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Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation
IEREK Interdisciplinary Series for Sustainable Development

Zekâi Şen

Earth Systems Data

Processing and
Visualization Using
MATLAB
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation
IEREK Interdisciplinary Series for Sustainable
Development

Editorial Board Members

Anna Laura Pisello, Department of Engineering, University of Perugia, Italy
Dean Hawkes, Cardiff University, UK
Hocine Bougdah, University for the Creative Arts, Farnham, UK
Federica Rosso, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy
Hassan Abdalla, University of East London, London, UK
Sofia-Natalia Boemi, Aristotle University of Thessaloniki, Greece
Nabil Mohareb, Beirut Arab University, Beirut, Lebanon
Saleh Mesbah Elkaffas, Arab Academy for Science, Technology, Egypt
Emmanuel Bozonnet, University of la Rochelle, La Rochelle, France
Gloria Pignatta, University of Perugia, Italy
Yasser Mahgoub, Qatar University, Qatar
Luciano De Bonis, University of Molise, Italy
Stella Kostopoulou, Regional and Tourism Development, University of Thessaloniki,
Thessaloniki, Greece
Biswajeet Pradhan, Faculty of Engineering and IT, University of Technology Sydney,
Sydney, Australia
Md. Abdul Mannan, Universiti Malaysia Sarawak, Malaysia
Chaham Alalouch, Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, Oman
Iman O. Gawad, Helwan University, Egypt

Series Editor
Mourad Amer, Enrichment and Knowledge Exchange, International Experts for Research,
Cairo, Egypt
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation (ASTI) is a series of peer-reviewed books
based on the best studies on emerging research that redefines existing disciplinary boundaries
in science, technology and innovation (STI) in order to develop integrated concepts for
sustainable development. The series is mainly based on the best research papers from various
IEREK and other international conferences, and is intended to promote the creation and
development of viable solutions for a sustainable future and a positive societal transformation
with the help of integrated and innovative science-based approaches. Offering interdisciplinary
coverage, the series presents innovative approaches and highlights how they can best support
both the economic and sustainable development for the welfare of all societies. In particular,
the series includes conceptual and empirical contributions from different interrelated fields of
science, technology and innovation that focus on providing practical solutions to ensure food,
water and energy security. It also presents new case studies offering concrete examples of how
to resolve sustainable urbanization and environmental issues. The series is addressed to
professionals in research and teaching, consultancies and industry, and government and
international organizations. Published in collaboration with IEREK, the ASTI series will
acquaint readers with essential new studies in STI for sustainable development.

More information about this series at http://www.springer.com/series/15883

Zekâi Şen

Earth Systems Data

Processing and Visualization
Using MATLAB

123
Zekâi Şen
Department of Civil Engineering, Faculty of
Engineering and Natural Sciences
Istanbul Medipol University
Beykoz, Istanbul, Turkey

ISSN 2522-8714 ISSN 2522-8722 (electronic)

Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation
IEREK Interdisciplinary Series for Sustainable Development
ISBN 978-3-030-01541-1 ISBN 978-3-030-01542-8 (eBook)
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-01542-8

Library of Congress Control Number: 2019932682

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020

This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is
concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction
on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic
adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed.
The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not
imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and
regulations and therefore free for general use.
The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed
to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty,
express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been
made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional
affiliations.

This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG
The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland
RAHMAN VE RAHİM OLAN ALLAH’IN ADI İLE

IN THE NAME OF ALLAH, THE MOST MERCIFUL, THE MOST

COMPASSIONATE

I hope that each individual will try to perform his/her intellectual ability and
moral behavior along an increasing trend for the common share and
prosperity of humanity in homogeneous and isotropic manner
Preface

Developments in science and technology are not possible prior to knowing what the philo-
sophical and then especially logical foundations of any phenomenal investigation or problem
solutions are based first on linguistical information, which are then translated to symbolic logic
with crisp logic principles in the mathematical equation, and formulation forms. Arrival to any
mathematical equation systems after logical rules, there are two ways to benefit from these
expressions as either to try and to solve the problem under the guidance of arithmetical and
mathematical principles, which was the main road about half a century ago, but today the
mathematical equation systems or algorithms can be solved speedily in a short time duration
by digital computer aids provided that a program is written in some computer language. In
many education systems all over the world rather than science philosophical based logical
derivations of many formulations, their presentations and explanations are provided either in
the form of spoon-feeding or mechanically through memorization and without actual dynamic
brain activities. Especially in recent decades, there are plenty of software in any domain
desired and they become an arena of commercialization, and therefore, rather than trying and
writing simple service satisfactory computer programs they are bought in wholesale and
without knowing the internal logical structure the guidance of sequenced button pushes and
clicks on computer screen lead to desired solutions. It is emphasized that to be able to write
one’s own computer programs for his/her research the prime condition is to get oneself
familiarize with the logical bases of the problem at focus or write down the logical rule base so
that they can be converted to a computer language such as the MATLAB, which is the sole
presentation in this book. It is advised that whoever wishes to write his/her own program the
first step is to put down into logical premises the problem at hand verbally, because each
premise corresponds to a computer language statement or command.
There are different disciplines covered in this book within the earth sciences systems
domain including atmospheric research, meteorology, hydrology and water science, water
quality variations, groundwater resources assessment, various simulation works concerning
the topics covered in various chapters, climate change impact and downscaling procedures,
spatial analysis and modeling, renewable energy calculation methodologies, and general
tendency determination in any records especially in the form of time series. In each chapter,
various computer programs in MATLAB language are presented with applications. Each
program is self-explanatory in open source form and can be modified accordingly.
The content of this book is based on the vast experience of the author, especially in the arid
region of the Arabian Peninsula through his academic work at the King Abdulaziz University,
Faculty of Earth Sciences, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia; at the application establishment of the
Saudi Geological Survey, Jeddah; and also at the Meteorology and Civil Engineering Faculties
at the Istanbul Technical University, Istanbul, Turkey, and Turkish Water Foundation.
I hope that this book will support to those interested in flood discharge estimation with risk
attachments, climate change relationships, hazard and mitigation aspects, and their applica-
tions in flood prevention works. I thank my colleagues, who have encouraged me to write a

vii
viii Preface

book on floods, and especially my wife Mrs. Fatma Şen, who had kept silence, endurance, and
patience during my extensive hourly, daily, monthly, and yearly works for the preparation of
this book.

Kavacık, Istanbul, Turkey Zekâi Şen

August 2018
Contents

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 Science Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.3 Software and Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 Logic Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.5 Computation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.6 Computer Program Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.7 Purpose of the Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2 Meteorology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 7
2.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 7
2.2 Storm Rainfall Records . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... 7
2.2.1 Frequency (Risk) Calculation from Probability Distribution
Function (PDF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.3 Intensity–Duration–Frequency (IDF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.3.1 Dimensionless Intensity–Duration (DID) Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.3.2 PDF and IDF Curve Software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.4 Radar Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.4.1 PDFs Matching Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.4.2 Application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
2.5 Probable Maximum Precipitation (PMP) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
2.6 Meteorological Water Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
2.7 Standard Precipitation Index (SPI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
2.8 Harmonic Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
2.8.1 Known Seasonality Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3 Hydrology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.2 Digital Elevation Model (DEM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.2.1 Gradients (Slopes) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.2.2 Cross-Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.2.3 Rating Curve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.3 Floods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.3.1 Flood Risk . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
3.3.2 Probable Maximum Flood (PMF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.4 Risk Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
3.5 Droughts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
3.5.1 Wet and Dry Periods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
3.5.2 Drought Indices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87

ix
x Contents

4 Hydrogeology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.2 Aquifer Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4.3 Confined and Unconfined Aquifer Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
4.3.1 Single Porous Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
4.4 Fractured Aquifer Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4.5 Groundwater Management and Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
4.5.1 Well Field Optimization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
5 Hydrochemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
5.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
5.2 Ion Concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
5.2.1 Ion Conversion Units and Balance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
5.3 Numerical Indicators . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
5.3.1 Electrical Conductivity (EC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
5.3.2 Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
5.3.3 Total Hardness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
5.3.4 Sodium Adsorption Ratio (SAR) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
5.4 Graphical Representations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
5.4.1 Stiff Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
5.4.2 Circular Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
5.4.3 Schoeller Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
5.5 Trilinear (Piper) Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
5.6 Multi-rectangular Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
5.7 Standard Ion Index Template . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
5.8 Water Quality Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
5.8.1 Similarity Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
5.8.2 Association Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
5.8.3 Fuzzy Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
5.9 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
6 Simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
6.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
6.2 Stochastic Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
6.2.1 Independent Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
6.2.2 Markov Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
6.2.3 White Markov Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
6.2.4 ARIMA Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
6.3 Maximum Rainfall Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
6.4 Computer Programs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Appendix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Seasonal Generation Process . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
7 Climate Change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
7.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
7.2 General Circulation Models (GCMs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
7.3 Fundamentals of Climate Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
7.3.1 Basic Flowchart . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
7.4 Downscaling Principles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
7.4.1 Dynamic Downscaling Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
7.4.2 Statistical Downscaling Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Contents xi

