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 Ajit Singh

Python
Programming
4th Edition

Featured With......
ISBN-13 :979-8321458457

Pandas
GUI Programming
Modules & Library
Database Connectivity
101 Python Programs

Copyrighted Material
 AKNOWLEDGEMENT
This piece of study of python is an outcome of the encouragement, guidance, help and assistance provided
to us by our colleagues, faculties, Tech-friends and my family members.

As an acknowledgement, I would like to take the opportunity to express my deep sense of gratitude to all
those who played a crucial role in the successful completion of this book, especially to my senior scholars;
this book certainly has been benefited from discussions held with many IT professionals (Ex-students)
over the years it took to write it.

Python reflects on a number of growing trends in software development, putting it at or near the leading
edge of good programming languages. It is a very simple language surrounded by a vast library of add­
on modules. It is an open source project, supported by many individuals. It is an object-oriented language,
binding data and processing into class definitions. It is a platform-independent, scripted language, with
complete access to operating systems APIs. It supports integration of complex solutions from pre-built
components. It is a dynamic language, which avoids many of the complexities and overheads of compiled
languages.

Three Faces of a Language. There are three facets to a programming language: how you write it, what it
means, and the additional practical considerations that make a program useful. While many books cover
the syntax and semantics of Python, in this book, the pragmatic considerations are also covered. My core
objective is to build enough language skills with a good object-oriented design so that the students can have
an efficient knowledge about python on windows platform.
Special thanks goes to our respected professor Prof. Dr. Bal Gangadhar Prasad, who is not only my role
model in learning and teaching but, also a source of encouragement who has always pushed me forward to
utilize my skills in a timely manner and have ever obliged for bearing with me from time to time, insisting
me on sticking to my determination all throughout.

I would also like to thank those who provided the odd suggestions via email to me. All feedbacks were
listened to, as you will no doubt see some content influenced by your suggestions.

I hope that the reader likes this book and finds it useful in learning the concepts of python.

Thank You!!

Ajit Singh!!

PREFACE

Share the knowledge........

Strengthen the sur­
roundings........
Python Simply In Depth provides all essential programming concepts and information one shall need in
order to start developing their own Python program. The book provides a comprehensive walk-through of
Python programming in a clear, straightforward manner that beginners will appreciate. Important con­
cepts are introduced through a step-by-step discussion and reinforced by relevant examples and illustra­
tions. This book can be used as a guide to help explore, harness, and gain appreciation of the capabilities
and features of Python.

This book encapsulates rich practical hands-on experience in developing python based applications,
combined with teaching the subject for graduate/post-graduate students. The book is therefore a culmi­
nation of putting together what has been both practiced as well as preached, which is the one of the most
compelling differentiators for this book. It can also be used for independent study by anyone interested in
getting a broad introduction to a core useful set of the python language.

This book isfeatured with advanced topics, such as Python Pandas, Database Connectivity, Python GUI
Programming and Python Libraries apartfrom the core concepts like Multithreading, Exception Handling
and Useful Modules. We explained these because they can solve some problems better than standard solutions.

My approach in this book is to regard python as a language that readers will want to use as a primary tool
in many different areas of their programming work - not just for creating programs with graphical content.
Nevertheless, I recognized that visual examples are much more fun to create and work with.
This book is a close-to-complete presentation of the Python language. Whether you are new to program­
ming or a professional developer, this book’s goal is to bring you quickly up to speed on the fundamentals of
the core Python language. After reading this book, you will know enough about Python to apply it in what­
ever application domains you choose to explore in your career.

Compatible with CBSE and AICTE Syllabus........

About This Forth Edition

In the four years since the first edition of this book was published in late 2019, there have been sub­
stantial changes in Python itself. Although I have attempted to retain as much of the prior version of
this text as possible, this new edition reflects many recent changes in the Python language, as well as a
handful of structural changes.

This Book’s Prerequisites

There are no absolute prerequisites to speak of, really. Both true beginners and crusty programming
veterans have used this book successfully. If you are motivated to learn Python, this text will probably
work for you. In general, though, we have found that any exposure to programming or scripting before
this book can be helpful, even if not required for every reader.

Feedback
I have tried to wash out every error in our third edition of this book after being reviewed by lots of bachelor of
Computer Science, but as happens with any programming language - A few difficult to understand bugs shall
remain and of course, typos - and therefore, suggestions from students that may lead to improvement in next
edition in shortcomingfuture are highly appreciated.

Constructive suggestions and criticism always go a long way in enhancing any endeavour. I request all readers
to email me their valuable comments / views /feedback for the betterment of the book at ajit_singh24@ya-
hoo.com, mentioning the title and author name in the subject line. Please report any piracy spotted by you as
well. I would be glad to hear suggestionsfrom you.

Python Programming
4th Edition

Copyrighted Material
Copyright © 2024-25 by Ajit Singh, All Rights Reserved.

No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted, in any
form or by any means — electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise— without
prior written permission from the author, except for the inclusion of brief quotations in a review.
For information about this title or to order other books and/or electronic media, contact the
publisher:

Ajit Singh - 24+ years of experience in academics.

M.Phil, UGC NET Qualified

PYTHON
? INSTITUTE
MnM r.to*
PCAP: Programming Essentials in Python

Statement of Achievement
Presented To:

Ajit Singh
Warne

During the Cisco Networking Academy® self-paced course.the student has studied the following Skills:

• the universal concepts of computer programing (i e variables, flow control, data structures, algorrthms, condtional execution loops, functions, etc,)
• developer teds and the runtime environment;
• lire syntax and semantics of the Python language;
• the fundamentals d cbicct oncnlod programing and the way they arc acoprtcd m Python .
• the means by which to rcsdvc typ<cal implementation problems
• the writing of Python programs using standard language infrastructure.
• fundamental programing techniques, best practices, customs and vocabulary, inducing the most common library function in Python 3;

17 Jan 2020
Date

By completing the course. tha student is no* randy Io atisrn.nl rhn quaincaron PCAP-Ceditmri Assoc nte in Python Programing certification, from ths OpnnEDG Python Inshtuls
. rotacad com |mm pythoninstttixe <x g
 CONTENTS

Chapter Topic(s) Page

No
1 Getting Started with Python 09
History
Evolution
Features of Python
Limitation of Python
Comparisons
Some Jargon
2 Installing Python 17
Windows Installation
Customizing Environment
Whats new
3 Interacting with Python 26
Running Python
Command-Line Interaction
The IDLE Development Environment
Script Mode
Getting Help
4 Python Syntax 34
Syntax Formalities
Indentation
Keywords
Identifiers
Statements
Comments
print() and input() functions
5 Variables and Data Types 41
Variables
Several Data Types
Numeric Conversion (or Factory) Functions
Math function
6 Operators in Pyhton 51
Types of operators
Example of each type of operators.
7 Built-in Functions 61
8 Conditional Statements 66
Conditional Processing: the if Statement
The pass Statement
The assert Statement
The if-else Operator
9 Loops 72
Iterative Processing: The for Statement
Iterative Processing: The while Statement
More Iteration Control: break and continue
Infinite loop
Nested loop
10 User-Defined Functions 78
Function Definition: The def and return Statements
Function Use
Function Varieties
Some Examples
More Function Definition Features
Local and global variable
Lamda
Functions and Namespaces
The global Statement
11 Python Useful Modules 90
Module Definition
Module Use: The import Statement
Finding Modules: The Path
Math
datetime
os
zipfileurllib
winsound
finding module PYTHONHOME & PYTHONPATH
The exec Statement
12 Classes and Object-Oriented Programming 100
Class Definition: the class Statement
 Class Responsibilities
Creating and Using Objects
Constructor
Instance & global variable
Static Methods and Class Method
Object Lifecycle
Special Method Names
Inheritance
Polymorphism
13 Exception Handling in Python 113
Basic Exception Handling
Raising Exceptions
An Exceptional Example
Complete Exception Handling and The finally Clause
Exception Functions
Exception Attributes
Built-in Exceptions
14 Multithreading 124
Defination
Starting new thread
The threading module
Synchronizing thread
Multithreaded priority queue
15 Text Files in Python 133
File semantics
File Organization and Structure
Additional Background
Built-in Functions
File Statements
 File Methods
File and directory related methods
16 Regular Expression in Python
Creating a Regular Expression
Using a Regular Expression
Regular Expression Exercises
17 String, List & Dictionary
String Literal Values
String Operations
String Comparison Operations
String Statements
String Built-in Functions
String Methods
String Modules
Digression on Immutability of Strings

Lists
List Literal Values
List Operations
List Comparison Operations
List Statements
List Built-in Functions
List Methods
Stack & queue using list
Copy list

Mappings and Dictionaries

Dictionary Literal Values
Dictionary Operations
144

150
 Dictionary Comparison Operations
Dictionary Statements
Dictionary Built-in Functions
Dictionary Methods
Iterators
18 Python Pandas 166
Introduction to Pandas
Key features of Pandas
Anaconda Pythons Distribution
Downloading, installing and customizing Anaconda on Windows
Working with Numpy
Working with Series
Working with DataFrame
Working with Panel
Data transferring from CSV files to data frame and vice versa.
Data transferring from Excel files to data frame and vice versa.
Data transferring from SQLite to data frame and vice versa.
19 Python GUI Programming 201
Introduction to TKinter
GUI Components
Label, Button, Entry Box, Textbox, Frame, Dialog, Windows,Radio,
Checkbok
Event & Event Handling
20 Database Connectivity In Python 222
Database
Database Interface
Phythons Database API
Python Database Programming Using MySQL
Python Database Programming Using ORACLE
 Handling errors in Database Programming
21 The Python Library 223
Overview of the Python Library
Most Useful Library Sections
22 101 Python Programs 243

Chapter 1
Getting Started with Python
Python is an open source, high-level programming language developed by Guido van Rossum in the late
1980s and presently administered by Python Software Foundation. It came from the ABC language that he
helped create early on in his career.

Python is an interpreted language. This means that every time a program is run, its interpreter runs through
the code and translates the codes into machine-readable byte code.
Python is an object-oriented language that allows users to manage and control data structures or objects to
create and run programs. Everything in Python is, infact,jirst class. All objects, data types, junctions, meth­
ods, and classes take equal position in Python.

The official introduction to Python is

Python is an easy to learn, powerful programming language. It has efficient high-level data structures and a
simple but effective approach to object-oriented programming. Pythons elegant syntax and dynamic typing,
together with its interpreted nature, make it an ideal language for scripting and rapid application develop­
ment in many areas on most platforms.

