-connivens.
Semina hermaphroditis solitaria, ovata. Pappus crinitus, longus. Femineis
similima hermaphroditis.
Receptaculum nudum, planum.
Empalement. Common, double, conical, appearing cut off; scales awl-
shaped, numerous, contracted above into a cylinder, parallel, contiguous,
equal, the base tiled by a few scales, dead at the ends.
Blossom. Compound, taller than the cup; Hermaphrodite florets tubular,
numerous in the disk; Female florets (if there are any) tongue-shaped in the
circumference.
Hermaphrodite florets funnel shaped, border reflexed, five-cleft.
Female florets (if any) oblong, obscurely three-toothed.
 Chives. Of the hermaphrodite florets; five threads, hair-like, very small.
Tips forming a tubular cylinder.
Pointal in either; Seed-bud egg-shaped. Shaft thread-shaped, the length
of the chives. Summits two, oblong, rolled back.
Seed-vessel none. Empalement closing into a cone.
Seeds of hermaphrodite florets solitary, egg-shaped. Feather hairy, long.
Females like the hermaphrodites.
Receptacle naked, flat.
SPECIFIC CHARACTER.
Senecio foliis sinuatis, integris, discoloribus; corollis purpureis; radice
tuberosa.
Groundsel with obtusely indented leaves entire and two-coloured;
blossoms purple; root tuberous.
REFERENCE TO THE PLATE.
1. The Cup.
2. A Female floret, of the ray or circumference.
3. A Pointal of the female floret magnified.
4. An Hermaphrodite floret of the disk or centre.
5. The Chives and Pointal of an Hermaphrodite floret, magnified.
The roots of this plant were received at the same time with the double
Camellias, China Roses, &c. from China, by the late J. Slater, Esq. of
Laytonstone, Essex; we have, nevertheless, good reason to believe it was
known formerly in our gardens; but has been certainly lost, for many years,
to us. It is said to have been cultivated by James Sherrard, M. D. in 1732, as
copied from Dellinens’s Hortus Elthamensis, into the Kew Catalogue. Miller
speaks of it as flowering freely, and perfecting its seeds; whereas, in the
Hort. Kew. they omit its time of flowering, which, had it ever flowered there,
would certainly have been noted. Our drawing was taken in the month of
July last year, 1802, from a plant in the Hibbertian Collection, the first and
only time we have ever seen it flower in England. It is propagated by the
roots, which are large and fleshy; the plant is herbaceous, and should have
but little water during the winter months, as the roots are very subject to rot;
they are imported from India as a drug, under the name of China-root. Must
be kept in the hot-house, and planted in rich earth.
 PLATE CCXCII.

G E R A N I U M U N D U L AT U M .
Waved-flowered Geranium.
CLASS XVI. ORDER IV.
MONADELPHIA DECANDRIA. Threads united. Ten Chives.
ESSENTIAL GENERIC CHARACTER.
Monogyna. Stigmata quinque. Fructus rostratus, penta-coccus.
One Pointal. Five Summits. Fruit furnished with long awns, five dry
berries.
SPECIFIC CHARACTER.
Geranium foliis lanceolatis ciliatis, sub-integris; petalis sub-æqualibus,
sub-linearibus, undulatis; floribus umbellatis, pentandris; radice tuberosa.
Geranium with lance-shaped flowers, fringed nearly intire; petals almost
equal, nearly linear, waved; flowers grow in umbels, five fertile chives; root
tuberous.
REFERENCE TO THE PLATE.
1. The Empalement cut open, to shew its tubular structure.
2. The Chives and Pointal, natural size.
3. The Chives, magnified and cut open.
4. The Pointal and Seed bud, magnified.
This tuberous rooted Geranium, from the Cape of Good Hope, has some
affinity with the G. spathulatum, as to the shape of the leaves; but the whole
habit of the plant is so totally different, that we could not, with any degree of
propriety, consider it as a variety of that species. Our figure was taken from a
plant in the Hibbertian collection, to which it was introduced in the year
1800, by Mr. Niven. It flowers in June, and may be propagated by the root.
The treatment is the same as that required for the rest, of this division, of the
Genus.
 PLATE CCXCIII.

