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 Data Communications
and Networking
with TCP/IP Protocol Suite

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 This page intentionally left blank

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 Data Communications
and Networking with
TCP/IP Protocol Suite
Sixth Edition

Behrouz A. Forouzan

ISTUDY
 DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKING WITH TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE
Published by McGraw Hill LLC, 1325 Avenue of the Americas, New York, NY 10121. Copyright
©2022 by McGraw Hill LLC. All rights reserved. Printed in the United States of America. No part of
this publication may be reproduced or distributed in any form or by any means, or stored in a database
or retrieval system, without the prior written consent of McGraw Hill LLC, including, but not limited
to, in any network or other electronic storage or transmission, or broadcast for distance learning.
Some ancillaries, including electronic and print components, may not be available to customers out-
side the United States.
This book is printed on acid-free paper.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 LCR 26 25 24 23 22 21
ISBN 978-1-260-59782-0
MHID 1-260-59782-2
Cover Image: Ingram Publishing/SuperStock

All credits appearing on page or at the end of the book are considered to be an extension of the copyright
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The Internet addresses listed in the text were accurate at the time of publication. The inclusion of a
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mheducation.com/highered

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 To my beloved daughter.

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 This page intentionally left blank

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 BRIEF CONTENTS
Preface xix
Trademark xxv

Chapter 1 Introduction 1
Chapter 2 Physical Layer 29
Chapter 3 Data-Link Layer 63
Chapter 4 Local Area Networks: LANs 115
Chapter 5 Wide Area Networks: WANs 149
Chapter 6 Connecting Devices and Virtual LANs 187
Chapter 7 Network Layer: Data Transfer 203
Chapter 8 Network Layer: Routing of Packets 285
Chapter 9 Transport Layer 341
Chapter 10 Application Layer 437
Chapter 11 Multimedia 543
Chapter 12 Network Management 605
Chapter 13 Cryptography and Network Security 637

Appendices
Appendix A Unicode 713
Appendix B Positional Numbering System 719
Appendix C HTML, CSS, XML, and XSL 727
Appendix D A Touch of Probability 737
Appendix E Checksum 743
Appendix F Acronyms 751
Glossary 761
References 805
Index 811

vii

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 CONTENTS
Preface xix
Trademark xxv

Chapter 1 Introduction 1
1.1 DATA COMMUNICATIONS 2
1.1.1 Components 2
1.1.2 Message 3
1.1.3 Data Flow 4
1.2 NETWORKS 5
1.2.1 Network Criteria 5
1.2.2 Physical Structures 5
1.3 NETWORK TYPES 8
1.3.1 Local Area Network 8
1.3.2 Wide Area Network (WAN) 8
1.3.3 The Internet 10
1.3.4 Accessing the Internet 12
1.4 PROTOCOL LAYERING 13
1.4.1 Scenarios 13
1.4.2 Principles of Protocol Layering 16
1.4.3 Logical Connections 16
1.5 TCP/IP PROTOCOL SUITE 17
1.5.1 Layered Architecture 17
1.5.2 Brief Description of Layers 18
1.5.3 Description of Each Layer 20
1.6 THE OSI MODEL 21
1.6.1 OSI versus TCP/IP 21
1.6.2 Lack of OSI Model’s Success 22
1.7 END-OF-CHAPTER MATERIALS 23
1.7.1 Recommended Reading 23
1.7.2 Key Terms 23
1.7.3 Summary 23
1.8 PRACTICE SET 24
1.8.1 Quizzes 24
1.8.2 Questions 24
1.8.3 Problems 26