It is a high-level language. Reading and writing codes in Python is much like reading and writing simple
regular English statements. Python is a powerful language that you can use to create games, write GUIs,
and develop web applications.

History of Python
Python language was developed by Guido van Rossum in the late eighties and early nineties at
the National Research Institute for Mathematics and Computer Science in the Netherlands.

Python is derived from many other languages, including Modula-3, ABC, C, C+

+, Algol-68, SmallTalk, and UNIX shell and other scripting languages.
Python is copyrighted. Like Perl, Python source code is now available
under the GNU General Public License (GPL).

Python is now maintained by a core development team at the institute, although

Guido van Rossum still holds a major role in directing its development.

Python is implemented in C, and relies on the extensive, well understood, portable C libraries. It fits seam­
lessly with Unix, Linux and POSIX environments. Since these standard C libraries are widely available for
the various MS-Windows variants, and other non-POSIX operating systems, Python runs similarly in all
environments.

Evolution of Python

The development of Python occurred at a time when many other dynamic (and open-source) program­
ming languages such as Tel, Perl, and (much later) Ruby were also being actively developed and gaining
popularity.

Version 1 of Python : Python 1.0 was released in January 1994. The major release included a number of
new features and functional programming tools including lambda, filter, map and reduce.

Version 2 of Python: In October 2000, Python 2.0 was released with the new list comprehension feature
and a garbage collection system. The Python Software Foundation has already announced that there
would be no Python 2.8. However, the Foundation will provide support to version 2.7 of the programming
language till 2020.

Version 3 of Python : Python 3.0 was released in December 2008. It came with a several new features
and enhancements, along with a number of deprecated features. The deprecated features and backward
incompatibility make version 3 of Python completely different from earlier versions. So many Python
developers still use Python 2.6 or 2.7 to avail the features deprecated from last major release.

As Python 3 is backward incompatible, the programmers cannot access features like string exceptions, old-
style classes, and implicit relative imports. Also, the developers must be familiar with changes made to
syntax and APIs. They can use a tool called 2to3 to migrate their application from Python 2 to 3 smoothly.
The tool highlights incompatibility and areas of concern through comments and warnings. The comments
help programmers to make changes to the code, and upgrade their existing applications to the latest ver­
sion of programming language.

The version 2 and version 3 of Python are completely different from each other. So each programmer must
understand the features of these distinct versions, and compare their functionality based on specific needs
of the project. Also, he needs to check the version of Python that each framework supports. However, each
developer must take advantage of the latest version of Python to avail new features and long-term support.
The difference between
"Python Implementation" vs. "Python distribution" vs. Python

Python itself is a programming language as per the behavior defined by the documentation available on
python.org. Anything that does what that documentation says it's supposed to do would "count" as being
Python....

An implementation of Python is an actual program that provides the behavior defined by the documenta­
tion available on python.org. It has various implementations which allow you to run programs written in
it. To give you a better idea, msvc, clang, gcc are implementations of C. Here are some python implementa­
tions:
 • CPython: this is the default, and what you should be using if you have no idea.
• Jython: implementation in java, allows you to use the java api.
• IronPython: implementation for .net, allows you to use the .net api.
• PyPy: JIT implementation.

A distribution of Python is a bundle that contains an implementation of Python along with a bunch of
libraries or tools or packages. In theory, a distribution of Python could use any implementation, although
all the ones I know of use CPython. The download from python.org could also be considered a distribution
(a minimal distribution that doesn't contain any "extras").

In practice, most people using Python for practical purposes are using CPython (the de facto standard
implementation), so the real choice is among different distributions of that. Among those, you mainly
choose based on what extras you want to come with it. You can choose to use the "bare" distribution from
python.org and then install packages yourself, or if you plan on doing scientific/analytics computing, you
could choose one of the distributions geared towards that (e.g., Anaconda or Canopy).
Features/Advantages of Using Python Language

The features/advantages of Python language are as follows;

1. Interpreted Language - as well as also compiled to bytecode. Modules are automatically compiled
(to .pyc) when imported as well as also be explicitly compiled as per the requirement. It facilitates an inter­
active command line and interpreter shell.

2. Object Oriented Language - Almost everything is an object in this language. It supports Data hiding,
Multiple inheritance, Interfaces and polymorphism.

3. Runs across different platforms - Python works on Windows, Linux/UNIX, Mac OS X, other operating
systems and small-form devices as well as it also runs on microcontrollers used in appliances, toys, remote
controls, embedded devices, and other similar devices.
4. Highly Structured Language - Statements, functions, classes, modules, and packages enable us to write
large, well structured applications so that to have the feature of readability, locate ability, modifiability.

5. Higher Productive Language - Pythons codes are considerably shorter, simpler, and less verbose than
other high-level programming languages such as Java and C++. In addition, it has well-designed built-in
features and standard library as well as access to third party modules and source libraries. These features
enable programming in Python more efficient.

6. Dynamic Language - It is dynamic language as types are bound to values, not to variables, function and
method lookup is done at runtime, values are inspectable and we can list the methods supported by any
given object.

7. Strongly Typed Language - at runtime rather than compile time. Objects (values) have a type, but vari­
ables do not have in this language.

8. Embedding and Extending Language - Python provides a well documented and supported way
(1) to embed the Python interpreter in C/C++ applications and
(2) to extend Python with modules and objects implemented in C/C++.
Cython enables us to generate C code from Python and to "easily" create wrappers for C/C++ functions.
To embed and extend Python with Java, there is Jython.

9. Reasonably High level - It contains high level builtin data types as well as high level control structures.

10. Less Learning Time - Python is relatively easy to learn as compare to other languages. Python is a a
good to first language for learning programming because it uses simple syntax and shorter codes.

Limitations/Disadvantages of Python Language

Python has varied advantageous features, and programmers prefer this language to other programming
languages because it is easy to learn and code too. But, this language has still not made its place in some
computing arenas that includes Enterprise Development houses. Therefore, this language may not solve
some of the enterprise solutions, and limitations include-

1. Difficulty in Using Other Languages

The Python lovers become so accustomed to its features and its extensive libraries, so they face problem in
learning or working on other programming languages. Python experts may see the declaring of cast values
or variable types, syntactic requirements of adding curly braces or semi colons as an onerous task.

2. Weak Language in Mobile Computing

Python has made its presence on many desktop and server platforms, but it is seen as a weak language for
mobile computing. That is why very few mobile applications are built in it like Carbonnelle.
3. Gets Slow in Speed
Python executes with the help of an interpreter instead of the compiler, which causes it to slow down
because compilation and execution help it to work normally. On the other hand, it can be seen that it is fast
for many web applications too.

4. Run-time Errors
The Python language is dynamically typed so it has many design restrictions that are reported by some
Python developers. It is even seen that it requires more testing time, and the errors show up when the ap­
plications are finally run.

5. Underdeveloped Database Access Layers

As compared to the popular technologies like JDBC and ODBC, the Pythons database access layer is found to
be bit underdeveloped and primitive. It cannot be applied in the enterprises that need smooth interaction
of complex legacy data.

Varieties of Python Language:

Jython Python for the Java environment http://www.jython.org/

PyPy Python with a JIT compiler and stackless mode http://pypy.org/
CPython Standard Python 2.xx implemented in C.
Stackless Python with enhanced thread support and microthreads etc.
http://www.stackless.com/
 IronPython Python for .NET and the CLR http://ironpython.net/
Python 3 The new, new Python. This is intended as a replacement for Python
2.x. http://www.python.org/doc/

Some Jargon

For folks new to developing software, it might help to understand a few distinctions made above.
Interpreted
Not Interpreted (i.e., Compiled)

Python is a byte-code interpreter. A Python code object is a sequence of bytes that represent various opera­
tions and values. The Python interpreter steps through the bytes, performing the operations.

A compiled language (e.g., C, C++, etc.) is translated from source form to executable binary specific to oper­
ating system and hardware platform.
Java is similar to Python: its compiled and the Java Virtual Machine is a byte-code interpreter.
Dynamic
Not Dynamic (i.e., Static)
Python is a dynamic language. Variables and functions do not have defined data types. Instead, a variable
is simply a label attached to an object. A function is a callable object with parameters, but no declared result
type. Each object has a strongly-defined permanent class.
There is no sophisticated compile-time type checking. Instead, any type mismatches will be detected at
run-time. Since many types are nearly interchangeable, there isnt a need for a lot of type checking. For ex­
amples of interchangeable (polymorphic) types, see Simple Numeric Expressions and Output.
Languages like C, C++ and Java have statically-declared variables and functions.
Scripting
Non-Scripting

The scripting distinction is an operational feature of POSIX-compliant operating systems. Files which
begin with the #!/path/to/interpreter will be used as scripts by the OS. They can be executed from the com­
mand-line because the interpreter is named in the first line of the file.

Languages like Java, C and C++ do not have this feature; these files must be compiled before they can be
executed.

Chapter 2
Installing Python
Installing Python in Windows

To install Python, you must first download the installation package of your preferred version from this
link:

https://www.python.org/downloads/

On this page, you will be asked to choose the recent versions for Python 3.11.x/3.12.x which was released
on 8th Feb 2023. Alternatively, if you are looking for a specific release, either Python 2 or 3, you can scroll
down the page to find download links for earlier versions.

python i
About Downloads Documentation Community

Download the latest version for Windows

Download Python 3.11.2

Looking for Python with a different OS? Python for Windows,

Linux/UNIX, macOS, Other

Want to help test development versions of Python? Prereleases,

Docker images
You would normally opt to download the latest version, which is Python 3.12.x. However, you may opt for the latest
version of Python 2, 2.7.18. Your preferences will usually depend on which version will be most usable for your
curriculum / project. While Python 3 is the present and future of the language, issues such as third party utility or
compatibility may require you to download Python 2.

Run the downloaded file. This brings up the Python install wizard, which is really easy to use. Just accept
the default settings, wait until the install is finished, and you are done.

£* Python 3.11.2 (64-bit) Setup

Install Python 3.11.2 (64-bit)

Select Install Now to install Python with default settings, or choose
Customize to enable or disable features.

—> Install Now

C:\Users\vignan\AppData\Local\Programs\Python\Python311

Includes IDLE, pip and documentation

Creates shortcuts and file associations

—> Customize installation

Choose location and features

python Use admin privileges when installing py.exe

for
0 Add python.exe to PATH Cancel
windows
Note that depending on your needs, you may also check the box to add Python to the Path. It will inform the
python file installer that the executable python path folder will be added to the environment variable with
the name of ‘Path’.