7.5 Simple Statistical Downscaling Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

7.5.1 Spatial Dependence Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
7.5.2 Spatial Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
7.5.3 Temporal Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
7.6 Software for Statistical Downscaling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
7.6.1 Application in Turkey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
8 Spatial Analyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
8.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
8.2 Spatial Dependence Function (SDF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
8.3 Semi-variogram (SV) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
8.4 Cumulative SV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
8.5 Point CSV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
8.6 Directional Semi-variogram (DSV) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
8.7 Innovative Spatial Dependence Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
8.8 Regional Estimation Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
9 Renewable Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
9.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
9.2 Solar Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
9.2.1 Angström Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
9.2.2 Unrestrictive Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
9.2.3 Successive Substitution Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
9.2.4 Nonlinear Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
9.2.5 Probabilistic Innovative Solar Energy Estimation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
9.3 Wind Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
9.3.1 Topographic Features . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
9.3.2 Power Formulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
9.3.3 Wind Field Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
9.3.4 Turbine Calculations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
9.4 Hydropower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
9.4.1 Classical and Energy Tree Hydropower Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
9.5 Newtonian Energy Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
10 Innovative Trends . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
10.1 General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
10.2 Trend Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
10.3 Innovative Trend Template (ITT) Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245
10.4 Innovative Variability Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
10.5 Crossing Trend Identification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
10.6 Variation Trend . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
10.7 Partial Trend Components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
10.8 Fuzzy Trend Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
10.9 Over-whitening Trend Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
 Introduction
1

only; otherwise one cannot provide a functional mechanism

1.1 General
of any methodology in detail with creative thought that may
root future developments. It is, therefore, necessary to
In recent years, there is a tremendous increase in the inter-
depend on available methodologies and techniques with
action between art, science, and technology through the
critical reasoning and questioning. Especially, software
unprecedented developments in the computer technology.
engineering depends on these features, which are indis-
Almost all aspects of life are directed by computer software
pensables in software writing for execution on digital com-
in an increasing number of software, application extent, size,
puters. Experience has shown that the more one writes
and variety of topics. The number of computer science
software programs the more he/she becomes acquainted with
departments in almost all the universities is more than
the logical reasoning even though it may be approximate at
enough, because computer experts in hardware and espe-
different phases.
cially software are bound to find job positions rather easily
Philosophical and logical principles provide a more
in many government offices and private companies. Different
effective and creative mind activity in one’s thoughts leading
specialists from a variety of disciplines are coming together
to new ideas, formulations, methodologies, procedures and
in a productive team for better software development in the
even to the modification of the existing information, equa-
service of daily life activities. All over the world there are
tion, or algorithm.
collaborating interdisciplinary activities around the compu-
Critical thought and its fruitful consequences can be
tation and software development.
obtained by philosophy learning and teaching in order to be
Computer software engineering career has numerical
empowered by critical view abilities that can revise available
which has numerical application directions based on philo-
information with rational, philosophical, and logical rules. In
sophical (linguistical fundamentals of the problem) and
this way, information boils down in his/her memory lin-
logical interpretations of available equations and formula-
guistically for any future verbal, and symbolic formulation
tions. Classical engineers that do not have artistic thoughts
generations. This is very important for those who would like
and background cannot be fruitful in software program
to be a demanded software program writer. Critical thoughts
writing. In many engineering education institutions all over
are based on reading, writing, and productions in alive.
the world, unfortunately, the artistic facet of engineering is
Remnants of memorization settle down even after repetitive
forgotten and verbal ingredients are ignored completely as if
dependence on philosophy and logic. Hence, in certain
engineering does not need philosophy and logical aspects for
affairs one becomes rather automatic in laying down the
problem-solving. Engineers are trained for numerical cal-
logical steps for the problem at hand, and once the logical
culations only even without the consciousness of the basic
rules ripen in the mind then its translation to computer
root philosophical and logical bases of equations and for-
language completes the task. Provided that philosophical
mulations, which are in the form of symbolic logic forms.
knowledge filters through the logical principles then one can
Without these constituents, it is not possible to make infer-
provide human or computer linguistic translation without
ences through dynamic rational thinking. Even the experi-
difficulty. This gives to the individual the ability to feel that
ence gained throughout the years cannot be productive
he/she can also generate information and can use knowledge
without them. Knowledge generation and innovative pro-
at proper times and locations for problem solution through
ductions are possible with philosophical and logical twins
the computer software written by him (her) self.

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 1

Z. Şen, Earth Systems Data Processing and Visualization Using MATLAB,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-01542-8_1
2 1 Introduction

1.2 Science Philosophy readily available software. Science philosophy principles

and contents are intact of various environment, energy,
Philosophy of science has an active role in the scientific economy, sociology, engineering disciplines, etc. As a
studies since the science became rather independently spel- result, generative and innovative thinking is missing in
led out from the philosophy after the renaissance period. research and development. Especially, in developing coun-
During the last decade through patent institutions, philoso- tries and societies ready programs are in use provided that
phy of technology started to ripen and there are many arti- data base is ready without any rule base consideration.
cles in the literature about such aspects (Scharff and Dusek One cannot have the ability or even courage to sit down
2003; Meijers 2009). However, philosophy of engineering is and write software even in his/her domain of activity if
a very recent debate in the world, since the last several years philosophy of science and its successor logical principles are
(De Poel and Goldberg 2010; Şen 2014). Hence, philosophy not known and applied properly. Philosophy of science and
of science is an overlooked or delayed aspect of systematic logic provide approximate reasoning about the phenomenon
engineering creative thinking. This does not mean that mechanism and its internal function of operations. Techno-
engineers never benefit from the philosophical principles, of logical innovative inventions are based on experience and
course they do, but this remained on individual bases and it expert view under the light of philosophical thinking. It is
could not be systematized during the engineering education. well recognized by many that science is concerned with
For instance, ethical behaviors and career rules are based on discovery, technology with invention whereas engineering is
philosophical basis, but real mass of engineering background more craft work concerned with making, producing, and
on tangible aspects are far away from systematic philo- generating alternative, simple, fast, effective, practical, and
sophical principles. Even the entrance of ethics into the economical solutions for a given problem. Some may pro-
engineering domain is a work achieved during the last sev- pose that there is no need for separate philosophy principles
eral decades (Davis 1998, 2005, 2012). One can easily say in engineering, because they are included in the philosophy
that philosophy of engineering is almost nonexistent in of technology.
engineering curricula. Another vague entrance of philo- Figure 1.1 represents a mixture of different disciplines for
sophical thinking into engineering domain may be that a search of possible relationship in different proportions
generally, engineering and technology are thought as distinct between mathematics, science, philosophy, logic, and tech-
disciplines, but there are occasional interferences between nology. The effective combination of these disciplines helps
the two, which transfer some philosophical aspects into to trigger the initial basis for the problem solution, which can
engineering thinking, because some engineers take an active be further studied by time for better solutions. Critical sci-
involvement in technological developments such as the first entific knowledge including theories falls within the domain
atom bomb production. Some may propose that there is no of science with continuous development throughout cen-
need for separate philosophy principles in engineering, turies. Patterns and blueprints are invention imprints in
because they are included in the philosophy of technology. technological developments. However, engineering tasks are
This is not acceptable completely due to the benefit of concerned with material products and designs.
engineers from the end products of science rather than
technology in their mental formation outputs such as design,
solutions to many problems, and in report writing. Most of
the engineering students in the world cannot write proper
reports or articles due to their inefficient philosophical Technology
backgrounds (Şen 2014). Many researchers may not sense
that the problems are full of philosophical arguments. They
Science
try to settle down the problems by a set of rational, empir-
philosophy
ical, and logical rules, which constitute the basis of science
philosophy.
The basis of any software passes through philosophical
thinking for the logical, rational, verbal, and analytical steps
to reach valuable equations to communicate with digital Logic rules
computers. It is not possible to generate any software
without considering these essential and fundamental steps.
Unfortunately, in many universities and research centers Software philosophy
rather than concentration on philosophical solution of
problem concerned, many researchers depend mostly on Fig. 1.1 Interaction among philosophy, logic, science, and technology
1.3 Software and Philosophy 3