ix

ISTUDY
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 x  CONTENTS

Chapter 2 Physical Layer 29

2.1 SIGNALS 31
2.1.1 Analog Signals 31
2.1.2 Digital Signals 33
2.2 SIGNAL IMPAIRMENT 35
2.2.1 Attenuation and Amplification 35
2.2.2 Distortion 35
2.2.3 Data Rate Limits 36
2.2.4 Performance 38
2.3 DIGITAL TRANSMISSION 40
2.3.1 Digital-to-Digital Conversion 40
2.3.2 Analog-to-Digital Conversion 41
2.4 ANALOG TRANSMISSION 42
2.4.1 Digital-to-Analog Conversion 42
2.4.2 Analog-to-Analog Conversion 45
2.5 MULTIPLEXING 47
2.5.1 Frequency-Division Multiplexing 48
2.5.2 Time-Division Multiplexing 48
2.6 TRANSMISSION MEDIA 49
2.6.1 Guided Media 50
2.6.2 Unguided Media: Wireless 53
2.7 END-OF-CHAPTER MATERIALS 55
2.7.1 Recommended Reading 55
2.7.2 Key Terms 55
2.7.3 Summary 55
2.8 PRACTICE SET 56
2.8.1 Quizzes 56
2.8.2 Questions 56
2.8.3 Problems 58

Chapter 3 Data-Link Layer 63

3.1 INTRODUCTION 64
3.1.1 Nodes and Links 65
3.1.2 Two Types of Links 65
3.1.3 Two Sublayers 66
3.2 DATA-LINK CONTROL 66
3.2.1 Framing 66
3.2.2 Error Control 70
3.2.3 Two DLC Protocols 80
3.3 MEDIA ACCESS PROTOCOLS 88
3.3.1 Random Access 88
3.3.2 Controlled Access 101

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 CONTENTS  xi

3.4 LINK-LAYER ADDRESSING 104

3.4.1 Three Types of Addresses 106
3.4.2 Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) 107
3.5 END-OF-CHAPTER MATERIALS 107
3.5.1 Recommended Reading 107
3.5.2 Key Terms 107
3.5.3 Summary 108
3.6 PRACTICE SET 108
3.6.1 Quizzes 108
3.6.2 Questions 109
3.6.3 Problems 110

Chapter 4 Local Area Networks: LANs 115

4.1 ETHERNET 116
4.1.1 Standard Ethernet (10 Mbps) 117
4.1.2 Fast Ethernet (100 Mbps) 121
4.1.3 Gigabit Ethernet (1000 Mbps) 123
4.1.4 10 Gigabit Ethernet 126
4.2 WIFI, IEEE 802.11 PROJECT 126
4.2.1 Architecture 127
4.2.2 MAC Sublayer 128
4.2.3 Addressing Mechanism 133
4.2.4 Physical Layer 135
4.3 BLUETOOTH 138
4.3.1 Architecture 138
4.3.2 Bluetooth Layers 140
4.4 END-OF-CHAPTER MATERIALS 145
4.4.1 Recommended Reading 145
4.4.2 Key Terms 145
4.4.3 Summary 146
4.5 PRACTICE SET 146
4.5.1 Quizzes 146
4.5.2 Questions 146
4.5.3 Problems 147

Chapter 5 Wide Area Networks: WANs 149

5.1 TELEPHONE NETWORKS 150
5.1.1 Major Components 150
5.1.2 LATAs 151
5.1.3 Signaling 152
5.1.4 Services Provided by Telephone Networks 155
5.1.5 Dial-Up Service 156
5.1.6 Digital Subscriber Line (DSL) 158

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 xii  CONTENTS

5.2 CABLE NETWORKS 159

5.2.1 Traditional Cable Networks 160
5.2.2 Hybrid Fiber-Coaxial (HFC) Network 160
5.2.3 Cable TV for Data Transfer 161
5.3 CELLULAR TELEPHONY 162
5.3.1 Operation 163
5.3.2 First Generation (1G) 165
5.3.3 Second Generation (2G) 166
5.3.4 Third Generation (3G) 173
5.3.5 Fourth Generation (4G) 174
5.4 SATELLITE NETWORK 175
5.4.1 Operation 175
5.4.2 GEO Satellites 178
5.4.3 MEO Satellites 178
5.4.4 LEO Satellites 181
5.5 END–OF–CHAPTER MATERIALS 182
5.5.1 Recommended Reading 182
5.5.2 Key Terms 182
5.5.3 Summary 183
5.6 PRACTICE SET 184
5.6.1 Quizzes 184
5.6.2 Questions 184
5.6.3 Problems 185