Finally, if the installation process is a success, the following window will appear:
£• Python 3.10.5 (64-bit) Setup

Setup was successful

New to Python? Start with the online tutorial and
documentation. At your terminal type "py" to launch Python,
or search for Python in your Start menu.

See what's new in this release, or find more info about using
Python on Windows.

S Disable path length limit

Changes your machine configuration to allow programs, including Python, to
bypass the 260 character "MAX-PATH'' limitation.

python
for
windows Close

Windows Configuration (Optional)

Windows users will need to be sure that python.exe is on their PATH. This is done with the System control
panel. Click on the Advanced tab. Click on the Environment Variables... button. Click on the System vari­
ables Path line, and click the Edit... button. This will often have a long list of items, sometimes starting
with %SystemRoot%. At the end of this list, add and the direction location of Python.exe. On my ma­
chine, I put it in D:\Softwares\Python\.

For Windows programmers, the windows command interpreter uses the last letters of the file name to
associate a file with an interpreter. You can have Windows run the python.exe program whenever you dou­
ble-click a .py file. This is done with the Folder Options control panel. The File Types tab allows you to pair
a file type with a program that processes the file.

Follow the below steps to add Python Path to Environment Variables.

Step 1: Click on Start Button and Open the Run Program.

Step 2: Now type sysdm.cpl and click OK. This opens the System Properties Dialog Box.
Step 3: Go to Advanced Tab and and Click on Environment Variables.
Step 4: In the System Variable section, Select the path variable.
Step 5: Click on Edit button and add python path to variable value.
Step 6: Click OK.

You can get your python path in the folder where you have installed python. Example - for us it D:\Soft-
wares\Python\
How to Test the Python in Microsoft Windows

The last part, it will display on how to test the result of the python installation in the previous part. It is
actually very simple as it exist in the following steps:
As usual, just execute the Command Prompt.
Following after, type the command below to test whether ‘python’ is available and it is exist in the environ­
ment variable of ‘Path’:

C:\Users\Personal>python
Python 3.11.2 (tags/v3.11.2:f377153, Jun 6 2022,16:14:13) [MSC v.1929 64 bit (AMD64)] on Win32
Type "help", "copyright", "credits" or "license" for more information.
>>>

Last but not least, just perform another test to make sure. The following test is executing a certain com­
mand to check the version of the installed python as follows :

C:\Users\Personal>python -V
Python 3.11.2
C:\Users\Personal>

As it appear in the output of the above command execution, the version is matched. It is python with the
version of‘3.11.2’.

Python Editors
 > Vim http://www.vim.org/
> Emacs See http://www.gnu.org/software/emacs/
> SciTE http://www.scintilla.org/SciTE.html.
> MS Windows only
(1) TextPad http://www.textpad.com;
(2) UltraEdit http://www.ultraedit.com/.
> Jed See http://www.jedsoft.org/jed/.
> jEdit Requires a bit of customization for Python See http://jedit.org.
> Geany http://www.geany.org/

Interactive Interpreters:
> python
> ipython
> Idle IDEs

Integrated Development Environments for Python:

> PyWin MS Windows only. Available at: http://sourceforge.net/projects/pywin3 2/
> Kdevelop Linux/KDE See http://www.kdevelop.org/
> Eric Linux KDE? See http://ericide.pythonprojects.org/index.html
> WingIDE See http://wingware.com/wingide/
> Eclipse http://eclipse.org/ There is a plug in that supports Python.
> Emacs and SciTE will evaluate a Python buffer within the editor.
Whats new in Python 3.11.x

This new version of Python mainly focuses on improving the performance of the language. A few nice features
around exception handling and error display should also improve the development experience.

1. Improved performance

On average, a 25% performance gain compared to Python 3.11 is announced. Some operations are even up to 60%
faster than the latest version. The start-up time is reduced by 10% on average.
The measurements were performed with performance using CPython compiled with GCC under Ubuntu.

The performance gain comes mainly from the specialization of some instructions when the calls to a code are repet­
itive. The fact that the code repeats itself without necessarily changing allows the interpreter to analyze the running
code and replace the generic code with type-specific pieces.
Another improvement comes from reducing the number of calls to the system memory in favor of allocating more
space. If these performance gains are always good to take, they do not turn Python into an efficient programming
language.

An increase in memory consumption of around 20% is anticipated following the implementation of these changes on
CPython.
Further performance gains are already planned in versions 3.12 and later.

2. Better exception handling

Special work has been done on error management. It is now possible to add annotations on exceptions.

try:
raise ExceptionGroup("Exception Group", (
TypeErrorf'Type error"),
KeyError("Key error"),
ValueError("Value error"),
except* (ValueError, TypeError) as exc:
exc.add_note("Add more information about the error")
raise exc

except* KeyError as exc:

raise exc
Similarly, a new syntax is emerging. It is now possible to create groups of exceptions and break down the use of except
to catch certain exceptions contained in a group.

3. A more accurate traceback

The error messages returned by Python are now more precise and include the position of the error on the faulty line
of code. This function is very similar to what other modern languages can offer.
+--------------------------
I Traceback (most recent call last):
I File "test.py", line 5, in test
I assertx < 0
|AAAAAAAAAAAA

I AssertionError: assert 0 < 0

+--------------------------

4. Improved typing
As we know, Python is a dynamically typed language, which is not always appreciated by developers. The latest
Python updates have already started the integration of an optional type system. This release continues that trend by
adding more types like Self, Literalstring, Required, and NotRequired.

from typing import Self

class Foo:
def _init_ (self, x: str):
self.x = x

def bar(self, y: str) -> Self:

return Foo(y)

5. An update to the standard library

The standard Python library is not left out and is experiencing some changes.

TOML
First of all, the tomllib module is added to the standard library to parse TOML. This addition follows support for the
pyproject.toml file, added in a previous version of Python.
This library remains limited in terms of functionalities and has only one purpose: file parsing.

import tomllib
with open("pyproject.toml", "rb") as f:
data = tomllib.load(f)
print(data["project"]["name"])

AsyncIO
The asyncio library is also entitled to an update with the addition of Task Group to replace the use of the .gather()
method on asynchronous operations.
import asyncio
async def task 1():
print("Foo")
await asyncio.sleep(5)

async def task2():

print("Bar")
await asyncio.sleep(2)

async def main():

try:
async with asyncio.TaskGroupO as task_group:
task_group.create_task(task 1 ())
task_group.create_task(task2())
except* ValueError as exc:
print(exc.exceptions)

if_ name_ == "__ main_

asyncio.run(main())
This update makes the syntax more pleasant, but does not bring any other major changes to the library.

StrEnum

The StrEnum makes an appearance. It allows to automatically convert a character string into an Enum.

from enum import StrEnum, auto

class Foo(StrEnum):
BAR = auto()
print(Foo.BAR.value) # "bar"

Path
The Path.glob() method of pathlib now allows you to specify whether you only want to retrieve folders.

from pathlib import Path

p = Path("/Users/foobar/")
everything = p.glob("*")
dirs = p.glob("7")

6. Miscellaneous deprecation

Finally, this version brings a background cleanup and removes support for many legacy modules: aifc, chunk, msilib,
pipes, telnetlib, audioop, crypt, nis, sndhdr, uu, cgi, imghdr, nntplib, spwd, xdrlib, cgitb, mailcap, ossaudiodev,
sunau...

Some of these modules will not be removed from the standard library until Python 3.13. Others will simply be re­
placed by alternative solutions, more modern and better maintained, already present in the standard library.

In conclusion, if this update does not bring anything revolutionary, it continues the Python projects already launched
with regard to the improvement of the performances of CPython, the improvement of the error management and the
addition of solutions for typing requested by part of the community.

Chapter 3
Interacting with Python
Python is a flexible and dynamic language that you can use in different ways. You can use it interactively
when you simply want to test a code or a statement on a line-by-line basis or when youre exploring its
features. You can use it in script mode when you want to interpret an entire file of statements or applica­
tion program.
To use Python interactively, you can use either the Command Line window or the IDLE Development
Environment.

Command Line Interaction

The command line is the most straightforward way to work with Python. You can easily visualize how
Python works as it responds to every completed command entered on the

> > > prompt. It may not be the most preferred interaction with Python, but it is the simplest way to explore
how Python works.

Running Python
There are three different ways to start Python -
1. Interactive Interpreter
From Windows
Start-> All Programs -> Python 3.11 -> Python 3.11
2. Script from the Command-line
A Python script can be executed at command line by invoking the interpreter on your application, as in the
following -
C: >python script.py

3. Integrated Development Environment

You can run Python from a Graphical User Interface (GUI) environment as well, if you have a GUI applica­
tion on your system that supports Python.
Windows - PythonWin is the first Windows interface for Python and is an IDE with a GUL
From Windows
Start-> All Programs -> Python 3.11 -> IDLE
Note: If youre using GNU/Linux, UNIX, and Mac OS systems, you have to run the Terminal Tool and enter
the Python command to start your session.

We use commands to tell the computer what to do. When you want Python to do something for you, you
have to instruct it by entering commands that it is familiar with. Python will then translate these com­
mands to instructions that your computer or device can understand and execute.

To see how Python works, you can use the print command to print the universal program Hello, World!
Open Pythons command line.
At the >>>prompt, type the following: print(Hello, World!)
Press enter to tell Python that youre done with your command. Very quickly, the command line window
will display Hello, World! on the following line:

Type "help", "copyright", "credits" or "license" for more information.

»> print(”hello”>
hello
»>
Python responded correctly because you gave it a command in a format that it requires. To see how it
responds when you ask it to print the same string using a wrong syntax for the print command, type and
enter the following command on the Python command prompt:
Print(Hello, World!)
This is how Python will respond:
Syntax error: invalid syntax

Youll get syntax error messages whenever you enter invalid or incomplete statements. In this case, you
typed print with a capital letter which is a big no to a case-sensitive language like Python.

If youre just using Python interactively, you can do away with the print command entirely by just typing
your statement within quotes such as Hello, World!

Getting Help
Python has two closely-related help modes. One is the general help utility, the other is a help function that
provides the documentation on a specific object, module, function or class.