1.3 Software and Philosophy abstract, because most of the users are not aware of the
internal mechanism of the software, but only input and
Software is necessary for the speedy calculation of compli- output ends are important for those who are making use of
cated functional performances that are based on mathemat- any software for systematic, accurate, speedy, and quick end
ical equations. The software is the only way to instruct results. Rhetoric is a significant part of the philosophy for
computers to do what is required through programs that are software writing. In the explanation of a ready software
written in different computer languages. Successful software rather than crisp concepts verbal explanations are provided
writing is possible through the science philosophical prin- and these lead to mutual discussion, which may be felt as a
ciples and logical rules in the form of mathematical philosophical debate especially for those who may not be
expressions that are translated to computer programming expert or experienced in the subject of the problem. To grasp
statements. The experts that are capable to write software software a harmonious mixture of intellectual thinking,
well understand the basic concepts in details of the logical electronic learning, and system design stages are necessary.
roots of the problem at hand. The only way of writing Software is not tangible like hardware, and it depends on
software is through the philosophical and logical under- the flowchart of rational steps in algorithmic solutions of
standing of the problem confronted. It is not necessary that mathematical functions. It is necessary for computer
the computer programmer should know all the necessary instruction through a set of statements within a program that
concepts, but anytime he/she is requested to write software starts execution leading from given informative data to
at the service of the client, then the client must explain to conclusive numerical outputs. Software can be written pro-
him/her all the detailed philosophical and logical rules and vided that the rational philosophical background is known
ingredients. by means of logical steps. Either software programmer
Software and the philosophy are interrelated through the should be acquainted with the philosophical and logical
design, because the software itself is a design and the phi- generation mechanism of the problem concerned or he/she
losophy explains the design. Philosophy dictates software will be informed by a client according to the desired problem
and software request dictation from the philosophy of the solution. The conceptual principles of the problem at hand
problem. The reader must not be discouraged by word will be transferred to the programmer, who will set down the
“philosophy,” because it is not the formal philosophy that statements from the logical rules of the problem. It is advised
one should know, but software philosophy, which is the that software should be checked with well-known or simple
linguistic (verbal) explanation of the problem-solving solutions prior to their effective and general uses. Software
mechanism by logical statements in the form of predicates program design is intimately related first to science philos-
and related consequences. Software design trains also the ophy and subsequently to logical principles and rules. Phi-
programmer continuously until a satisfactory solution is losophy depends on abstract prepositions, but software is a
reached. In practice, it is not possible to arrive at success in scientific concept and design. Generation of software for any
the first trial of the software program, but after a series of problem is an art, which helps to cure the scientific problems
logical and syntax errors through trial-and-error procedure of others in short time durations. It is also a commercial
the final goal can be achieved. A software writer does not material that brings income to many individuals and com-
need to indulge in formal philosophical principles and not panies. Although philosophers might not be interested in
even the history of the philosophy. He/she has to keep in software writing, software programmers can achieve their
mind that the philosophy in software writing is equivalent to goals after the establishment of science philosophical prin-
verbal knowledge and information about the problem con- ciples. Today, engineering, economic, social, and any sort of
cerned. In the meantime, the mathematical formulations are human activity cannot be thought without software running
also important. It is well known that mathematics foundation in the computers. Software needs thinking and reasoning
is logic and the software writing depends also on mathe- even though it may be approximate. At times software
matics and logic. writing depends on the mental thinking with the generation
After all what have been explained above one can feel of ideas from the soul, and hence, it may be subjective, but
that the philosophy of the problem concerned influences the product is always objective. One should consider the
directly the software. In general, philosophy is abstract, but verbal statement “Garbage in garbage out,” which implies
software is based on scientific principles, and therefore, one that one cannot reach to plausible output if the reasoning
should be concerned with the philosophy of science only. data are not rational and correct. Although in many educa-
However, by the time the software also becomes abstract, tion systems there are compulsory courses for computer
because its core may not be understood by everyone equally, programming leading to software, it seems that not every-
and the sole person for its command is the software pro- body can benefit from such training, because software
grammer. In daily life, the software becomes even more writing is rather personal wonder, ambition, and wish.
4 1 Introduction

Almost all software requires numerical data in the form of The basis of relationship search is to try and relate cau-
basic information according to crisp logic (zero-one, sative (inputs) variables to result (output) variables. The
white-black); recently fuzzy logic principles have entered the relationship search seeks for truth, belief, and justification,
domain that also digests verbal knowledge and information. which are subjective, but common sense and logical prin-
Software are very effective almost on everyday life with ciples provide an objective solution.
increasing trend of data mining and processing in the best, Behind any equation, formulation, or numerical solution,
cheap, optimum, and efficient manner. there is linguistic arena that led to mathematical formula-
Mathematical formulations are arsenal of logistic and tions, and hence, software writing may become rather easy.
linguistic elements that need for analytical, empirical, and It is not possible to write computer program with missing
numerical or simulation solutions. Unfortunately, worldwide linguistic explanation without science philosophy. It is
in many education institutions due to missing of linguistic asserted that all the scientific knowledge is rational. Imagi-
explanations and logical principles, the bases of mathemat- nation is necessary for visualization and computation.
ical formulations cannot be thought properly, and conse- Rationality provides mathematical relationships through
quently, the domain is left with memorization without logical rules. Based on the logical thoughts, empiricism is
critical revision and rational or even approximate reasoning. essential to make sense of the world. Subjective thinking
Additionally, lack of science philosophical reasoning and penetrates objectivity domain by time through imagination
suspicion from scientific information pave the way to and visualization, and hence, there is not a crisp boundary
mechanical prescriptions for desired solutions. Even the between subjectivity and objectivity. Empirical works which
software that needs at least logical steps is undertaken as are based on either observations or measurements as
curing pills for scientific advancement without fruitful experimental information help to decrease the degree of
results. It is a common illness in scientific thought that subjectivity by means of increasing logical concepts. The
although rationality is spelled out frequently with its void scientific principles include vagueness, incompleteness, and
understanding and application, it is taken for granted that uncertainty, and hence, they can be considered by fuzzy
scientific knowledge and information are rational or have logic principles, which are then defuzzified into crisp forms
rational basis. Hence, many rely on the false belief that of logical rules (Şen 2014). The fuzzy aspects are left outside
science is faith that does not need any criticism. Most often the content of this book.
thought constitutes classical educational system structure. It Rational inferences have a logical basis, but the final
should be taken into consideration that for scientific devel- confirmation should be achieved through convenient tests
opment each word or terminology has etymologic root and experimentally. Approximate reasoning based on logical
epistemological background meanings. In order to surface principles leads to a set of rules that can be translated to
these meanings, the main keys lie in the questions of how? software language, which is MATLAB in this book. The
and why? Without answers to these two questions, the sequential steps as in Fig. 1.2 guide to software writing.
knowledge cannot be transmuted to scientific and generative Human wonder and mind serve for solving problems
information. Answers to these questions lead to the funda- through philosophical (linguistic information) thinking,
mentals of scientific knowledge. Rational thinking steps are logical rules, and experience and expert views. The logical
imagination of the objects, their visualization in the form of concepts in understanding complex problems are dependent
designs, i.e., geometry (figures, shapes, etc.), and finally on observations, experiences, and conscious expert views.
information production. The mind is capable to perceive not
only Euclidian geometry as points, lines, volumes, but
overridingly shapes of any object in general.

1.4 Logic Rules Fig. 1.2 Software steps

UNDERSTANDING

In computer science, hardware design is based on physical

EXPLANATION
and material sciences, whereas the software design is
dependent on logic supported by linguistically and mathe-
matical expressions. Linguistic thoughts, interpretations, GOOD REASONING
evaluations, and assessments are products of the philosophy
about phenomenon or problem concerned, and they form the LOGICAL RULES
structure of the software. In logical foundations, ideas,
concepts, system, and priority among the most simplistic
SOFTWARE
expressions are needed for successful programming.
1.5 Computation 5

1.5 Computation unobservable cases with certain risk levels. Computational

tasks are also necessary for model fitting to available
Scientific computation is within the daily life activities in information and data after proper data analysis. Mathemat-
any discipline for organization, clustering, estimation, and ical optimization and search procedures for the best solution
prediction purposes. Almost all the governmental and among a set of alternatives also require computational
especially company tasks end up with the necessary calcu- affairs. For instance, there are different versions of numerical
lations, which require speedy and accurate computation weather prediction model software and each one results in
facilities that are nowadays satisfied through the digital rather different prediction sequence for future. Hence, there
computer software. Computation capabilities are increasing is an ensemble of rational and logical computation solutions
day by day toward better understanding and solving complex and the most convenient one can be obtained through an
problems automatically. The most important preliminary optimization criterion in digital computers.
aspect in any computation is to have linguistic and numerical
algorithms that guide one step by step from the beginning to
the end of problem solution. The conversion of these steps 1.6 Computer Program Structure
into an automatic solution mechanism is possible through
proper mathematical models, simulation techniques, and Programing languages are basic means of conveying the
their computer software in social, economic, engineering, abstract ideas, conceptions, definitions, logical relationships to
and other human activities. a software program for the solution of the scientific and tech-
Computational problems can be achieved apart from the nological conceptual visualizations and imaginations in a vir-
algorithms with the development of optimization techniques tual media. A computer software programmer is like a person,
through hardware, software, network, and especially, data who can visualize the rational and especially logical relation-
mining and management works. These are the main means to ships between different elements of a system input, I, and out-
solve demanding computational problems. Recently, infor- put, O, variables through an identification unit as in Fig. 1.3.
mation technology (IT) and scientific principles through the This figure provides a simple system modeling, which is in
support of software engineers pave their final goal toward the interest of any mathematical modeler in science and
success. technology provided that the functional relationships are
In various scientific disciplines, the problem solution lies identified scientifically. However, for a computer programmer
in the availability of numerical analysis computation and apart from the symbolic equations their internal logical
simulation techniques. Although there are field works structures are the most important ingredients for converting
especially in earth systems and laboratory works in many them into software programming statements. It is, therefore,
disciplines, their replacements or supports are taking place necessary to establish a logical rule base for computer program
through the computational techniques by means of conve- writing. Each statement must be in the form of logical state-
nient software. Field and laboratory collected data are stored ments, which are referred to predicates (Şen 2014), and their
in the memory of computer, and they are treated with con- forms have two parts as preliminary (reasons) and consequent
venient methodological computations by means of software. (result) (parts). The mathematical formulations must be
In this manner, field and laboratory works remain as tradi- abstracted in the form of following logical statements.
tional research units, which cannot be without the support of
software computation. Scientific computation methodologies
help to gain and understand by means of mathematical IDENTIFICATION UNIT
model implications. Software is developed based on com- I (Logical relationships) O
puter programs that model the system concerned with its O = f(I)
input and output variables and data. Models may require
massive computation procedures, and even for some Fig. 1.3 Mathematical program models
problem-solving such as numerical weather prediction, glo-
bal warming, and climate change, space research tasks need
supercomputer network.
Especially, numerical computation and simulation aim
various purposes in complex research problems. Rare events
such as floods, earthquakes, and the like cannot be examined
in the field or in the laboratory, but their past records provide
a basis for numerical simulation and calculation opportuni-
ties. In this manner, future predictions can be obtained for Fig. 1.4 Computer program model
6 1 Introduction