Chapter 6 Connecting Devices and Virtual LANs 187

6.1 CONNECTING DEVICES 188
6.1.1 Hubs 188
6.1.2 Link-Layer Switches 189
6.1.3 Routers 195
6.2 VIRTUAL LAN S 196
6.2.1 Membership 198
6.2.2 Configuration 198
6.2.3 Communication among Switches 199
6.2.4 Advantages 199
6.3 END-OF-CHAPTER MATERIALS 200
6.3.1 Recommended Reading 200
6.3.2 Key Terms 200
6.3.3 Summary 200
6.4 PRACTICE SET 201
6.4.1 Quizzes 201
6.4.2 Questions 201
6.4.3 Problems 201

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 CONTENTS  xiii

Chapter 7 Network Layer: Data Transfer 203

7.1 SERVICES 205
7.1.1 Packetizing 205
7.1.2 Routing 205
7.1.3 Error Control 205
7.1.4 Flow Control 205
7.1.5 Congestion Control 206
7.1.6 Quality of Service 206
7.1.7 Security 206
7.2 PACKET SWITCHING 206
7.2.1 Datagram Approach: Connectionless Service 207
7.2.2 Virtual-Circuit Approach: Connection-Oriented Service 207
7.3 PERFORMANCE 207
7.3.1 Delay 208
7.3.2 Throughput 209
7.3.3 Packet Loss 210
7.4 INTERNET PROTOCOL VERSION 4 210
7.4.1 IPv4 Addressing 210
7.4.2 Main and Auxiliary Protocols 219
7.4.3 Options 229
7.4.4 ICMPv4 231
7.4.5 Mobile IP 237
7.4.6 Forwarding of IP Packets 247
7.5 NEXT GENERATION IP (IPV6) 256
7.5.1 IPv6 Addressing 257
7.5.2 The IPv6 Protocol 264
7.5.3 The ICMPv6 Protocol 269
7.6 TRANSITION FROM IPV4 TO IPV6 273
7.7 END-OF-CHAPTER MATERIALS 275
7.7.1 Recommended Reading 275
7.7.2 Key Terms 275
7.7.3 Summary 276
7.8 PRACTICE SET 276
7.8.1 Quizzes 276
7.8.2 Questions 277
7.8.3 Problems 279

Chapter 8 Network Layer: Routing of Packets 285

8.1 INTRODUCTION 286
8.1.1 General Idea 286
8.1.2 Least-Cost Routing 286

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 xiv  CONTENTS

8.2 ROUTING ALGORITHMS 288

8.2.1 Distance-Vector Routing 288
8.2.2 Link-State Routing 294
8.2.3 Path-Vector Routing 297
8.3 UNICAST ROUTING PROTOCOLS 301
8.3.1 Internet Structure 301
8.3.2 Routing Information Protocol (RIP) 303
8.3.3 Open Shortest Path First (OSPF) 308
8.3.4 Border Gateway Protocol Version 4 (BGP4) 313
8.4 MULTICAST ROUTING 322
8.4.1 Unicasting 322
8.4.2 Multicasting 323
8.4.3 Distance Vector Multicast Routing Protocol 324
8.4.4 Multicast Open Shortest Path First 327
8.4.5 Protocol Independent Multicast (PIM) 327
8.5 IGMP 331
8.5.1 Messages 331
8.5.2 Propagation of Membership Information 332
8.5.3 Encapsulation 333
8.6 END-OF-CHAPTER MATERIALS 333
8.6.1 Recommended Reading 333
8.6.2 Key Terms 333
8.6.3 Summary 334
8.7 PRACTICE SET 335
8.7.1 Quizzes 335
8.7.2 Questions 335
8.7.3 Problems 337

Chapter 9 Transport Layer 341

9.1 TRANSPORT-LAYER SERVICES 342
9.1.1 Process-to-Process Communication 342
9.1.2 Addressing: Port Numbers 343
9.1.3 Encapsulation and Decapsulation 345
9.1.4 Multiplexing and Demultiplexing 346
9.1.5 Flow Control 346
9.1.6 Error Control 349
9.1.7 Combination of Flow and Error Control 350
9.1.8 Congestion Control 352
9.1.9 Connectionless and Connection-Oriented Protocols 352
9.2 TRANSPORT-LAYER PROTOCOLS 356
9.2.1 Services 356
9.2.2 Port Numbers 357