The help() Utility

Help is available through the help() function.
If you enter just help() you will enter the online help utility. This help utility allows you to explore the
Python documentation.
The interaction looks like this:
> > > help
Type help() for interactive help, or help(object) for help about object.
>>> help()

Help on a specific topic

If you enter help( object) for some object, you will be given help on that specific object. This help is dis­
played using a help viewer.
Youll enter something like this:
»> help("EXPRESSIONS")

Exiting Python
To exit from Python, you can type any of these commands:
quit()
exit()
Control-Z then press enter

IDLE: Pythons Integrated Development Environment (IDE)

The IDLE (Integrated Development and Learning Environment) tool is included in Pythons installation
package but you can choose to download more sophisticated third party IDEs.
The IDLE tool offers a more efficient platform to write your code and work interactively with Python. You
can access IDLE on the same folder where you found the command line icon or on the start menu. As soon
as you click on the IDLE icon, it will take you to the Python Shell window.
You can run a code in Python via the Python IDLE.
A quick way to find your Python IDLE on Windows is by clicking on the Start menu. You should then see the
IDLE under “Recently added”.

Recently added

|L IDLE (Python 3.9 64-bit)

|L Python 3.9 Module Docs (64-bit)

B? Python 3.9 Manuals (64-bit)

Once you click on the Python IDLE, you’ll see the Shell screen.

The Python Shell Window

The Python Shell Window has dropdown menus and a > > > prompt that you have seen earlier in the com­
mand line window. Here you can type and enter statements or expressions for evaluation in the same way
that you used the command line earlier. This time however, IDLES editing menu allows you to scroll back to
your previous commands, cut, copy, and paste previous statements and make modifications. IDLE is quite
a leap from the command line interaction.

The Python Shell window has the following menu items: File, Edit, Shell, Debug, Options, Windows, and
Help.
Python 3.9.0 Shell — □ X
File Edit Shell Debug Options Window Help
Pychon 3.9.0 (cags/v3.9.O:9cf6752, Oct 5 2020, 15:34:40) [MSC v.1927
64 bit (AMD64)] on Win32
Type "help", "copyright", "credits" or "license()" for more informati
on .
»> I

Ln: 3 Col: 4
The Shell and Debug menus provide capabilities you would find useful when creating larger programs.

The Shell menu allows you to restart the shell or search the shells log to find the most recent reset.
The Debug Menu has useful menu items for tracing the source file of an exception and highlighting the
erring line. The Debugger option will usher in an interactive debugger window that will allow you to step
through the running program. The Stack Viewer option displays the current Python stack through a new
window.

The Options menu allows you to configure IDLE to suit your Python working preferences.

The Help menu opens Python Help and documentation.

The File Menu

The items on the File menu allows you to create a new file, open an old file, open a module, and/or save your
session. When you click on the New File option, you will be taken to a new window, a simple and standard
text editor where you can type or edit your code. Initially, this file window is named untitled but its name
will soon change as you save your code.

The windows menu bar varies only slightly with the Shell Window. It doesnt have the Shell and Debug
menu found in the Shell Window but it introduces two new menus: the Run and the Format menu. When
you choose to Run your code on the file window, you can see the output on the Shell Window.

The Script Mode

When working in script mode, you wont automatically see results the way you would in interactive mood.
To see an output from a script, youll have to run the script and/or invoke the print() function within your
code.
Python 3.9.0 Shell — □ X
File | Edit Shell Debug Options Window Help

New File Ctrl*N :9cf6752, Oct 5 2020, 15:34:40) [MSC v.1927

Open... Ctrl+O
_ .... ... .. "credits" or "license ()" for more informati
Open Module... Alt+M
Recent Files ►
Module Browser Alt*C
Path Browser

Save Ctrl+S
Save As... Ctrl*Shift*S
Save Copy As... Alt*Shift*S

Print Window Ctrl+P

Close Alt*F4
Exit Ctrl+Q

Click on File and then select New File (alternatively, you may use the keyboard shortcut of Ctrl+N):
You would now see the following “untitled” box, where you can type your Python code:
 j untitled X
File Edit Format Run Options Window Help

For example, type/copy the command below. This command will print the famous expression of Hello World”
print ("Hello World")
This is how the syntax would look like in the “untitled” box:
 “untitled* — OX
File Edit Format Run Options Window Help
print ("Hello World") a

Ln: 16 Col: 0

Press F5 on your keyboard. You will then get the following message to save your code:

Save Before Run or Check

Source Must Be Saved

OK to Save?

Cancel
 Once you’re done, press Save, and you’ll then see the “Hello World” expression printed on your Python Shell:

4 Python 3.9.0 Shell

File Edit Shell Debug Options Window Help

Hello World

Chapter 4
Python Syntax
Python Coding Style:
• Use spaces per indentation and no tabs.
• Do not mix tabs and spaces. Tabs create confusion and it is recommended to use only spaces.

• Maximum line length: 79 characters which help users with a small display.

• Use blank lines to separate top-level function and class definitions and single blank line to
separate methods definitions inside a class and larger blocks of code inside functions.
 • When possible, put inline comments (should be complete sentences).

• Use spaces around expressions and statements.

Python syntax refers to the set of rules that defines how human users and the system should write and
interpret a Python program. If you want to write and run your program in Python, you must familiarize
yourself with its syntax.

Python provides no braces to indicate blocks of code for class and function definitions or flow control.
Blocks of code are denoted by line indentation, which is rigidly enforced.

Indentation

While most programming languages such as Java, C, and C++ use braces to denote blocks of code, Python
programs are structured through indentation. In Python, blocks of codes are defined by indentation not
as a matter of style or preference but as a rigid language requirement. This principle makes Python codes
more readable and understandable.

A block of code can be easily identified when you look at a Python program as they start on the same
distance to the right. If it has to be more deeply nestled, you can simply indent another block further to the
right. For example, here is a segment of a program defining car_rental_cost:
def car_rental_cost(days):
cost =35 *days
if days >= 8:
cost-= 70
elif days > = 3:
cost-= 20
 return cost
You have to make sure that the indent space is consistent within a block. When you use IDLE and other
IDEs to input your codes, Python intuitively provides indentation on the subsequent line when you enter a
statement that requires indentation. Indentation, by convention, is equivalent to 4 spaces to the right.

The number of spaces in the indentation is variable, but all statements within the block must be indented
the same amount. For example -
if True:
print "True"
else:
print "False"

Keywords

Python keywords are reserved words in Python that should not be used as variable, constant, function
name, or identifier in your code. Take note of these keywords if you dont want to run into errors when you
execute your program:
and assert raise
break class try
continue def with
del elif True
else except None
exec finally return
for from while
 Another Random Document on
Scribd Without Any Related Topics
[651] Calvin, Hist. de l'Esprit des Cordeliers d'Orléans. Geneva
MS. (Bulletin de l'Histoire du Protestantisme Français, iii.) Beza,
Hist. Eccles. p. 11. Sleidan, i. p. 361.
[652] Calvin's MS. Bulletin de l'Hist. du Prot. Fran. iii. p. 36.
[653] Lutheri Opp. xxii. p. 1463.
[654] History of the Reformation of the Sixteenth Century,
vol. ii. bk. viii. ch. ii.
 CHAPTER XXXVI.
FRANCIS PROPOSES A REFORMATION TO THE SORBONNE.

(Autumn 1534.)