LACHNÆA PURPUREA.
Purple-flowered Lachnæa.
CLASS VIII. ORDER I.
OCTANDRIA MONOGYNIA. Eight Chives. One Pointal.
ESSENTIAL GENERIC CHARACTER.
Calyx nullus. Corolla quadrifida; limbo inæquali. Semen unum, sub-
baccatum.
Cup none. Blossom four-cleft; border unequal. One seed, like a berry.
See Lachnæa Eriocephala, Pl. CIV. Vol. II.
SPECIFIC CHARACTER.
Lachnæa capitulis solitariis; corollis glabris, purpureis; foliis trigonis,
obtusis, quadrifariam imbricatis.
Lachnæa with solitary heads of flowers; blossoms smooth, purple; leaves
three-sided, obtuse, tiled in four-rows.
REFERENCE TO THE PLATE.
1. One of the floral Leaves, which surround the head of flowers at the
base.
2. A Flower complete.
3. A Blossom cut open, the lower part cut off, to shew the insertion of
the Chives at the mouth.
4. The Pointal, natural size.
5. The same magnified.
This most singular genus of plants, in external appearance so resembling
passerina, yet so perfectly distinct in the parts of fructification, is certainly
amongst the handsomest of the natural order in which it ranks. The long
slender chives which extend nearly to the length of the border of the
blossom, independent of the singular retrofraction of one of its segments,
give it a character, we think, decidedly sufficient on which to have formed
the Genus. This is the third species known; it was introduced to the
Hibbertian collection, in 1800, by Mr. Niven, from the Cape of Good Hope.
It is a very delicate plant, subject to be destroyed by damps, flowers in July,
and may be increased by cuttings. It thrives best in a mixture of light sand
and loam.
Thunberg, in his Prod. Plant. Cap. has referred the whole genus to
Passerina.
 PLATE CCXCIV.

PROTEA CANDICANS.
Hoary-leaved Protea.
CLASS IV. ORDER I.
TETRANDRIA MONOGYNIA. Four Chives. One Pointal.
ESSENTIAL GENERIC CHARACTER.
Corolla 4-fida, seu 4-petala. Antheræ lineares, insertæ petalis infra
apicem. Calyx proprius, nullus. Semina solitaria.
Blossom 4-cleft, or 4 petals. Tips linear, inserted into the petals below the
point. Cup, proper, none. Seeds solitary.
See Protea formosa, Pl. XVII. Vol. I.
SPECIFIC CHARACTER.

Protea foliis apicibus tridentatis, eliptico-lanceolatis, obliquis,

candidissimis; capitulis terminalibus; calyx imbricatus, squamis acutis;
corollis luteis.
Protea with leaves three-toothed at the ends, eliptically-lance-shaped,
oblique and very hoary; heads of flowers terminal; cup tiled, scales pointed,
blossoms yellow.
REFERENCE TO THE PLATE.
1. A Floret, the petals separated, natural size.
2. One of the Petals magnified.
3. The Pointal, and Seed-bud, natural size, the Summit detached,
magnified.
4. The Empalement, natural size.
Our present plant is one of the rarest Proteas at this time in England; as, we
believe, there has never been but one importation of the seeds from the
Cape, and no one species of this numerous genus is with more difficulty
propagated by cuttings. Its lower leaves are apt to suffer much from damps
in winter; in consequence, the stem becomes bare till near the top; the plant
grows about three feet high, and flowers in August, or September. Our figure
was taken from the Hibbertian collection, where it flowered, in 1802, for the
first time in Britain. We owe its introduction to Messrs. Lee and Kennedy,
Hammersmith, about the year 1790. We have our doubts of this plant being
the P. tomentosa of Thunberg; for although he, in his description of that
species, comes nigh many of the characters of P. candicans, yet his
determining the leaves to be linear, and downy, and our having drawings,
taken from two other species, approaching this in habit, yet nigher affined to
P. tomentosa, we have retained his specific title for one of them, the other yet
unnamed; which will both be given in due course.
 PLATE CCXCV.