Causes SOFTWARE Results

Fig. 1.5 Software role

IF (Antecedences) THEN (Consequent) activities, it is essential to search for relevant literature,

or in terms of the simplest form as, reports, and books for the solution to the problem at hand.
IF (Reasons) THEN (Consequences) This book includes the widest extent of the topics in the
earth systems domain with brief, rationally understandable
For a computer programmer, it is better to visualize the background information followed by the MATLAB software
problem at hand not in the form of Fig. 1.3, but as in and factual data application examples. The supplementary
Fig. 1.4. electronic material is available online through the pub-
The preliminary step is a genuine logical and uncertain lisher’s Web site for direct use of the readers.
conceptualization of the phenomenon with its causal and For the software MATLAB is used for all the applications
resultant variables that are combined through a set of logical in each topic covered in the book especially including
propositions in the form of software (Fig. 1.5). temporal time and spatial series. Among the main topics of
The software is for the transformation mechanism, which the book are advanced statistical methods, because the usual
translates the logical rules and mathematical expressions by methods are already available in the MATLAB program-
a certain computer language, which is adapted in this book ming library for ready use—stochastic processes, geostatis-
as the MATLAB. tics and Kriging, digital elevation model applications,
hydrogeological evaluation of aquifer tests, hydrochemistry,
droughts, floods, climate change, rainfall analysis, risk
1.7 Purpose of the Book management, and related aspects. The numerous examples
help to demonstrate the usage of MATLAB in earth systems
Science aspects that are concerned with various disciplines problem solutions. The reader is capable to modify all
(engineering, earth systems, space research, and the like) software to suit his/her own data set, because all the software
need numerical computation procedures and algorithms of are presented as open source.
data collected from the field measurements or laboratory
records. The same is also valid for data processing in social
sciences and economics. Some of the data assessment and References
processing procedures are at large scales and complex and,
therefore, require effective and efficient computer programs. Davis, M. (1998). Thinking like an engineer: studies in the ethics of a
Data reduction and graphical display in addition to proba- profession. New York/Oxford: Oxford University Press.
bilistic, statistical, stochastic, and simulation models and Davis, M. (2005). Engineering ethics. Aldershot/Burlington, VT:
calculations are among the general purpose of the book. Not Ashgate.
Davis, M. (2012) “Ain’t no one here but us social forces”: Constructing
only students but also researchers in the universities and the professional responsibility of engineers. Science and Engineer-
experts in different companies need to depend on reliable ing Ethics 18: 13–34.
software. Especially, potential users of MATLAB in earth De Poel, I.V., Goldberg, D.E., (2010). Philosophy and engineering. An
systems need a guidance book that covers a variety of Emerging Agenda, Springer, Dordrecht, 361 pp ISNB
9789048128044.
practically applicable problem solution software. Meijers, A., ed. (2009). Philosophy of technology and engineering
The main goal of the book is to acquaint late under- sciences (Handbook of the philosophy of science, volume 9).
graduate and graduate students, researchers and experts, Amsterdam: North-Holland.
engineers, environmentalists, earth scientists, hydrogeolo- Scharff, R. C., and V. Dusek, eds. (2003). Philosophy of technology:
the technological condition. Malden, MA/Oxford: Blackwell.
gists, hydrologists, meteorologists, and practicing experts Şen, Z., (2014). Philosophy, Logic, and Scientific Perspectives in
concerned with the topics that are currently needed in dif- Engineering. Springer Verlag, Intelligence Systems Reference
ferent disciplines and earth systems scopes. In these Library 143, 260 pp.
 Meteorology
2

measurements provide discrete time records, and in partic-

2.1 General
ular, as a continuous record of a single storm rainfall in case
of recording rain gauge availability (Şen 2017). The litera-
The root meaning of word meteorology is the science of
ture is full of rainfall time series evaluation based on the
moving things in the air, which is referred to as the tropo-
probabilistic, statistical, and stochastic modeling procedures,
sphere or the lower layer of atmosphere. Among such things
which are explained with MATLAB programs in Chaps.
are cloud formation and movement, wind and its speed,
6, 7, and 10. The non-recording rain gauge provides total
particulate matter and aerosol, precipitation (rainfall, snow
amount of rainfall as daily, weekly, monthly, or annual
and hail), temperature and pressure differences, water vapor,
multi-rainfall events. Figure 2.1 represents a long-term
which are meteorological variables. There are theoretical
annual rainfall record graphical representation in the form
modeling approaches for the tropospheric movement (gen-
of time series from New Jersey, USA, during 1895–2013
eral circulation models, GCMs) in large scales (Chap. 7). In
periods.
practice, the meteorological variable variations are measured
In general, annual records may include deterministic
at a set of meteorology stations as time records, which help
holistic monotonic or partial trends, shifts and uncertainty
to identify temporal variations (trend, jump or shift, sea-
parts, which can be expressed by probabilistic, statistical,
sonality, and stochasticity) at the record site. Spatial and
and stochastic approaches (Chap. 6).
regional assessments are based on a set of temporal records
In practical engineering applications, the most important
leading to various meteorological and climate variation
feature of any storm rainfall event is its intensity, which is
maps. Precipitation and temperature records are indispens-
the speed of rainfall occurrence from beginning to the end of
able essentials in many engineering and societal works
an event. The recording rain gauges provide the accumula-
including water resources management, water allocation and
tive rainfall amount variation during each individual storm
distribution, droughts, floods, groundwater recharge
rainfall event in seconds or minutes as in Fig. 2.2, which is
(Chap. 3) and also in the climate change implication
recorded on January 26, 2011, at Jeddah, Kingdom of Saudi
assessments (Chaps. 7 and 10).
Arabia (Şen 2015).
In this chapter, the most significant two meteorological
In practical applications, there are numerous benefits
variable records (precipitation and temperature) are discussed
from the graphs in Figs. 2.1 and 2.2. The former is very
from temporal perspectives with MATLAB programs. Fur-
useful to determine the extreme values (high and low peaks)
thermore, some fundamental calculation methodologies con-
for flood and drought calculations and their return periods.
cerning the precipitation record evaluation are presented after
The latter paves the way to the fundamentals of rainfall in-
brief explanations leading to MATLAB software programs.
tensity–duration–frequency (IDF) curves for various surface
water design problems (Chap. 3) and groundwater recharge
calculations (Chap. 4). Since each meteorological record has
2.2 Storm Rainfall Records
uncertainty, their future behaviors can be predicted based on
Precipitation is the amount of water that originates from the the probabilistic, statistical, or stochastic methods under the
concepts of uncertainty and risk.
clouds under certain conditions and reaches the earth surface
The intensity–duration (ID) curve calculation is based on
in rainfall (fluid) or snow and hail (solid) particle forms. It is
necessary to have a set of standards for their measurements a given single storm record similar to Fig. 2.2 by means of
the following software in MATLAB programming language.
and mutual comparisons on an equal footing. In general, the

© Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2020 7

Z. Şen, Earth Systems Data Processing and Visualization Using MATLAB,
Advances in Science, Technology & Innovation, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-01542-8_2
8 2 Meteorology

Fig. 2.1 New Jersey annual 5

rainfall sequence

Statewise precipitation (inch)

4.5

3.5

2.5

2
1895 1915 1935 1955 1975 1995 2015
Years

Fig. 2.2 Single storm rainfall JEDDAH STORM RAINFALL DATA

event charts 120
26 January 2011

100

80
Cumulative rainfall (mm)

60

40

20

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Time (minute)
2.2 Storm Rainfall Records 9

function IntensityDuration(X)
% This program calculates intensity-duration (ID) curve for a given
% single rainfall record
% X : Two dimensional data (timexcumulative rainfall record)
% Time records in successive minutes (1,2,3,......,.....)
% Cumulative rainfall amounts in mm
n=length(X(:,2)); % Data number
D=[5 10 20 50 70 100 120]; % Duration limits
for i=1:7
d=D(i); % Duration
nD=n-d+1; % Number of possible duration
k=0;
for j=1:nD
k=k+1;
ll=j; % Lower limit of duration
ul=j+d-1; % Upper limit of the duration
I(k)=(X(ul,2)-X(ll,2))*60/d; % Possible intensities
end
Imax(i)=max(I); % Maximum intensity among all possible intensities
end
loglog(D,Imax,'r*')
grid on
box on
axis equal
end

The application of this software to the cumulative rainfall IDF curves. For the frequency calculations, a theoretical
data in Fig. 2.2 yields the ID curve on double-logarithmic probability distribution function (PDF) must be matched to
paper as in Fig. 2.3. rainfall amounts of given duration (Şen 2008). Among the
most frequently used PDFs in hydro-meteorological studies
are generalized extreme value (GEV), Gumbel, normal
2.2.1 Frequency (Risk) Calculation (Gaussian), two-parameter log-normal, three-parameter
from Probability Distribution Function log-normal, Gamma, Pearson Type III, and log-Pearson
(PDF) Type III PDFs. The mathematical expression, f(i), for
GEV PDF is given below for rainfall intensities at a par-
After the calculation of ID curve, probabilistic and statis- ticular time interval during the storm rainfall duration
tical frequency methodologies help to construct theoretical (Chow 1964).