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 CONTENTS  xv

9.3 USER DATAGRAM PROTOCOL (UDP) 358

9.3.1 UDP Services 359
9.3.2 UDP Applications 362
9.4 TRANSMISSION CONTROL PROTOCOL 363
9.4.1 TCP Services 364
9.4.2 TCP Features 367
9.4.3 Segment 368
9.4.4 A TCP Connection 371
9.4.5 State Transition Diagram 378
9.4.6 Windows in TCP 380
9.4.7 Flow Control 383
9.4.8 Error Control 389
9.4.9 TCP Congestion Control 398
9.4.10 TCP Timers 408
9.4.11 Options 412
9.5 SCTP 412
9.5.1 SCTP Services 412
9.5.2 SCTP Features 414
9.5.3 Packet Format 416
9.5.4 An SCTP Association 418
9.5.5 Flow Control 421
9.5.6 Error Control 423
9.6 END-OF-CHAPTER MATERIALS 427
9.6.1 Recommended Reading 427
9.6.2 Key Terms 427
9.6.3 Summary 428
9.7 PRACTICE SET 429
9.7.1 Quizzes 429
9.7.2 Questions 429
9.7.3 Problems 432

Chapter 10 Application Layer 437

10.1 INTRODUCTION 438
10.1.1 Providing Services 439
10.1.2 Application-Layer Paradigms 440
10.2 CLIENT/SERVER PARADIGM 443
10.2.1 Application Programming Interface 443
10.2.2 Using Services of the Transport Layer 447
10.3 STANDARD APPLICATIONS 448
10.3.1 World Wide Web and HTTP 449
10.3.2 FTP 464
10.3.3 Electronic Mail 468
10.3.4 TELNET 481

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 xvi  CONTENTS

10.3.5 Secure Shell (SSH) 484

10.3.6 Domain Name System (DNS) 486
10.4 PEER-TO-PEER PARADIGM 498
10.4.1 P2P Networks 498
10.4.2 Distributed Hash Table (DHT) 500
10.4.3 Chord 503
10.4.4 Pastry 510
10.4.5 Kademlia 515
10.4.6 A Popular P2P Network: BitTorrent 518
10.5 SOCKET INTERFACE PROGRAMMING 521
10.5.1 Data Structure for Socket 521
10.5.2 Header Files 522
10.5.3 Iterative Communication Using UDP 522
10.5.4 Communication Using TCP 528
10.6 END-OF-CHAPTER MATERIALS 535
10.6.1 Recommended Reading 535
10.6.2 Key Terms 536
10.6.3 Summary 536
10.7 PRACTICE SET 537
10.7.1 Quizzes 537
10.7.2 Questions 537
10.7.3 Problems 539

Chapter 11 Multimedia 543

11.1 COMPRESSION 544
11.1.1 Lossless Compression 544
11.1.2 Lossy Compression 554
11.2 MULTIMEDIA DATA 560
11.2.1 Text 560
11.2.2 Image 560
11.2.3 Video 564
11.2.4 Audio 566
11.3 MULTIMEDIA IN THE INTERNET 568
11.3.1 Streaming Stored Audio/Video 568
11.3.2 Streaming Live Audio/Video 571
11.3.3 Real-Time Interactive Audio/Video 572
11.4 REAL-TIME INTERACTIVE PROTOCOLS 577
11.4.1 Rationale for New Protocols 578
11.4.2 RTP 581
11.4.3 RTCP 583
11.4.4 Session Initialization Protocol (SIP) 587
11.4.5 H.323 594

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 CONTENTS  xvii

11.5 END-OF-CHAPTER MATERIALS 597

11.5.1 Recommended Reading 597
11.5.2 Key Terms 597
11.5.3 Summary 597
11.6 PRACTICE SET 598
11.6.1 Quizzes 598
11.6.2 Questions 598
11.6.3 Problems 600