PA S S I F L O R A A U R A N T I A .
Norfolk Island Passion-Flower.
CLASS XX. ORDER IV.
GYNANDRIA PENTANDRIA. Chives on the Pointal. Five Chives.
ESSENTIAL GENERIC CHARACTER.
Trigyna. Calyx 5-phyllus. Petala 5. Nectarium corona. Bacca
pedicellata.
Three styles. Cup 5-leaved. Petals 5. Honey-cup forming a crown. Berry
standing on a foot-stalk.
See Pl. CCVII. Passiflora maliformis. Vol. IV.
SPECIFIC CHARACTER.
Passiflora foliis trilobis, lobis oblongis obtusis, medio longiore; petiolis
biglandulosis; nectario cylindraceo, denticulato; corolla aurantia.
Passion-Flower with three-lobed leaves; lobes oblong, obtuse, the middle
one the longest; foot-stalks with two glands; honey-cup cylindrical and
toothletted; blossom orange-coloured.
REFERENCE TO THE PLATE.
1. Exhibits the half of a flower as cut perpendicularly through the
middle, with the whole of the Pointal and Chives in their place.
This species of Passion Flower, from Norfolk Island, was introduced to
Britain in the year 1792, and was first raised, from seeds, at the
Hammersmith Nursery. It is a greenhouse plant, loving heat and drought,
thrives in a light sandy soil, and is readily increased by cuttings; which
should be placed in the heat of the bark-bed in the hothouse, or cucumber
hot-bed, in the month of April.
In the young state of the plant, the leaves are less harsh, appear rather
scolloped than lobed, and much resemble in shape those of the Maiden-hair
Fern, or Adiantum Capillus-veneris; whence the trivial name, adiantifolia,
which it bears in most collections. But, as there can be no doubt of our
present plant being that designed by Forster, in his Prod. flor. insul. austral.
No. 326; of Cavanilles in his Dissertationes classis Monadelphiæ, Diss. 10.
p. 457; and as lastly quoted by Willdenow, in his new Sp. Plant. Tom. 3, Part
1, p. 620; we have, without hesitation, adopted the specific title it there
bears. As an addition to the very few handsome climbing plants fit to
decorate the trellis-work of our modern greenhouses, or conservatories, this
plant must be considered as a great acquisition; as the growth is rapid, the
foliage of a fine green, and the flowering abundant.
Our figure was taken from a plant in the conservatory of the Hibbertian
collection, Clapham common.
 PLATE CCXCVI.

LACHENALIA ROSEA.
Rose-coloured Lachenalia.
CLASS VI. ORDER I.
HEXANDRIA MONOGYNIA. Six Chives. One Pointal.
ESSENTIAL GENERIC CHARACTER.
Corolla 6-partita, infera; petalis tribus interioribus longioribus. Stamina
erecta. Capsula subovata, trialata. Semina globosa.
Blossom 6-divided, beneath; the three inner petals the longest. Chives
erect. Capsule nearly egg-shaped, three-winged. Seeds globular.
See Lachenalia pendula, Pl. XLI. Vol. I.
SPECIFIC CHARACTER.
Lachenalia foliis binis, lanceolato-linearibus, obtusis; petalis interioribus
longioribus; scapo lævi filiforme; corollis roseis.
Lachenalia with two leaves between, lance and linear-shaped, obtuse; the
inner petals the longest; flower-stem smooth and thread-shaped; blossoms
rose-coloured.
REFERENCE TO THE PLATE.
1. A Blossom cut open, shewn from the inside, the Chives in their place.
2. The same, shewn from the outside.
3. The Seed-bud and Pointal, natural size.
This plant we believe to be perfectly new to Britain, and in no other
collection, at present, than that of G. Hibbert, Esq. Clapham; where the
drawing of our figure was taken in May, 1802; and to which it had been
added, the preceding year, by Mr. Niven, from the Cape of Good Hope.
It is a tender bulb, and rather impatient of moisture; increases by the bulb;
should not be removed from its pot but to give it fresh earth, and is fond of a
light, loamy soil. It is without scent.
 PLATE CCXCVII.