Fig. 2.3 Intensity–duration

3
26 Januay 2011 Jeddah Storm Rainfall
(ID) curves 10

2
10
Rainfall intensity (mm/hour)

1
10

0
10

-1
10
100 101 102 103
Duration (minute)
10 2 Meteorology




1 i  u 1=k1 ½1kðiu 1 i  c b1 ðicaÞ
a Þ
1=k
f ðiÞ ¼ 1  k e ð2:1Þ f ðiÞ ¼ e ð2:7Þ
a a a CðbÞ a

where a, u, and k are the model parameters. If the storm and

rainfall duration is, say, 180 min, then there are 180/5 = 36  
non-overlapping 5-min intensities, which correspond to the 1 LnðiÞ  c b1 fInðiÞc
a g
f ðiÞ ¼ e ð2:8Þ
storm rainfall record slope during this time interval. The ai CðbÞ a
intensity is defined as the rainfall increment amount divided
by the specified time interval. respectively.
The extreme value Type I Gumbel PDF has the following In the derivation of IDF curves, each PDF provides the
mathematical expression again with parameters (a and u), following basic information for meaningful interpretations.
which define the location and scale of the PDF shape
(Gumbel 1958), (1) The form of the PDF shows the rainfall frequency as it
is symmetrically distributed or skewed. For instance, in



1 iu iu arid and semiarid regions, it is climatologically mean-
f ðiÞ ¼ exp   exp  ð2:2Þ
a a a ingful to expect storm rainfalls at high (low) intensities
with low (high) frequencies. The theoretical PDF of
The earliest application of the normal (Gaussian) PDF to such a statement abides by an exponential or
hydro-meteorological variables is presented by Hazen Gamma PDF,
(1914). This PDF has symmetrical bell shape, and its general (2) The PDFs give way to calculate the risk, R, values
expression can be found in any standard textbook on corresponding to a set of engineering design (return)
statistics (Benjamin and Cornell 1970), periods, T, such as 2-year, 5-year, 10-year, 25-year,
1 2
50-year, 100-year, and 500-year.
f ðiÞ ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffi e2r2 ðilÞ
1
ð2:3Þ
r 2p
Risk is the amount of uncertainty, because nature breaks
where l and r are the arithmetic mean and standard devia- records against engineering structural designs, which are
tion parameters of the PDF, respectively. expected to resist extreme hydro-meteorology events as
As one of the representative skewed PDFs, two-parameter runoff, flood, flash flood, and inundation occurrences.
log-normal PDF has the following mathematical formula- Whatever the refinement of the scientific methodology, there
tions with logarithmic mean and standard deviation param- is always an unexplainable uncertainty part, and therefore,
eters, li and ri , respectively (Yevjevich 1972). the designer has to take a certain risk level in his/her cal-
" # culations. It is possible to predict design magnitude after
1 ðLn i  li Þ2 acceptance of a certain risk level. Even after the inclusion of
f ðiÞ ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffi exp  ð2:4Þ
i ri 2 p 2r2i risk in the calculations with most modern methodologies, it
is not guaranteed that in future engineering designs will not
Alternatively, the three-parameter log-normal distribution be toppled. Risk concept provides that extreme occurrences
is similar except that i is shifted by an amount, m, which will not cause extreme destructions and dangers to property
represents a lower bound of the PDF (Kite 1977), and human life. In the hydro-meteorological calculations, the
( ) most recommended risk level is, in general, 10% percent or
1 ½Lnði  mÞ  li 2 for more sensitive works it may be adapted as 5%. It is
f ðiÞ ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffi exp  ð2:5Þ
ði  mÞri 2 p 2r2i useful to relate the risk (frequency), R, to the design (return)
period, T, which are inversely related to each other as,
A flexible PDF that includes the exponential PDF (when
b = 1) is a two-parameter Gamma PDF that can be expres- 1
R¼ ð2:9Þ
sed mathematically as follows, where a and b are parameters T
(Kite 1977). The frequency is also defined as the frequency of
1 exceedence once during the whole design period.
f ðiÞ ¼ ib1 eði=aÞ ð2:6Þ The selection of suitable PDFs can be achieved by means
ab CðbÞ
of any available ready software. However, below simple
Pearson (1930) suggested the Pearson III and then its PDF determination software is presented in MATLAB pro-
logarithmic version, Log-Pearson III PDFs as, gramming language.
2.2 Storm Rainfall Records 11

function [VI,I,pr] = PDFselection(D,StationName)

% This software is written by Zekâi Şen on 26 November 2016
% The main purpose is to match the most suitable Probability Distribution Function (PDF)
to each variable.
% In this software Gamma, Log-Normal, Extreme Value (EV Gumbel)and Generalized
% Extreme Value (GEV, Pearson) PDF's are considered
% D : Data (nxND)
% I : Probability distribution function names
% If I = 1 Gamma PDF
% If I = 2 Log-Normal PDF
% If I = 3 Extreme value (Gumbel)PDF
% If I = 4 Generalized extreme value (Pearson III)PDF
% If I = 5 Weibull PDF
N=length(D);
Risk=0.001:0.001:0.999;
R=[1-Risk(500) 1-Risk(200) 1-Risk(100) 1-Risk(40) 1-Risk(20) 1-Risk(10) 1-Risk(4) 1-
Risk(2)];
Dmin=min(D); % Maximum data value
Dmax=max(D); % Minimum data value
x=Dmin:0.1:1.1*Dmax; % Data variation domain
pp=(1:1:N)/(N+1); % Data empirical probability (ascending order)
p=1-pp'; % Data probability in descending order
SV=sort(D); % Sorted data in ascending order
pgam=gamfit(D); % Gamma PDF parameters
ygam=1-gamcdf(x,pgam(1),pgam(2));
ptgam=1-gamcdf(SV,pgam(1),pgam(2));
ppt2gam=(p-ptgam).^2;
GTest=mean(ppt2gam);
plon=lognfit(D); % Log-Normal PDF parameters
ylon=1-logncdf(x,plon(1),plon(2));
ptlon=1-logncdf(SV,plon(1),plon(2));
ppt2lon=(p-ptlon).^2;
LNTest=mean(ppt2lon);
pevd=evfit(D); % Gumbel PDF parameters
yevd=1-evcdf(x,pevd(1),pevd(2));
ptevd=1-evcdf(SV,pevd(1),pevd(2));
ppt2evd=(p-ptevd).^2;
EVTest=mean(ppt2evd);
pgev=gevfit(D); % Pearson III PDF parameters
ygev=1-gevcdf(x,pgev(1),pgev(2),pgev(3));
ptgev=1-gevcdf(SV,pgev(1),pgev(2),pgev(3));
ppt2gev=(p-ptgev).^2;
GEVTest=mean(ppt2gev);
pwbl=wblfit(D); % Weibull PDF parameters
ywbl=1-wblcdf(x,pwbl(1),pwbl(2));
ptwbl=1-wblcdf(SV,pwbl(1),pwbl(2));
ppt2wbl=(p-ptwbl).^2;
WBLTest=mean(ppt2wbl);
rgam=gaminv(R,pgam(1),pgam(2));
rlon=logninv(R,plon(1),plon(2));
revd=evinv(R,pevd(1),pevd(2));
rgev=gevinv(R,pgev(1),pgev(2),pgev(3));
rwbl=wblinv(R,pwbl(1),pwbl(2));
[VI I]=min([GTest LNTest EVTest GEVTest WBLTest]);
if I == 1
yf=ygam;
rf=rgam;
pr=pgam;
PR='Gamma PDF';
elseif I ==2
yf=ylon;
rf=rlon;
pr=plon;
PR='Log-normal PDF';
elseif I == 3
……………………………..Continued……………………………………
12 2 Meteorology