Chapter 12 Network Management 605

12.1 INTRODUCTION 606
12.1.1 Configuration Management 606
12.1.2 Fault Management 608
12.1.3 Performance Management 609
12.1.4 Security Management 609
12.1.5 Accounting Management 610
12.2 SNMP 610
12.2.1 Managers and Agents 611
12.2.2 Management Components 611
12.2.3 An Overview 613
12.2.4 SMI 614
12.2.5 MIB 618
12.2.6 SNMP Operation 622
12.3 ASN.1 627
12.3.1 Language Basics 628
12.3.2 Data Types 629
12.3.3 Encoding 632
12.4 END-OF-CHAPTER MATERIALS 632
12.4.1 Recommended Reading 632
12.4.2 Key Terms 632
12.4.3 Summary 632
12.5 PRACTICE SET 633
12.5.1 Quizzes 633
12.5.2 Questions 633
12.5.3 Problems 634

Chapter 13 Cryptography and Network Security 637

13.1 INTRODUCTION 638
13.1.1 Security Goals 638
13.1.2 Attacks 639
13.1.3 Services and Techniques 641
13.2 CONFIDENTIALITY 641
13.2.1 Symmetric-Key Ciphers 641
13.2.2 Asymmetric-Key Ciphers 653

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 xviii  CONTENTS

13.3 OTHER ASPECTS OF SECURITY 658

13.3.1 Message Integrity 658
13.3.2 Message Authentication 659
13.3.3 Digital Signature 660
13.3.4 Entity Authentication 666
13.3.5 Key Management 668
13.4 NETWORK-LAYER SECURITY 674
13.4.1 Two Modes 675
13.4.2 Two Security Protocols 676
13.4.3 Services Provided by IPSec 680
13.4.4 Security Association 680
13.4.5 Internet Key Exchange (IKE) 684
13.4.6 Virtual Private Network (VPN) 684
13.5 TRANSPORT-LAYER SECURITY 685
13.5.1 SSL Architecture 686
13.5.2 Four Protocols 689
13.6 APPLICATION-LAYER SECURITY 691
13.6.1 E-mail Security 691
13.6.2 Pretty Good Privacy (PGP) 693
13.6.3 S/MIME 698
13.7 FIREWALLS 702
13.7.1 Packet-Filter Firewall 703
13.7.2 Proxy Firewall 704
13.8 END-OF-CHAPTER MATERIALS 705
13.8.1 Recommended Reading 705
13.8.2 Key Terms 705
13.8.3 Summary 706
13.9 PRACTICE SET 707
13.9.1 Quizzes 707
13.9.2 Questions 707
13.9.3 Problems 709

Appendices
Appendix A Unicode 713
Appendix B Positional Numbering System 719
Appendix C HTML, CSS, XML, and XSL 727
Appendix D A Touch of Probability 737
Appendix E Checksum 743
Appendix F Acronyms 751
Glossary 761
References 805
Index 811

ISTUDY
 P R E FAC E

W elcome to the sixth edition of Data Communications and Networking with TCP/
IP Protocol Suite. We are living in an information age, and information is dis-
tributed faster that ever using the Internet, which works based on the topics discussed
in this book.

Features
Although the main goal of this book is to teach the principles of networking, it is de-
signed to teach these principles using the following features:

TCP/IP Protocol Suite

This book is designed to teach the principles of networking by using the TCP/IP proto-
col suite. Teaching these principles using protocol layering is beneficial because these
principles are repeated and better understood in relation to each layer. For example, ad-
dressing is an issue that is applied to several layers of the TCP/IP protocol suite. Another
example is framing and packetizing, which is repeated in several layers, but each layer
treats the principle differently.

Bottom-Up Approach
This book uses a bottom-up approach. Each layer in the TCP/IP protocol suite is built on
the services provided by the layer below. We learn how bits are moving at the physical
layer (first layer) before learning how some programs exchange messages at the appli-
cation layer (fifth layer).

Organization
The book is made up of 13 chapters, six appendices, a list of references, and a glossary.

Chapter 1: Introduction
This chapter is an introduction to Data Communications and Networking with TCP/IP
Protocol Suite. It defines the concept of protocol layering and gives a brief description
of the TCP/IP protocol suite and the OSI model.

Chapter 2: Physical Layer

This chapter describes the first layer of the TCP/IP protocol suite: the physical layer. It
explains the relationship between data and signals and describes both analog and digital
signals. It also discusses multiplexing to benefit from the available bandwidth. Finally,
it goes below the physical layer and discusses the transmission media.

xix

ISTUDY
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