=FRANCIS CONFESSES HIS ERRORS.=

T HE disgust inspired by the imposture of the cordeliers of Orleans,

and the jests lavished upon the monks in the Louvre and
throughout Paris, were further encouragements to the king to
prosecute his alliances with protestantism. He had, however, little
need of a fresh incentive; the reform proposed by Melanchthon was
in his view acceptable and advantageous, because it diminished the
power of the pope, and corrected abuses incompatible with the new
light, at the same time that it left untouched that catholicism from
which the king had no desire to secede. In his private conversations
with Du Bellay, Francis, laying aside all reserve, acknowledged
frankly that the Romish Church was upon the wrong track, and said
in a confidential tone, that 'Luther was not so far wrong as people
said.' He did not fear to add that it was himself rather who had been
mistaken. The King of France, and the country along with him, thus
appeared to be in a good way for reform.
Francis determined to acquaint the protestant princes with his
sentiments on Melanchthon's memoir. 'My envoy, on his return to
Paris,' he wrote, 'having laid before me the opinions of your doctors
on the course to be pursued, I entertain a hope of seeing the affairs
of religion enter upon a fair way at last.'[655] Du Bellay, well satisfied
on his part with the impression made on his master by the opinions
of the evangelical divines, informed the magistrates of Augsburg,
Ulm, Nuremberg, Meiningen, and other imperial cities, that the King
of France approved of the Lutheran doctrines, and would protect the
protestants. The Melanchthonian reformation was therefore in
progress, and already men were preparing the stones for the edifice
of the reformed Catholic Church. The French government did not
confine itself to writing letters; but, strange to say! the sovereign,
the absolute monarch, did not fear to make an acknowledgment of
his errors, and to express his regret: he sent a thorough palinode
into Germany. He who was putting the Lutherans to death was not
far from declaring himself a Lutheran. In October and November
1534, an agent from Francis I. visited the cities of the Germanic
empire, announcing everywhere that 'the king now saw his mistake
in religious matters,'[656] and that the Germans who followed Luther
thought correctly as regards the faith that is in Christ.[657] The
worthy burgomasters and councillors of Germany were amazed at
such language, and looked at one another with an incredulous air;
but the French envoy assured them repeatedly that the King of
France desired a reform even in his own country.... 'The emperor,' he
added, 'wishes to constrain the protestants by force of arms to keep
to the old doctrine; but the King of France will not permit it. He has
sent me into Germany to form an alliance with you to that intent.'
Such was the strange news circulated beyond the Rhine. It reached
the ears of the Archbishop of Lunden, who immediately forwarded it
to Charles V.
When Francis I. annulled the pragmatic sanction at the beginning
of his reign, he had reserved the right of appointing bishops, and
had thus made the Church subordinate to the State. The time
seemed to have arrived for taking a second step. It was necessary to
put an end to the popish superstitions and abuses, condemned by
the friends of letters, whose patron he claimed to be, and thus
satisfy the protestants; and, by a wise reform, maintain in Europe
the catholicity of the Church, which the popes were about to destroy
by their incredible obstinacy. The king would thus appear to be a
better guardian of European catholicism than even the pope, and
secure for himself that European preponderance which Charles V.
had hitherto possessed.
=FRENCH VERSION OF THE ARTICLES.=
 He must set his hand to the work and begin with the clergy. The
king, seeing that it would be unwise to communicate to them
unreservedly the opinions of the reformers, as they had been read at
the Louvre, resolved to have a new edition of them prepared, which
should contain the essential ideas. It would appear that he confided
this task to a numerous commission.[658] William du Bellay and his
brother the Bishop of Paris were doubtless the two chief members.
The commissioners set to work, correcting, suppressing, adding,
hitting certain popular superstitions a little harder even than the
reformers, and at length they prepared a memoir which may be
considered as a statement of what the French government meant by
the proposed reformation.[659] The changes made by the French
excited much discontent among the German protestants, and
Melanchthon himself complained of them bitterly.[660]
The king, who carried into every pursuit the courage and fire of
which he had given so many proofs on the field of battle, appeared
at first to attack the papacy with the same resolution that he would
have employed in attacking one of Charles's armies. It must be
clearly remembered that, in his idea, the reform which he was
preparing carried with it the cessation of schism, and that his plan
would restore the catholicity torn to pieces by Roman insolence and
imprudence. This remark, if duly weighed, justifies the king's
boldness. He sent the project to Rome, we are assured, asking the
pope to support or to amend it.[661] We may imagine the alarm of the
Vatican on reading this heretical memoir. Then Du Bellay, taking the
Sorbonne in hand, had a conference with the deputies of that
illustrious body, whose whole influence was ever employed in
maintaining the factitious unity that characterises the papacy.
'Gentlemen,' he said to them, 'by the king's commands I have
endeavoured to prevail upon the German churches to moderate the
doctrines on which they separated from the Roman Church, wishing
thus to lead them back to union. By order, therefore, of my master, I
hand you the present articles, to receive instruction from you as to
what I shall have to say to the German doctors.'[662] The deputies
having received the paper from Du Bellay, forwarded it to the sacred
faculty. The latter delegated to examine it 'eminent men, doctors of
experience in such matters,'[663] who immediately set to work.
=TERROR OF THE SORBONNE.=
The secretary of the Sorbonne began to read the articles: the
doctors listened and soon began to look at each other and ask if
they had heard correctly. The venerable committee was agitated like
the surface of the sea by a sudden squall. They knew Francis; they
knew he did not think there existed in his kingdom any society
daring enough to set limits to his power. He expected that a word
from his mouth would be considered as a decree from God. The
doctors came to the conclusion, therefore, that if the king desired
such a reform, nothing in the world could prevent him from
establishing it. They saw the Church laid waste, and Rome in
ruins.... It was the beginning of the end. Their terror and alarm
increased every minute. All the sacred faculty, all the Church must
rise and exclaim: 'Stop, Sire, or we perish!'
The French autocrat, however, took his precautions, and even
while meditating how he could strip the pope of his power, he put on
a pleasant face, and ascribed to others the blows aimed by his
orders against Rome. 'They are Melanchthonian articles,' said his
ministers.[664] True, but behind Melanchthon was Du Bellay, and
behind him was the king. The tactics employed at this moment by
Francis I. are of all times; and if the multitude is sometimes
deceived, intelligent minds have always recognised the thoughts of
the supreme mover under the pen of the humble secretary. The
movement of Francis towards independence is in no respect
surprising: the outburst is quite French if it is not christian. There
has always existed in France a spirit of liberty so far as concerns the
Church; and the most pious kings, even St. Louis, have defended the
rights of their people against the holy see. The Gallican liberties,
although they are nothing more than a dilapidated machine, are still
a memorial of something; and what is dilapidated to-day may be
restored to-morrow. It was therefore a truly French feeling,—it was
that hidden chord which vibrates at the bottom of every generous
heart, from the Channel to the Mediterranean Sea, whose
harmonious sound was heard at this important period of the reign of
Francis I.
The venerable company had some difficulty to recover from their
alarm. What! really, not in a dream, not figuratively, heresy is at the
gates of the Church of France, introduced by the king ... who
courteously offers her his hand!... The terrified Sorbonne raised a
cry of horror, and mustered all their forces to prevent the heretic
from entering. They turned over the volumes of the doctors; they
opposed the Summa of St. Thomas to the Epistles of St. Paul; they
sought by every means in their power to defend stoutly the
scholastic doctrine in the presence of Francis. A fireship had been
launched by the guilty hand of the king: did that prince imagine he
would see the glorious vessel, which had so long been mistress of
the seas, in a hurry to lower her flag? The crew were valiant,
determined upon a deadly resistance, and ready to blow themselves
into the air with the ship, rather than capitulate. The struggle
between the king and the corporation was about to begin. Alas!
Beda was no longer there to support them, and recourse must be
had to others. 'Master Balue was elected to go to court, carrying the
registers, and Master Jacques Petit was given him as his
associate.'[665] The Sorbonne was poor in resources: the strong men
were in the camp of Luther, Calvin, and Melanchthon.
=THE MINISTERS AND THE SORBONNE.=
What was said at court between Master Balue, Master Petit, and
the King of France, has not been recorded; but we have the memoir
sent by the king to the Sorbonne, and the answer returned by that
body to the king. These documents may enlighten us as to what
passed at the conference, and we shall allow them to speak for
themselves, arranging the former under the name of the king's
ministers. William du Bellay, his brother the Bishop of Paris, and
others probably were the persons empowered by the king to confer
with Master Balue and Master Jacques Petit. They were champions
of very different causes—the men who then met, probably at the
Louvre, in the presence of Francis I., and whom we are about to
hear.

The King's Ministers.

'To establish a real concord in the Church of God, we must all of
us first look at Christ; we must subject ourselves to him, and seek
his glory, not our own.'[666]

Sorbonne.
'We have heard his Majesty's good and holy words, for which we
all thank God, praying him to give the king grace to persevere.'[667]
This was doubtless a mere compliment.

~QUESTIONS DISCUSSED.~

Ministers.
'Above all things, let us remember that the doctors of the Word of
God ought not to fight like gladiators, and defend all their opinions
mordicus (tooth and nail);[668] but rather, imitating St. Augustin in his
Retractations, they should be willing to give way a little to one
another ... without prejudice to truth.'

Sorbonne.
'Open your eyes, Sire; the Germans desire, in opposition to your
catholic intention, that we should give way to them by retrenching
certain ceremonies and ordinances which the Church has hitherto
observed. They wish to draw us to them, rather than be converted
to us.'[669]

Ministers.
 'You are mistaken: important concessions have been obtained.
The Germans are of opinion that bishops must hold the chief place
among the ministers of the Churches, and that a pontiff at Rome
should hold the first place among the bishops. But, on the other
hand, the pontifical power must have respect for consciences,
consult their wants, and be ready to concede to them some
relaxation.'[670]

Sorbonne.
'It must not be forgotten that the ecclesiastical hierarchy is of
divine institution, and will last until the end of time; that man can
neither establish nor destroy it, and that every christian must submit
to it.'[671]

Ministers.
'Having established the catholicity of the Church, let us consider
what reforms must be effected in order to preserve it. First, there
are indifferent matters, such as food, festivals, ecclesiastical
vestments, and other ceremonials, on which we shall easily come to
an understanding. Let us beware of constraining men to fast by
commandments which nobody observes ... and least of all those
who make them.'[672]

Sorbonne.

'None resist them but men corrupted by depraved passions.'[673]

=SAINTS AND MASS-MONGERS.=

Ministers.
'Certain doctors of the Church, making use of a holy prosopopœia,
have introduced into their discourses the saints whom they were
eulogising, and have prayed for their intercession as if they were
present before them;[674] but they only desired by this means to
excite admiration for these godly persons, rather than to obtain
anything by their intercession.... Let the people, then, be exhorted
not to transfer to the saints the confidence which is due to Jesus
Christ alone. It is Christ's will to be invoked and to answer
prayer.'[675]
Here the French mind indulged in a sly hit which would not have
occurred to the German mind; and the king's councillors,
determining to strike hard, continued:
'What abuses and disorders have sprung out of this worship of
man! Observe the words, the songs, the actions of the people on the
saints' days, near their graves or near their images! Mark the
eagerness with which the idle crowd hurries off to banquets, games,
dances, and quarrels. Watch the practices of all those paltry,
ignorant, greedy priests, who think of nothing but putting money in
their purses; and then ... tell us whether we do not in all these
things resemble pagans, and revive their shameful superstitions?'[676]
Not a word of this popular description of saints' days will be found
in Melanchthon's memoir: it is entirely the work of Francis and his
councillors.

Sorbonne.
'Let us beware how we forsake ancient customs. Let us address
our prayers directly to the saints who are our patrons and
intercessors under Jesus Christ. To assert that they have not the
prerogative of healing diseases, is in opposition to your Majesty's
personal experience and the gift you have received from God of
curing the king's evil.... Let us also pay our devotions to statues and
images, since the seventh general council commands them to be
adored.'[677]
When the Sorbonne, in order to defend the prerogatives of the
saints, cited the miraculous powers of the king, they employed an
argument to which it was dangerous to reply; and, accordingly, we
find nothing on this point in the answers of the opponents of the
faculty. The discussion, getting off this shoal, turned to the act which
is the essence of the Romish doctrine, and priests were once more
lashed by the royal hand, which was even more skilful at this work
than in curing the evil.

Ministers.
'There ought to be in the Church a living communion of the
members of Christ.[678] But, alas! what do we find there? A crowd of
ignorant and filthy priests, the plague of society, a burden to the
earth, a slothful race who can do nothing but say mass, and who,
while saying it, do not even utter those five intelligible words,
preferable, as St. Paul thinks, to ten thousand words in an unknown
tongue.... We must get rid of these mercenaries, these mass-
mongers, who have brought that holy ceremony into contempt, and
we must supply their place with holy, learned, and experienced men.
[679] Then perhaps the Lord's Supper will recover the esteem it has

lost. Then, instead of an unmeaning babble, we shall have psalms,

and hymns, and spiritual songs. Then we shall sing to the Saviour,
and every tongue will confess that Jesus Christ is the Lord, to the
glory of God the Father.... What false confidence, what wretched
delusion is that which leads so many souls to believe that by
attending mass every day, even when piety is neglected, they are
performing an act useful to themselves and their friends, both for
this life and for that which is to come!'[680]
=THE LORD'S SUPPER.=
The Sorbonne contended for the external mechanism of the
sacramental act, to which their opponents desired to impart a
spiritual and living character, and defended without shame or scruple
the material advantages the clergy derived from it.

Sorbonne.
 'The mass is a real sacrifice, of great benefit to the living and the
dead, and its excellence is founded on the passion of Jesus Christ. It
is right, therefore, to bestow temporal gifts on those who celebrate
it, be they good or bad; and the priests who receive them ought not
to be called mass-mongers, even though they are paid.'[681]
The king's ministers now came to the much disputed doctrine of
the presence of Christ in the communion.