yf=yevd;
rf=revd;
pr=pevd;
PR='Gumbel PDF';
elseif I == 4
yf=ygev;
rf=rgev;
pr=pgev;
PR='Pearson PDF';
else
yf=ywbl;
rf=rwbl;
pr=pwbl;
PR='Weibull PDF';
end
figure
scatter(SV,p,'k*')
title(StationName)
hold on
grid on
box on
xlabel('Ground station rainfall values (mm)')
ylabel('Exceedence probability')
plot(x,yf,'LineWidth',2,'Color','r') % Theoretical PDF
legend('Data values',PR,'Location','Northeast')
text(Dmax/2,0.80,['Location constant = ' num2str(pr(1))])
text(Dmax/2,0.75,['Scale constant = ' num2str(pr(2))])
text(0.40*Dmax,0.60,[' 2-year (%50 risk) = ' num2str(rf(1)),' mm'])
text(0.40*Dmax,0.55,[' 5-year (%20 risk) = ' num2str(rf(2)),' mm'])
text(0.40*Dmax,0.50,[' 10-year (%10 risk) = ' num2str(rf(3)),' mm'])
text(0.40*Dmax,0.45,[' 25-year (%4 risk) = ' num2str(rf(4)),' mm'])
text(0.40*Dmax,0.40,[' 50-year (%2 risk) = ' num2str(rf(5)),' mm'])
text(0.40*Dmax,0.35,['100-year (%1 risk) = ' num2str(rf(6)),' mm'])
text(0.40*Dmax,0.30,['250-year (%0.4 risk) = ' num2str(rf(7)),' mm'])
text(0.40*Dmax,0.25,['500-year (%0.2 risk) = ' num2str(rf(8)),' mm'])
end

As an example, four meteorology station annual daily

2.3 Intensity–Duration–Frequency (IDF)
rainfall records are taken into consideration from different
parts of the Arabian Peninsula, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia
The knowledge of rainfall IDF triple relationship is of fun-
(Şen 2015). The full report is available at the Saudi Geo-
damental importance in hydro-meteorology, water resources
logical Survey (SGS). In the southwestern part at Asir
systems design and management. IDF curves are based on
Region, A004; Red Sea Coastal Region Makkah
records from recording gauges, which are also necessary
Al-Mukharramah City, J110; Riyadh Region, R101; and
prerequisites for many hydro-meteorological models and
within the Eastern Region, EP003 stations are treated with
procedures for water quantity and quality computations
the above software leading to results in Fig. 2.4.
(Chaps. 4 and 5).
In each graph, the most suitable type of the PDF to data scatter
IDF charts are essential ingredients to characterize storm
points is given with its parameters and return periods (2-year,
rainfall events, and especially, engineering design period for
5-year, 10-year, 25-year, 50-year, and 100-year) corresponding
any water structure dimensioning study. Storm rainfall
to frequency (risk) levels (0.50, 0.20, 0.10, 0.04, 0.02, and 0.01).
events and consequent floods may constitute one of the most
2.3 Intensity–Duration–Frequency (IDF) 13

A004 J110
1 1
Data values Data values
0.9 Log-normal PDF 0.9 Gamma PDF

0.8 0.8 Location parameter= 1.5126

Scale parameter= 18.2946
Exceedence probability

0.7 0.7

Exceedence probability
Location parameter = 3.0987
Scale parameter = 0.8173
0.6 0.6 2-year rainfall= 21.8704 mm
5-year rainfall= 42.7765 mm
0.5 2-year rainfall= 22.1691 mm 0.5 10-year rainfall= 57.547 mm
5-year rainfall= 44.1043 mm 25-year rainfall= 76.4352 mm
0.4 10-year rainfall= 63.1879 mm 0.4 50-year rainfall= 90.4251 mm
25-year rainfall= 92.7155 mm 100-year rainfall= 104.2395 mm
0.3 50-year rainfall= 118.7748 mm 0.3
100-year rainfall= 148.4167 mm
0.2 0.2

0.1 0.1

0 0
0 50 100 150 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Annual daily maximum rainfall (mm) Daily rainfall (mm)

R001 EP003
1 1
Data values Data values
0.9 Pearson PDF 0.9 Pearson PDF

0.8 Location parameter= 0.0055208 0.8 Location parameter= 0.27701

Exceedence probability

Scale parameter= 7.8791 Scale parameter= 9.3151

Exceedence probability

0.7 Shape parameter = 14.28 0.7 Shape parameter = 12.9353

0.6 2-year rainfall= 17.1708 mm 0.6 2-year rainfall= 16.5288 mm

5-year rainfall= 26.1473 mm 5-year rainfall= 30.2576 mm
0.5 10-year rainfall= 32.1216 mm 0.5 10-year rainfall= 42.0301 mm
25-year rainfall= 39.7055 mm 25-year rainfall= 60.8702 mm
0.4 50-year rainfall= 45.3574 mm 0.4 50-year rainfall= 78.4165 mm
100-year rainfall= 50.9894 mm 100-year rainfall= 99.5645 mm
0.3 0.3

0.2 0.2

0.1 0.1

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100
Daily rainfall (mm) Daily rainfall (mm)

Fig. 2.4 Annual daily maximum rainfall cumulative PDFs for each station

striking illustrations of what is an extreme event. Risk society and the goods against extreme hydro-meteorological
evaluation and mitigation necessitate statistical information events.
in order to plan appropriate infrastructures related to sewage, In developing IDF curves from a set of recording rain
culvert, bridge, dam, dike, design, etc., in order to protect the gauge storm rainfall charts (see Fig. 2.2), probability and
14 2 Meteorology

statistical frequency analysis are employed, whereby an provided that data are available from a set of recording
extreme rainfall series of given duration is described by a meteorology stations. This software has similar
suitable PDF as mentioned in Sect. 2.2.1. The following parts to IntensityDuration (X) software that is presented in
MATLAB program provides clasical IDF curve derivations Sect. 2.2.

function IntensityDurationFrequency(X)
% This program calculates intensity-Duration-Frequency (IDF) curve for a
% set of given recording rainfall charts
% X : N dimensional data (timexcumulative rainfall record)
% The first column is for time records in successive minutes
% (1,2,3,......,.....)
% Other columns are for cumulative rainfall amounts in mm for
% each storm rainfall records at the same station
% N : The number of storm rainfall charts
n=length(X(:,1)); % Data number
D=[5 10 25 50 100 250 500]; % Duration limits
%
% Calculation of intensity for each duration
%
for i=1:N
for j=1:7
d=D(j); % Duration
nD=n-d+1; % Number of possible duration
L=0; % Duration number counter
for k=1:nD
L=L+1;
ll=k; % Lower limit of duration
ul=k+d-1; % Upper limit of the duration
I(L)=(X(ul,2)-X(ll,2))*60/d; % Possible intensities
end
Imax(i)=max(I); % Maximum intensity among all possible intensities
end
end
%
% Probability distribution function fit to each duration intensity
%

%
% Calculation of risk levels for each duration
%

%
% Graphical representation of IDF curves on double logarithmic scale
%

loglog(D,Imax,'r*')
grid on
box on
axis equal
end
2.3 Intensity–Duration–Frequency (IDF) 15

Another version of the IDF calculation with resultant risk among these records is labeled as the annual daily maximum
values are calculated by use of the following MATLAB rainfall (ADMR) record rainfall duration as one day, i.e.,
software. 1440-min in humid regions of the world. In arid and semi-

function [Risk] = IntensityDurationFrequencyCurve(Veri,vs)

% This program is written by Zekâi Şen on 12 October 2012
% Veri is the data that includes cumulative rainfall amounts with time
% The first row includes time of record and the other columns include
% cumulative storm rainfall amounts. Its dimension is mxn, where m is the
% vector of desired set of durations as in this program
% [10 20 30 60 120 180 360 720] and n is the number of storm
% vs data number
% t is the vector of intensity calculations [10 20 30 40 50 60 120, 180]
nd=8; % Number of duration data, which is 8 in this case
R=[10 25 50 100 200 500]; % Return periods; the inverse is the frequency
x=1:1:720; % Horizontal axis minute division
for k=2:vs
yy=spline(Veri(1,:),Veri(k,:),x);
for i=1:nd
D=Veri(1,i);
Ndur=round(720/D);
for j=1:Ndur
Intensity(j)=(yy(j*D)-yy((j-1)*D+1))/D;
end
MaxIntensity(k-1,i)=max(Intensity(1:Ndur));
end
end
for i=1:nd
MaxIns=MaxIntensity(:,i);
par=gamfit(MaxIns(MaxIns>0)); % Considers only positive numbers
Maxsort=sort(MaxIns(MaxIns>0));
Max=max(MaxIns(MaxIns>0));
Min=min(MaxIns(MaxIns>0));
xx=0.001:0.01:1;
yy=gamcdf(xx,par(1),par(2));
for j=1:6
Risk(i,j)=60*10*(gaminv(1-1/R(j),par(1),par(2))); % multiplied
% by 60 in order to convert mm/min to mm/hour; multiplication
% by 10 is for conversion of mm to cm
end
end
scatter(Veri(1,:),Risk(:,1))
hold on
scatter(Veri(1,:),Risk(:,2))
scatter(Veri(1,:),Risk(:,3))
scatter(Veri(1,:),Risk(:,4))
scatter(Veri(1,:),Risk(:,5))
scatter(Veri(1,:),Risk(:,6))
end