N Y M P H Æ A O D O R ATA .
Sweet-scented Water-Lily.
CLASS XIII. ORDER I.
POLIANDRIA MONOGYNIA. Many Chives. One Pointal.
ESSENTIAL GENERIC CHARACTER.
Calyx 4, 5, seu 6-phyllus. Corolla polypetala. Bacca multi-locularis,
truncata.
Cup 4, 5, or 6-leaved. Blossom many petals. Berry many-celled,
appearing cut off at top.
See Nymphæa cærulea, Pl. CXCVII. Vol. III.
SPECIFIC CHARACTER.
Nymphæa foliis subrotundis, integris emarginatis, lobis divaricatis,
obtusissimis, margine parum incurvatis; calyce tetraphyllo; flore albo.
Water Lily with almost round leaves, entire, and notched at the end; lobes
straddling, very obtuse, and turned up slightly at the edge; cup four-leaved;
flower white.
REFERENCE TO THE PLATE.
1. A Chive.
2. The Seed-bud and Summits.
3. The Seed-bud cut transversely.
This species of Water-Lily we should consider rather as a variety, than as a
distinct species; it has every character of our common white Water-Lily,
except the size and hardiness; it has the same powerful fragrance, but will
not stand the severity of our winters. It is a native of Carolina and Virginia,
North America; was introduced to us in the year 1786, by William Hamilton,
Esq. of Philadelphia, and flowers during the summer months, if kept in the
hot-house. Requires the same treatment as the blue species from the Cape of
Good Hope. May be increased from the seed, or from the root. Our drawing
was taken from a plant in the Clapham collection.
 PLATE CCXCVIII.

A N T H E R I C U M C O S TAT U M .
Ribbed-leaved Anthericum.
CLASS VI. ORDER I.
HEXANDRIA MONOGYNIA. Six Chives. One Pointal.
GENERIC CHARACTER.
Calyx, nullus.
Corolla. Petala sex, oblonga, obtusa, patentissima.
Stamina. Filamenta sex, subulata, erecta. Antheræ parvæ, incumbentes,
quadrisulcæ.
Pistillum. Germen obsolete trigonum. Stylus simplex, longitudine
staminum. Stigma obtusum, trigonum.
Pericarpium. Capsula ovata, glabra, trisulca, trilocularis, trivalvis.
Semina numerosa, angulata.
Empalement. none.
Blossom. Six petals, oblong, blunt, spreading very much.
Chives. Six threads, awl-shaped, upright. Tips small, laying on the
threads, four-furrowed.
Pointal. Seed-bud bluntly three-sided. Shaft simple, the length of the
chives. Summit blunt, and three-cornered.
Seed-vessel. Capsule egg-shaped, smooth, three-furrowed, three-valved.
Seeds numerous, angulated.
SPECIFIC CHARACTER.
Anthericum foliis hirsutis, planis, costatis, lineari-ensiformibus, supra
medium reflexis; scapo simplici, glabro; floribus albis; radice bulboso.
Anthericum with hairy, flat, leaves, ribbed, linearly sword-shaped, turned
back from the middle; flower-stem simple, smooth; flowers white, root
bulbous.
REFERENCE TO THE PLATE.
 1. The Chives and Pointal, magnified.
2. The Seed-bud, Shaft, and Summit, magnified.
3. The half of the Seed-bud cut transversely, magnified.
It is much to be lamented that we, as yet, have not discovered a mode of
treatment by which many of the species or Albuca, Ornithogalum,
Anthericum, &c. from the Cape, might be induced to flower with us, after
the first year from their importation; since many of them never produce more
than a few leaves afterwards; and this plant, we fear, is amongst the number.
It makes a very handsome and sweet bunch of flowers, which have
considerable duration, not less than a month from first expansion. We can
say little as to the propagation and culture; as it has not as yet increased, nor
has it produced any flowers since our drawing was made, in August 1801.
We think it is only in the Hibbertian Collection, to which it was introduced
by Mr. Niven, in 1800, from the Cape of Good Hope.