Ministers.

'Let us put aside the disputes that have divided us so long.[682] Let
us all confess that in the eucharist the Lord truly gives believers his
body to eat and his blood to drink to feed our souls in life
everlasting; and that in this manner Christ remains in us and we in
Christ. Whether this sacrament be called the Lord's Supper, the
Lord's bread and wine, mass, eucharist, love-feast, or sacrifice, is of
little moment. Christians ought not to dispute about names, if they
possess the things; and, as the proverb says, "When we have the
bear before us, let us not look after his track."[683] Communion with
Christ is obtained by faith, and cannot be demonstrated by human
arguments. When we treat of theology, let us not fall into
matæology.'[684]
The Sorbonne could not overlook this side-blow aimed at the
scholastic style.

Sorbonne.
'It is very useful, and often very necessary for the extirpation of
heresy, to employ words not to be found in Scripture, such as
transubstantiation, &c.[685] Yes, the bread and the wine are truly
changed in substance, preserving only the accidents, and becoming
the body and blood of Christ. It is not true that the panitas or
corporitas of the bread combines with the corporitas of Christ. The
transubstantiation is effected in instanti and not successivè; and it is
certain that neither laymen nor women can accomplish this
miraculous act, but priests only.'
The controversy next turned on confession, justification, faith,
works, and free-will; after which they came to practical questions.

Ministers.
'Good men do not ask that the monasteries should be destroyed,
but be turned into schools;[686] so that thus the liberality of our
brethren may serve to maintain, not idle people, but men who will
instruct youth in sound learning and morality.'

Sorbonne.
'What! the pope should permit the friars to leave their monasteries
whenever they wish! This clearly shows us that the Germans are
aiming at the overthrow, the ruin of all religion.'[687]

Ministers.
'And what prevents our restoring liberty of marriage to the
ministers of the Church? Did not Bishop Paphnucius acknowledge at
the Nicene council that those who forbid it encourage licentiousness?
In that great crowd of priests and monks it is impossible for purity of
life to be restored otherwise than by the divine institution which
dates from Eden.'[688]

Sorbonne.
'An article quite as dangerous as the secularisation of monks.'
=AN ASSEMBLY OF LAITY AND CLERGY.=

Ministers.
 'In this age, when everything is in a ferment,[689] and when so
many sects are raising their heads in various places, the interest of
the christian Church requires that there should be an assembly
composed not only of priests and theologians, but also of laymen
and upright, sensible, courageous magistrates, who have at heart
the glory of the Lord, public morality, and general usefulness.... Ah!
it would be easy to agree if we thought of Christ's glory rather than
of our own!'[690]
The doctors of the Sorbonne had no great liking for deliberative
assemblies where they would sit with laymen and even with heretics.

Sorbonne.
'Beware! ... it is to be feared that, under the pretext of uniting
with us, the heretics are conspiring to lead the people astray.... Have
we not seen such assemblies in Germany, called together on a
pretence of concord, produce nothing but divisions, discord, and
infinite ruin of souls?'[691]
But the Sorbonne warned the king in vain. Francis at this time,
through policy no doubt, was opposed to the doctrines maintained
by the priests. He desired to be freed at home from that papal
supremacy which presumed to direct the policy and religion of his
kingdom; and abroad he knew that a league with England and
Germany could alone destroy the overwhelming preponderance of
Charles V. And hence the meetings of the Sorbonne grew more and
more agitated; the doctors repeated to one another all the alarming
reports they had heard; there was sorrow and anger; never, they
thought, had Roman-catholicism in France been threatened with
such terrible danger. It was no longer a few obscure sects; no longer
a Brueys, a Henry of Lausanne, a Valdo, Albigenses, or Waldenses,
who attacked the Church: no! powerful states, Germany and
England, were separating from the papacy, and the absolute
monarch of France was endeavouring to introduce revolutionary
principles into his kingdom. The Church, as its Head had once been,
was deserted by its friends. The grandees who were subsequently to
form a league around the Guises, were silent now; the rough and
powerful Montmorency himself seemed dumb; and, accordingly,
agitation and alarm prevailed in the corporation. Certain
ultramontane fanatics proposed petitioning the king to put down
heresy by force, and to uphold the Roman dogmas by fire and
sword. More moderate catholics, observing with sorrow the
catholicity so dear to them rent by schism, sought for more rational
means of restoring the unity destroyed by the Reformation.
Everybody saw clearly that the enemy was at the gate, and that no
time must be lost in closing it.
=DANGER OF CATHOLICISM.=
Alas! they had to deal with others besides heretics. All reflecting
minds in Europe, and especially in France, were struck with the
example set by the King of England, and the members of the Roman
party thought that Francis was about to adopt the same course in
his kingdom. There was indeed a difference between the systems of
these two princes. Henry desired the doctrine of Rome, but not its
bishop; Francis accepted the bishop, but rejected the doctrine.
Nevertheless, as each of these reforms was a heavy blow aimed at
the system of the middle ages, they were looked upon as identical.
The success which Henry's plan had met with in England was an
indication of what Francis's plan would meet with in France. The two
monarchs who reigned on each side of the Channel were equally
absolute.
The Roman doctors, finding that their controversy had not
succeeded, resolved to go to work in a more cunning way, and,
without seeming to reject a union with Germany, to oppose the
heretics by putting them out of court. 'Sire,' they said to Francis,
'your very humble servants and most obedient subjects of the
Faculty of Theology pray you to ask the Germans whether they
confess that the Church militant, whose head (under Jesus) is Peter
and his successors, is infallible in faith and morals? whether they
agree to obey him as his subjects, and are willing to admit all the
books contained in the Bible,[692] as well as the decisions of the
councils, popes, and doctors?'[693] Obedience to the pope and to
tradition, without discussing doctrines, was their summary of the
controversy. It did not succeed.
=SHOULD KINGS FEAR PROTESTANTISM?=
The doctors of the faculty, finding that the king would not aid
them, applied to the papal nuncio. They found him also a prey to
fear. They began to consult together on the best means of keeping
France in communion with the holy see. As Francis was deaf to
theological arguments, the Sorbonne and the nuncio agreed that
some other means must be used. The prelate went to the Louvre,
carrying with him a suggestion which the Sorbonne had prompted.
'Sire,' he said, 'be not deceived. The protestants will upset all civil as
well as religious order.... The throne is in as much danger as the
altar.... The introduction of a new religion must necessarily introduce
a new government.'[694]
That was indeed the best way of treating the affair; the nuncio
had found the joint in the armour, and the king was for a moment
staggered; but the pope's conduct restored his confidence. Rome
began to proceed against Henry VIII. as she had formerly done
against kings in the middle ages. This proceeding, so offensive to
the royal dignity, drew Francis towards the Reformation. If there is
danger towards royal power, it exists on both sides, he thought. He
believed even that the danger was greater on the side of Rome than
of Germany, since the protestants of that country showed their
princes the most loyal submission, and the most religious and
profound respect. He had observed, that while the pope desired to
deprive the King of England of his states and release his subjects
from their obedience, the reformation which that prince had carried
out had not prejudiced one of his rights; that there was a talk,
indeed, of insurrections against Henry VIII., but they were got up by
Rome and her agents. Enlightened men suggested to Francis, that
while popery kept the people in slavery, and caused insurrection and
rebellion against the throne, the Reformation would secure order
and obedience to kings, and liberty to the people. He seems to have
been convinced ... for the moment at least. 'England and I,' he said,
'are accustomed to keep together and to manage our affairs in
harmony with each other, and we shall continue to do so.'[695]
This new movement on the part of Francis emboldened the
evangelicals. They hoped that he would go on to the end, and would
not leave the pope even the little place which he intended to reserve
for him. If a prince like Louis IX. maintained the rights of the
Gallican Church in the thirteenth century; if a king like Charles VII.
restored ecclesiastical liberty in the fifteenth; shall we not see in this
universal revival of the sixteenth century a monarch like Francis I.
emancipating France from the Roman yoke? At a great sacrifice he
has just done much for Wurtemberg, and will he do nothing for his
own kingdom? The friends of the Reformation encouraged one
another to entertain the brightest hopes. 'What a noble position!'
they said.[696] Whenever they met, whether in the university, in the
country, or in the town, they exchanged congratulations.[697] In their
opinion, old things had passed away.
=UNEASINESS OF THE REFORMERS.=
But there were other evangelicals—men more decided and more
scriptural—who looked with a distrustful eye upon these mysterious
conferences between Francis and the protestants of Germany. Those
fine speeches of Du Bellay, and that remarkable conference at Bar-
le-Duc, were in their eyes policy and diplomacy, but not religion.
They felt uneasy and alarmed; and when they met to pray in their
obscure conventicles, these humble christians said to one another
with terror: 'Satan is casting his net to catch those who are not on
the watch. Let us examine the colours in which he is disguised.'
Astonished and even distressed, they asked if it was not strange to
assert, as Melanchthon had done, 'that no good man would protest
against the monarchy of the Roman bishop,[698] and that, in
consideration of certain reforms, we should hasten to recognise
him!' No, the Roman episcopate will never be reformed, they said.
Remodel it as you like, it will always betray its domineering spirit,
revive its ancient tricks, and regain its ascendency, even by fire. We
must be on our guard.... Between Rome and the Reformation it is a
matter of mere yes or no: the pope or Jesus Christ! Unable to
conquer the new Church in fair fight, they hope to strangle it in their
embraces. Delilah will lull to sleep in her lap the prophet whom the
strong men have been unable to bind with green withes and new
ropes. Under the pretence of screening the Reform from evil
influences, they desire to set it, like a flower of the field, in some
place without light and air, where, fading and pining away ... it will
perish. Thanks to the protection of the Queen of Navarre, the gallant
and high-spirited charger that loved to sport in the meadows is
about to be taken to the king's stable, where it will be adorned with
a magnificent harness ... but its mouth will be deformed by the bit,
its flanks torn by the spur, and even the plaits of its mane will bear
witness to its degradation.
This future was not reserved for the Reform. While the mild and
prudent voices of Melanchthon and Bucer were soothing it to sleep,
innocently enough no doubt, bolder and freer voices, those of a
Farel and a Calvin, were preparing to arouse it. While the papers of
the conciliating theologians were lying on the velvet cover of the
royal table, another paper, whose lines of fire seemed penned by the
thunderbolt, was about to circulate through the kingdom, and be
posted even at the door of the king's chamber by a too daring hand,
which was to arouse in that prince one of the most terrible bursts of
passion ever recorded in history. A loud peal of thunder would be
heard, and the heavy atmosphere which stifled men's minds would
be followed by a pure and reviving air. There would be furious
tempests; but the christians of the scriptural, practical, and radical
Reformation rejoiced at witnessing the failure of this specious but
impossible project, which aimed at reforming the Church even while
preserving Roman-catholicism. The system of the Queen of Navarre
will have to be abandoned; that of Calvin will prevail. To uphold
truth, the evangelicals were about to sacrifice unity. No doubt furious
persecutions would be the consequence, but they said to each other
that it was better to live in the midst of hurricanes that awaken, than
in mephitic vapours which lull men into the sleep of death.
 We shall describe hereafter the event which had so notable an
influence on the destinies of the Reformation in France. They were
Frenchmen who caused it; it was a Frenchman who was the principal
author; but it was from Switzerland, as we shall see, that this
formidable blow was to come, and to that country we must now
return.
[655] 'Dadurch Ich in gute Hoffnung kommen die Sachen
sollten auf gute Wege gerichtet werden.' This German
translation of the king's letter is given in the Corp. Ref. ii. pp.
828-835.
[656] 'Rex suus cognoscit nunc errorem suum in religione.'—
Lanz, Correspondance de l'Empereur Charles-Quint, ii. p. 144.
[657] 'Quod isti Germani Lutherum sequentes de Christo et de
fide illius recte sentiant.'—Ibid.
[658] 'Fuerunt illi (Melanchthonis articuli) a quamplurimis in
Gallia excerpti, sed non integri verum mutilati.'—Gerdesius,
Hist. Evang. renov. iv. p. 124.
[659] This memoir is printed in the Corpus Reformatorum, ii.
pp. 765-775; and while Melanchthon's is entitled Consilium
Gallis Scriptum, this is headed Idem Scriptum a Gallis editum.
[660] 'Qua de re Melanchthon ipse conqueritur.'—Gerdesius,
iv. p. 124.
[661] 'Eosdem articulos Romam misisse dicitur, quo pontificis
ipsius quoque impetraret vel emendationem vel consensum.'—
Gerdesius, Hist. Evang. renov. iv. p. 124.
[662] D'Argentré, De novis Erroribus, i. p. 3553. Gerdesius, iv.
App. xiii.
[663] Letter from the Faculty of Theology to Francis I.
D'Argentré, i. p. 3953. Gerdesius, iv. App. xiii.
[664] D'Argentré, i. p. 3953. Gerdesius, iv. App. xiii.
[665] Gerdesius, i. App. xiii. p. 75.
[666] 'Necessarium ut in Christum omnes spectemus.'—
Scriptum a Gallis editum, Corp. Ref. ii. p. 765.
[667] Facultatis Theologiæ Parisiensis Responsum ad Regem
Franciscum, D'Argentré, i. p. 3953.—Gerdesius, iv. App. p. 75.
[668] 'Nec geramus alterutri gladiatorios animos nostra
mordicus defendendi.'—Scriptum a Gallis editum, Corp. Ref. ii.
p. 765.
[669] Facultatis Theol. Paris. Resp. ad Regem. Gerdesius, iv.
App. p. 75.
[670] 'Ut consulat conscientiis, aliquando concedere
relaxationem.'-Scriptum a Gallis editum, Corp. Ref. ii. p. 766.
[671] 'Jure divino institutam, quæ usque ad consummationem
sæculi perduratura est.'—Gerdesius, iv. App. p. 78.
[672] 'Quæ tamen nemo observat, atque hi minime omnium
qui præcipiunt.'—Corp. Ref. ii. p. 767.
[673] D'Argentré, i. p. 397. Gerdesius, iv. App. p. 79.
[674] 'Pia mortuorum facta prosopopœia ... quasi præsentes
a præsentibus orasse.'—Scriptum a Gallis editum, Corp. Ref. ii.
p. 768.
[675] 'Qui et velit invocari et velit exaudire.'—Ibid.
[676] 'Videbimus nos minime abesse a superstitione
Ethnicorum.'—Scriptum a Gallis editum, Corp. Ref. ii. p. 768.
[677] 'Statuas et imagines sanctorum quas adorandas sept.
œcum. synodus decernit.'—Facultatis Theol. Paris. Resp.
[678] 'Viva membrorum Christi communione.'—Scriptum a
Gallis ed. Corp. Ref. ii. p. 769.
[679] 'Semotis his missarum conducticiis nundinatoribus.'—
Ibid.
[680] 'Præpostera ejus operis fiducia quæ plerosque sic
seduxit.'—Ibid.
[681] 'Vocari non debent nundinatores.'—Facult. Theol. Paris
Resp.
[682] 'Sublatis quæ inter nos diu viguerunt altercationibus.'—
Script. a Gallis ed., Corp. Ref. ii. p. 770.
[683] 'Præsente urso, quod dicitur, vestigia non quæramus.'—
Ibid.
[684] 'Theologiam sic tractemus ut non incidamus in
matæologiam.'—Ibid.
[685] 'Utile et necessarium certa verborum forma uti, in sacra
scriptura non expressa.'—Facult. Theol. Paris. Resp. p. 82.
[686] 'Non petunt boni ut monasteria deleantur, sed ut sint
scholæ.'—Script. a Gallis ed., Corp. Ref. ii. p. 773.
[687] Facultatis Theologiæ Parisiensis Responsum. Gerdesius,
Hist. Evang. renov. p. 76.
[688] 'In tanta sacerdotum et monachorum turba restitui
aliter vitæ puritas non poterit.'—Scriptum a Gallis editum,
Corpus Reformatorum, ii. p. 774.
[689] 'Hoc fermentato sæculo.'—Ibid.
[690] 'Perfacile autem coalescere possumus.'—Ibid.
[691] Facultatis Theologiæ Parisiensis Responsum. Gerdesius,
Hist. Evang. renov. p. 77.
[692] Including the apocryphal books.
[693] Facultatis Theologiæ Parisiensis Responsum. Gerdesius,
Hist. Evang. renov. iv. App. p. 77.
[694] Du Bellay, Mémoires, ed. Petitot, Introd. p. 123.
Schmidt, Hist. Theol. p. 36 (ed. 1850).
[695] 'England und Ich pflegen zusammen zu halten und
sämmtlich unsere Sachen vornehmen.'—Rex Galliæ ad
principes protest. Corp. Ref. ii. p. 830.
[696] 'Quam pulchre staremus.'—Sturm to Melanchthon, MS.
[697] Ibid.
[698] 'Neque bonus ullus erit, qui reclamet in pontificis
monarchiam.—Corp. Ref. ii. p. 762.
 BOOK III.
FALL OF A BISHOP-PRINCE, AND FIRST EVANGELICAL BEGINNINGS IN GENEVA.