2.3.1 Dimensionless Intensity–Duration arid regions one cannot observe 24-h long rainfall events,
(DID) Curve because they have shorter durations depending on the geo-
graphical location, which may be 3-h (180-min) or 6-h
IDF curves are not available in many parts of the world, (360-min) rainfall representative durations. Whatever the
because recording rainfall instruments do not exist. Few or duration, one can obtain the theoretical PDF of the ADMR
several of them are available at a set of locations, and they data and then one is able to calculate a set of exceedence
provide general information about the region. In practice, probability rainfall amounts for a given duration with a
most often a set of daily total rainfall amounts is available at return period (or risk level). Hence, the question is how to
any non-recording meteorology station and the maximum relate ADMR records for IDF curve generation? In this
16 2 Meteorology

section, an innovative concept and methodology are pre- 1 Since ADMR amounts are available for some daily
sented through the following three steps for IDF curve duration (6-h = 360-min, 12-h = 720-min, 24-h =
establishment from the ADMR records. 1440 min), first the most suitable PDF is determined for
each station,
(1) The first step is to determine the most suitable PDF for 2 The theoretical PDFs help to calculate rainfall amounts
the ADMR records, that correspond to a set of desired probabilities of
(2) The next step is to obtain dimensionless intensity exceedence (frequency, risk), R, according to the inverse
duration (DID) curve for the region, where there may be relationship between the return period, T, and the risk in
some recording rain gauge graphs from which ID curve Eq. (2.9). The return period (risk) sets are adapted as
can be obtained as explained in Sect. 2.2. DID curve T = 2-year (R = 0.50), T = 5-year (R = 0.20), T =
can be obtained by dividing durations of the ID curve 10-year (R = 0.10), T = 25-year (R = 0.04), T = 50-year
by the maximum duration and intensities by the maxi- (R = 0.02), and T = 100-year (R = 0.01),
mum intensity, 3 The IDF curves can be generated on the basis of the
(3) The third step is to convert the ADMR records to IDF available information from the previous steps concerning
curves through the DID curve, just by the reverse ADMR data and DID curve as explained above. Addi-
operation of division this time by multiplication of the tionally, one should know rainfall amount corresponding
DID dimensionless durations by the desired duration to the exceedence probability for each return period from
and the dimensionless intensities by the corresponding the suitable PDF for each station,
intensity value. This innovative methodology can be 4 Available natural IDF curves from different parts of a
applied in any part of the world provided that DID region or country can be converted to DID curves with
curves are determined either from a set of already the best average DID curve expression as in Fig. 2.5,
existing storm rainfall records or from a hypothetical DI
curve.

0:0469
The following recommendations must be taken into id ¼ ð2:10Þ
consideration for future application. dd0:747

where id and dd are dimensionless intensity and duration,

(1) The IDF curves at each station must be updated after 5
respectively,
or at the maximum 10 years with revision,
(2) If storm rainfall records become available, then the IDF
5 Since the definition of DID curve is the change of
curves must be checked against the ones derived from
dimensionless intensity by dimensionless time, dd, it is
the ADMR data. In general, not too many changes are
expected, but the climate change impact may play some
1
role (Chap. 7),
(3) For local engineering structure design applications, the 0.9
nearest meteorology station or the nearest 2–3 stations’ 0.8
IDF curves can be considered for regional DID repre-
0.7
Standard intensity, id

sentation purposes,
(4) For drainage basin flood calculations, one should con- 0.6
0.747
y = 0.0469/x
sider all the stations within the study area, if available, 0.5
otherwise the nearest stations outside the drainage area 0.4
can be considered by some techniques, such as the IDF curves from
0.3
inverse distance square methodology or spatial depen- different studies

dence function method (Chap. 8), 0.2

(5) In any engineering structure design, a relative error 0.1
should be accepted and 10% is recommended.
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
One can achieve IDF curves generation from the ADMR Standard duration, d d
amounts and their combination with the DID through the
execution of the following steps. Fig. 2.5 Dimensionless intensity–duration curves
2.3 Intensity–Duration–Frequency (IDF) 17

possible to calculate rainfall duration, tr, for the IDF 2.3.2 PDF and IDF Curve Software
graph through the following expressions,
The first step in any IDF curve calculation as mentioned in
Sect. 2.2 is the theoretical PDF determination that fits the
available ADMR data best. The software below fits the best
t ¼ tr dd ð2:11Þ PDF among the most commonly used PDFs in
On the other hand, considering DID curve expression hydro-meteorology domain. In the software, 5 PDFs are
from Eq. (2.10) with the rainfall amounts, re, the intensity, i, Gamma, log-normal, extreme value (Gumbel), generalized
is calculated as, extreme value (Pearson III), and Weibull theoretical
expressions. The software statements are all in MATLAB
i ¼ i i re ð2:12Þ language, which are rather easy to understand with subse-
quent comment statements for explanations. After the suit-
The software to obtain the DID curve from a single or a
ability of the theoretical PDF for each station, one can then
set of IDF curves is presented in the following MATLAB
generate the IDF curves for desired daily rainfall duration,
program.
say, 360-min by the following software.

function DimansionlessIntensityDurationCurve(X)
% This program calculates Dimensionless-Intensity-Duration(DID) curve for a
% set of given recording rainfall charts
% X : N dimensional data (timexcumulative rainfall record)
% The first column is for time records in successive minutes
% (1,2,3,......,.....)
% Other columns are for cumulative rainfall amounts in mm for
% each storm rainfall records at the same station
% N : The number of storm rainfall charts
n=length(X(:,1)); % Data number
D=[5 10 25 50 100 250 500]; % Duration limits
%
% Calculation of intensity for each duration
%
for i=1:N
for j=1:7
d=D(j); % Duration
nD=n-d+1; % Number of possible duration
L=0; % Duration number counter
for k=1:nD
L=L+1;
ll=k; % Lower limit of duration
ul=k+d-1; % Upper limit of the duration
I(L)=(X(ul,2)-X(ll,2))*60/d; % Possible intensities
end
Imax(i)=max(I); % Maximum intensity among all possible intensities
end
end
%
% Probability distribution function fit to each duration intensity
%

%
% Calculation of risk levels for each duration
%

%
% Graphical representation of IDF curves on double logarithmic scale
%
loglog(D,Imax,'r*')
grid on
box on
axis equal
end
18 2 Meteorology

function [DI] = IDFcurveDailyMaxRainSixPDFsAndTable(D,DesiredDuration,StName)

% BE CAREFUL FOR WHICH REGION OR COUNTRY THE EQUATION ON LINE 40 AND % 41??
% This program is written on 13 September 2015 Sunday by Zekâi Şen
% Gamma, Log-Normal, Extreme Value and Generalized
% Extreme Value probability distribution functions are considered
% D : Daily maximum rainfall data for each year
% DesiredDuration : Total duration of the IDF curves
% StName : Station name
% V : It is the least sum of squares of probability deviations
% from the theoretical probability distribution
% I : The number of PDF
% If I = 1 Gamma PDF
% If I = 2 Log-Normal PDF
% If I = 3 Extreme value (Gumbel)PDF
% If I = 4 Generalized extreme value (Pearson III)PDF
% If I = 5 Weibull PDF
% If I = 6 Logarithmic Generalized extreme value (Log-Pearson III)PDF
n=length(D);
DM=1.1*max(D);
Dm=min(D);
x=Dm:0.1:DM;
pp=(1:1:n)/(n+1); % Data probability in ascending order
p=1-pp'; % Data probability in descending order
SD=sort(D); % Sorted time series in ascending order
pgam=gamfit(D); % Gamma PDF parameters
ygam=1-gamcdf(x,pgam(1),pgam(2));
ptgam=1-gamcdf(SD,pgam(1),pgam(2));
ppt2gam=(p-ptgam).^2;
GTest=mean(ppt2gam);
plon=lognfit(D); % Log-Normal PDF parameters
ylon=1-logncdf(x,plon(1),plon(2));
ptlon=1-logncdf(SD,plon(1),plon(2));
ppt2lon=(p-ptlon).^2;
LNTest=mean(ppt2lon);
pevd=evfit(D); % Extreme value PDF parameters
yevd=1-evcdf(x,pevd(1),pevd(2));
ptevd=1-evcdf(SD,pevd(1),pevd(2));
ppt2evd=(p-ptevd).^2;
EVTest=mean(ppt2evd);
pgev=gevfit(D); % Generalized extreme value PDF parameters
ygev=1-gevcdf(x,pgev(1),pgev(2),pgev(3));
ptgev=1-gevcdf(SD,pgev(1),pgev(2),pgev(3));
ppt2gev=(p-ptgev).^2;
GEVTest=mean(ppt2gev);
pwbl=wblfit(D); % Weibull PDF parameters
ywbl=1-wblcdf(x,pwbl(1),pwbl(2));
ptwbl=1-wblcdf(SD,pwbl(1),pwbl(2));
ppt2wbl=(p-ptwbl).^2;
WBLTest=mean(ppt2wbl);
LogD=log(D); % Logaritmic data values
plgev=gevfit(LogD); % Generalized extreme value PDF parameters
ylgev=1-gevcdf(x,plgev(1),plgev(2),plgev(3));
ptlgev=1-gevcdf(SD,plgev(1),plgev(2),plgev(3));
ppt2lgev=(p-ptlgev).^2;
LGEVTest=mean(ppt2lgev);
% Maximum daily rainfall calculation for given return periods for each PDF
R=[2 5 10 25 50 100];
rgam=gaminv([1-1/R(1) 1-1/R(2) 1-1/R(3) 1-1/R(4) 1-1/R(5) 1-1/R(6)],pgam(1),pgam(2));
rlon=logninv([1-1/R(1) 1-1/R(2) 1-1/R(3) 1-1/R(4) 1-1/R(5) 1-1/R(6)],plon(1),plon(2));
revd=evinv([1-1/R(1) 1-1/R(2) 1-1/R(3) 1-1/R(4) 1-1/R(5) 1-1/R(6)],pevd(1),pevd(2));
rwbl=wblinv([1-1/R(1) 1-1/R(2) 1-1/R(3) 1-1/R(4) 1-1/R(5) 1-1/R(6)],pwbl(1),pwbl(2));
rgev=gevinv([1-1/R(1) 1-1/R(2) 1-1/R(3) 1-1/R(4) 1-1/R(5) 1-
1/R(6)],pgev(1),pgev(2),pgev(3));
rlgev=gevinv([1-1/R(1) 1-1/R(2) 1-1/R(3) 1-1/R(4) 1-1/R(5) 1-
1/R(6)],plgev(1),plgev(2),plgev(3));
[V I]=min([GTest LNTest EVTest GEVTest WBLTest LGEVTest]);
………………… Continued …………………….
Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
 Die Glocken läuten.
Sie läuten im Merschertal.
Sie läuten im Syrtal.