CHAPTER I.
THE RENAISSANCE, THE REFORMATION, THE MIDDLE AGES.

(1526.)

T HE Reformation was necessary to christian society. The

Renaissance, daughter alike of ancient and of modern Rome,
was a movement of revival, and yet it carried with it a principle of
death, so that wherever it was not transformed by heavenly forces,
it fell away and became corrupted. The influence of the humanists—
of such men as Erasmus, Sir Thomas More, and afterwards of
Montaigne—was a balmy gale that shed its odours on the upper
classes, but exerted no power over the lower ranks of the people. In
the elegant compositions of the men of letters, there was nothing for
the conscience, that divinely appointed force of the human race. The
work of the Renaissance, had it stood alone, must of necessity,
therefore, have ended in failure and death. There are persons in
these days who think otherwise: they believe that a new state of
society would have arisen without the Reformation, and that political
liberty would have renewed the world better than the Gospel. This is
assuredly a great error. At that time liberty had scarcely any
existence in Europe, and even had it existed, and the dominion of
conscience not reappeared along with it, it is certain that, though
powerful enough, perhaps, to destroy the old elements of order
prevailing in society, it would have been unable to substitute any
better elements in their place. If, even in the nineteenth century, we
tremble sometimes when we hear the distant explosions of liberty,
what must have been the feeling in the sixteenth? The men who
were about to appear on the theatre of the world were still
immersed in disorder and barbarism. Everything betokened great
virtues in the new generation, but also tumultuous passions; a divine
heroism, but also gigantic crimes; a mighty energy, but at its side a
languishing insensibility. A renewed society could not be constituted
out of such elements. It wanted the divine breath to inspire high
thoughts, and the hand of God to establish everywhere the
providential order.
At the end of the fifteenth and the beginning of the sixteenth
century, society was in a state of excitement. The world was in
suspense, as when the statuary is about to create a work that shall
be the object of universal admiration. The metal is melted, the mass
flows from the furnace like glowing brass; but the approaching lava
alarms, and not without reason, the anxious spectators. At this
period we witness struggles, insurrections, and reaction. The
perfumed spirit of the Renaissance was unable to check the evil and
to establish order and liberty. Society had appeared to grow young
again under the breath of antiquity; but wherever a knowledge of
the Gospel was not combined with the cultivation of letters, that
purity, boldness, and elevation of youth, which at first had charmed
contemporaries, disappeared. The melting was checked, the metal
grew cold, and instead of the masterpiece that had been expected,
there appeared the repulsive forms of servility, immorality, and
superstition.
=CRISIS AND MEANS OF SALVATION.=
Was there any means of preventing so fatal a future? How, in the
midst of the old society, which was crumbling to pieces, could a new
one be formed, with any certain prospect of vitality? In religion only
the coming age was to find its living force. If the conscience of man
was awakened and sanctified by christianity, then and then only the
world would stand.
Was it possible to look for this regenerating element in the society
which was expiring? That would be to search among the dead for
the principle of life. It was necessary to have recourse to the
primitive sources of faith. The Gospel, more human than literature,
more divine than philosophy, exerts an influence over man that
these two things cannot possess. It goes down into the depths—that
is, into the people—which the Renaissance had not done; it rises
towards the high places—that is, towards heaven—which philosophy
cannot do. When the Gospel lifted up its voice in the days of the
Reformation, the people listened. It spoke to them of God, sin,
condemnation, pardon, everlasting life—in a word, of Christ. The
human soul discovered that this was what it wanted; and was
touched, captivated, and finally renewed. The movement was all the
more powerful because the doctrine preached to the people had
nothing to do with animosities, traditions, interests of race,
dynasties, or courts. True, it got mixed up with these things
afterwards; but in the beginning it was simply the voice of God upon
earth. It circulated a purifying fire through corrupted society, and the
new world was formed.
The old society, whose place was about to be occupied, did all in
its power to resist the light. A terrible voice issued from the Vatican;
a hand of iron executed its behests in many a country, and strangled
the new life in its cradle. Spain, Italy, Austria, and France were the
chief theatres of the deplorable tragedies, whose heroes were Philip
II. and the Guises. But there were souls, we may even say nations,
protected by the hand of God, who have been ever since like trees
whose leaves never wither.[699] Intelligent men, struck by their
greatness, have been alarmed for the nations that are not watered
by the same rivers. Against such a danger there is, however, a sure
remedy; it is that all people should come and drink at those
fountains of life which have given protestant nations 'all the
attributes of civilisation and power.'[700] Or do they perchance
imagine that by shutting their windows against the sun, the light will
spread more widely?... A new era is beginning, and all lingering
nations are now invited to the great renovation of which the Gospel
is the divine and mighty organ.
=NEW SITUATION OF GENEVA.=
 In 1526 Geneva was in a position which permitted it to receive the
new seed of the new society. The alliance with the cantons, by
drawing that city nearer to Switzerland, facilitated the arrival of the
intrepid husbandmen who brought with them the seeds of life. At
Wittemberg, at Zurich, and even in the upper extremities of Lake
Leman, in those beautiful valleys of the Rhone and the Alps which
Farel had evangelised, the divine sun had poured down his first rays.
When the Genevans made their alliance with the Swiss, they had
only thought of finding a support to their national existence; but
they had effected more: they had opened the gates of day, and were
about to receive a light which, while securing their liberties, would
guide their souls along the path of eternal life. The city was thus to
acquire an influence of which none of its children had ever dreamt,
and by the instrumentality of Calvin, one of the noblest spirits that
ever lived, 'she was about to become the rival of Rome,' as an
historian says (perhaps with a little exaggeration), 'and wrest from
her the dominion of half the christian world.'[701]
If the alliance with the cantons opened Geneva on the side of
Switzerland, it raised a wall of separation between that city and
Savoy—which was not less necessary for the part she was called
upon to play in the sixteenth century. The valley of the Leman was
at that time dotted with châteaux, whose ruins may still be seen
here and there. As invasion, pillage, and murder formed part of
social life in the middle ages, the nobles surrounded their houses
with walls, and some even built their dwelling-places on the
mountains. From Geneva might be descried the castle of Monnetier
standing on immense perpendicular rocks on Mont Salève....

J'aimais tes murs croulants, vieux moutier ruiné!

Naître, souffrir, mourir! devise triste et forte . . .
Quel châtelain pensif te grava sur la porte?[702]

Further on, and near Thonon, on an isolated hill, shaded by

luxuriant chestnut trees, stood the vast castle of Allinges, which is
still a noble ruin. The lords of these places, energetic, rude,
freebooting, and often cruel men, growing weary of their isolation
and their idleness, would collect their followers, lower their
drawbridges, rush into the high roads in search of adventures, and
indulge in a life of raids and plunder, violence and murder.
The towns, with their traders and travellers, were especially the
abhorrence of these gentlemen robbers. From the tenth century the
Genevan travellers and foreign merchants, passing through Geneva
with their goods, often fell a prey to the plundering vagabondage of
the neighbouring lords. This was not without important
consequences for civilisation and liberty. Seeing the nobles
perpetually in insurrection against social order, the burghers learnt to
revolt against despotism, murder, and robbery. Geneva received one
of these lessons, and profited by it better than others.[703]
=PONTVERRE AND THE SAVOYARD NOBLES.=
In all the castles of Genevois, Chablais, and the Pays de Vaud, it
was said, in 1526, that the alliance of Geneva with the free Swiss
cantons menaced the rights of Savoy, the temporal (and even the
spiritual) power of the bishop, and Roman-catholicism. And hence
the irritated nobles ruminated in their strongholds upon the means
of destroying the union, or at least of neutralising its effects.
François de Ternier, seigneur of Pontverre, whose domains were
situated between Mont Salève and the Rhone, about a league from
Geneva, thought of nothing else night or day. A noble, upright, but
violent man; a fanatical enemy of the burgher class, of liberty, and
of the Reformation; and a representative of the middle ages, he
swore to combat the Swiss alliance unto death, and he kept his oath.
Owing to the energy of his character and the nobility of his house,
François possessed great influence among his neighbours. One day,
after long meditation over his plans, he left his residence, attended
by a few horsemen, and visited the neighbouring castles. While
seated at table with the knights, he made his apprehensions known
to them, and conjured them to oppose the accursed alliance. He
asked them whether it was for nothing that the privilege of bearing
arms had been given to the nobles. 'Let us make haste,' he said,
'and crush a new and daring power that threatens to destroy our
castles and our churches.' He sounded the alarm everywhere; he
reminded the nobles that they had a right to make war whenever
they pleased;[704] and forthwith many lords responded to his
energetic appeals. They armed themselves, and, issuing from their
strongholds, covered the district around Geneva like a cloud of
locusts. Caring little for the political or religious ideas with which
Pontverre was animated, they sought amusement, plunder, and the
gratification of their hatred against the citizens. They were observed
at a distance, with their mounted followers, on the high roads, and
they were not idle. They allowed nobody to enter the city, and
carried off property, provisions, and cattle. The peasants and the
Genevan merchants, so disgracefully plundered, asked each other if
the tottering episcopal throne was to be upheld by banditti.... 'If you
return,' said these noble highwaymen, 'we will hang you up by the
neck.' Nor was that all: several nobles, whose castles were near the
water, resorted to piracy on the lake: they pillaged the country-
houses near the shore, imprisoned the men, insulted the women,
and cut off all communication with Switzerland.
=NOBLES TURN HIGHWAYMEN.=
One difficulty, however, occurred to these noble robbers: they
chanced to maltreat, without their knowing it, some of their own
party, who were coming from German Switzerland. Having been
much reproached for this, they took counsel on the road: 'What
must we do,' they asked, 'to distinguish the Genevans?' They hit
upon a curious shibboleth. As soon as they caught sight of any
travellers in the distance, they spurred their horses, galloped up, and
put some ordinary question to the strangers, 'examining in this way
all who passed to and fro.' If the travellers replied in French, the
language of Geneva, the knightly highwaymen declared they were
huguenots, and immediately carried them off, goods and all. If the
victims complained, they were not listened to; and even when they
came from the banks of the Loire and the Seine, they were taken
and shut up in the nearest castle. Many messengers from France to
the Swiss cantons, who spoke like the Genevans, were arrested in
this way.
 France, Berne, and Geneva complained bitterly; but the lords (for
the most part Savoyards) took no notice of it. By chastising these
burghers, they believed they were gaining heaven. They laughed
among themselves at the universal complaints, and added sarcasm
to cruelty. One day a Genevan deputy having appeared before
Pontverre, to protest against such brigandage, the haughty noble
replied coldly: 'Tell those who sent you, that in a fortnight I will
come and set fire to the four corners of your city.' Another day, De la
Fontaine, a retired syndic and mameluke, as he was riding along the
high road, met a huguenot, and said to him: 'Go and tell your friends
that we are coming to Geneva shortly, and will throw all the citizens
into the Rhone.' As the Genevan walked away, the mameluke called
him back: 'Wait a moment,' he said, and then continued maliciously:
'No, I think it will be better to cut off their heads, in order to multiply
the relics.' This was an allusion to Berthelier's head, which had been
solemnly buried. In the noisy banquets which these nobles gave
each other in their châteaux, they related their feats of arms:
anecdotes akin to those just quoted followed each other amid roars
of laughter: the subject was inexhaustible. The politicians, although
more moderate in appearance, were not less decided. They
meditated over the matter in cold blood. 'I will enter Geneva sword
in hand,' said the Count of Genevois, the duke's brother, 'and will
take away six score of the most rebellious patriots.'[705]
Thus the middle ages seemed to be rising in defence of their
rights. The temporal and spiritual authority of the bishop-prince was
protected by bands of highwaymen. But while these powers, which
pretended to be legitimate, employed robbery, violence, and murder,
the friends of liberty prepared to defend themselves lawfully and to
fight honourably, like regular troops. Besançon Hugues, reelected
captain-general three days after the alliance with the Swiss, gave the
signal. Instantly the citizens began to practise the use of arms in the
city; and in the country, where they were placed as outposts, they
kept strict watch over all the movements of the gentlemen robbers.
Fearing that the latter, to crown their brigandage, would march
against Geneva, the syndics had iron gratings put to all the windows
in the city walls, built up three of the gates, placed a guard at the
others, and stretched chains across every street. At the same time
they brought into the harbour all the boats that had escaped the
piratical incursions of the nobles, placed a sentry on the belfry of St.
Pierre, and ordered that the city should be lighted all the night long.
This little people rose like one man, and all were ready to give their
lives to protect their goods and trade, their wives and children, and
to save their old liberties and their new aspirations.[706]
=GENEVAN DEPUTATION TO BERNE.=
While thus resolute against their enemies in arms, the citizens
showed moderation towards their disarmed foes. Some of those who
were most exasperated, wishing to take their revenge, asked
permission to forage, that is, to seize the property of the disloyal and
fugitive mamelukes. 'It is perfectly fair,' they said, 'for their treason
and brigandage have reduced Geneva to extreme misery: we shall
only get back what they have taken from us.' But Hugues, the friend
of order as well as of liberty, made answer: 'Let us commence
proceedings against the accused; let us condemn them in penalties
more or less severe; but let us refrain from violence, even though
we have the appearance of right in our favour.'—'The ducal faction,'
replied these hot-headed men, 'not only plundered us, but conspired
against the city, and took part in the tortures and murders inflicted
upon the citizens.' The syndics were not convinced, and the property
of the offenders was respected; but after a rigorous investigation,
they were deprived of the rights of citizenship.[707]
The Swiss cantons, discontented because the Genevans, who were
in great straits, had not repaid the expenses incurred on their behalf,
asked more for the mamelukes than the council granted: they
demanded that they should all be allowed to return to the city. But
to receive those who were making war against them, seemed
impossible to the Genevans. They sent two good huguenots to
Berne, François Favre and Baudichon de la Maison-Neuve, to make
representations in this matter. The deputies were admitted to the
great council on the 5th of June, 1526. De Lullins, the Savoyard
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