Im weißen Kleide geht Mäsch Sisi zum Traualtar, und die Sonne
streut Gold auf ihren weißen Brautkranz.
Im weißen Kleide schläft Berta den ewigen Schlaf. Dorfmädchen
im weißen Schleier tragen sie durch die Frühlingspracht zum
Friedhof.
Die Glocken läuten. — — — — — — — — — — — — — — — —
——
 ‚Die Volldüngung‘
Ohlendorff’s Peru-Guano
‚Füllhornmarke‘
ist durch seine unübertreffliche Wirkung der
billigste u. beste Ersatz für fehlenden Stallmist.

Seine Wirkung Mit

ist bei allen Ohlendorff’s
Kulturpflanzen Peru-Guano
und auf allen ‚Füllhornmarke‘
Bodenarten erzielt man die
stets höchsten
gesichert. Ernten.

Füllhorn rot,
Längsstreifen gelb,
Schrift blau.

Anglo-Continentale
vorm. (Ohlendorff’sche)
Guano-Werke
Zweigniederlassung Düsseldorf.
 Preise, Druckschriften, über
Anwendung, sowie
Versuchsergebnisse, stehen zur
Verfügung.
 Allgemeine
Cementgesellschaft
Dommeldingen (Luxbg.)

Telegr.-Adresse: Cement Dommeldingen.

Telefon: Luxemburg Nr. 357.
Bankkonto: Internationale Bank,
Luxemburg.
Postscheckkonto: Luxemburg Nr. 223.

Fabriken in Dommeldingen und

Rümelingen.

Cement
zu allen Cementarbeiten in
prima Qualität zu billigsten
Preisen.
 Garantie für
Volumenbeständigkeit und
höchste Bindekraft.

Prima
Cementziegelsteine
Normalformat 250 × 120 ×
65 mm., bester und
dauerhaftester Bauziegel.
Niederlagen in allen
grösseren Ortschaften
Preise und Muster auf
Verlangen gratis und franko.
 Ph. Mayfarth & Co,
Frankfurt a. Main
Fabrik landwirtschaftl.
Maschinen u. Geräte
fabrizieren als Spezialität
Schubrad-
Drillmaschinen
vollständig
gleichmäßige Aussaat

Pflüge, Kultivatoren, Walzen,

Eggen,
Düngerstreuer,
Kartoffelerntemaschinen
Breitdreschmaschinen
mit und ohne Reinigung.
Stiften- und Hand-
Dreschmaschinen.
Neueste Konstruktion. ====
Leichter Gang.
 Häckselmaschinen,
Schrotmühlen, Rübenschneider,
Oelkuchenbrecher,
Quetschmühlen
Wein- und
Obstpressen
— mit Herkules Druckwerk —
Hydraulische
Pressen
für Großbetriebe.
Obst- Beeren- u.
Traubenmühlen

Kataloge gratis
 Original-Runkelrübe

Kirsche’s Ideal
seit über
20 Jahren
bestens
bewährte
Originalzüchtung
liefert bei leichter
Aberntung
grösste Massenerträge,
höchste
Nährstoffmengen pro ha
und äusserst haltbare
Rüben (bis Juli)
Original Kirsches Hafer
„ „ Winter Dickkopf
Weizen Nr. 27
„ „ Winter Grannen-
Weizen
„ „ Winter Roggen
anerkannt höchst ertragreich und
lagersicher.
A. Kirsche-Pfiffelbach,
Domänenrat
Dom. Sundhausen, (Herzogtum Gotha)
 Original Eckendorfer
Runkelsamen
HH. von BORRIES,
Eckendorf
Rittergut Eckendorf bei Bielefeld

Eingetragene D. L. G. Hochzucht.

Höchster Massenertrag. Leichteste

Ernte. Gute Haltbarkeit.
 Weltausstellung Paris 1900 und Brüssel
1910
Höchste Auszeichnungen, Grand Prix und
goldene Medaillen.

Alleinverkauf für das Grossherzogtum

Luxemburg:

Verband der landw.

Lokalvereine, Luxemburg
Administration der von Borries’schen Rittergüter,
Eckendorf b. Bielefeld.
 Die fortschrittlichen
Landwirte
düngen
Roggen, Weizen,
Hafer,
Kartoffeln u.
Runkelrüben
gleichzeitig mit dem Thomasmehl
noch mit

Kalkstickstoff.
Kalkstickstoff enthält 17–20%
Stickstoff u. 70%
Kalk.
Kalkstickstoff ist einer der besten
und wirksamsten
Stickstoffdünger.
Kalkstickstoff ist der billigste aller
Stickstoffdünger.
Kalkstickstoff kann mit
Thomasmehl und
Kalidüngern
gemischt werden.
Kalkstickstoff gibt man pro ha in
Mengen von 150 Kg
bei Hafer, 150 Kg
bei Kartoffeln,
200–300 Kg bei
Runkelrüben und
100–150 Kg bei
Roggen und Weizen.
Kalkstickstoff ist beim
Verband der Lokalvereine
sowie in allen bessern
Düngerhandlungen zu haben
 für
Bestes Hederich
Vertilgungsmittel u.
Ackersenf.
Pro ha gibt man 100–150 Kg
Kalkstickstoff frühmorgens nach
einer taureichen Nacht, wenn die
Hederichpflanzen etwa 2–4 Blätter
haben.
 Die
Champion
Qualitäts-
Deering
Marken
McCormick
in
Milwaukee
Ernte Osborne
Maschinen Plano
sind:

Vertreter überall.
 Die beste und billigste
Centrifuge
ist der

Domo-Separator
Dieselbe steht
was Solidität,
Einfachheit, Die neuen Domo-
Schärfe der Separatoren besitzen
Entrahmung selbstbalanzierende
anbelangt, auf Trommel und
der höchsten automatische
Stufe und Schmierölung
kann mit allen ◆◆
bedeutend In kurzer Zeit über
teureren 150 Stück
Marken die im Land geliefert.
Conkurrenz
aufnehmen.

Es werden geliefert:

Hand-Separatoren
von 30 bis 50 Liter stündl. Leistung.

Hand-Separatoren
 Modell 1914

von 80 bis 600 Liter stündl. Leistung.

= Dieselben mit Riemen und

Electromotor-Antrieb =

Unerreicht niedrige Preise

Zu beziehen durch den

Verband landw. Lokalvereine,

Luxemburg.
 Original
Himmels
Champagner Roggen

* H a l l e (Saale) *
Abgeber des
winterfesten, sehr ertragreichen,
frühreifen

Original Himmels Champagner

Roggen
Der Himmels-Champagner
R o g g e n hat in w e n i g e r g ü n s t i g e n
L a g e n und t r o c k e n e n J a h r e n die
übrigen hochgezüchteten Sorten vielfach i n
den Erträgen ü b e r s t i e g e n.
Champagner Roggen reift ungefähr 5 bis 8
Tage früher als Petkuser.

Himmels Champagner Roggen ist eine der

besten Roggensorten für die Böden des
Oeslings und die weniger guten Lagen des
Gutlandes.

Der Verband der Lokalvereine

Luxemburg, Joseph-Junkstraße
hat sich die alleinige Abgabe von
Himmels Champagner Roggen für das
Luxemburger Land gesichert.
 Maschinenfabrik
Gottmadingen
Fahr A.-G., (Baden)
Spezialfabrik für
Erntemaschinen
empfiehlt
ihre
anerkannt
erstklassigen
Fabrikate
wie

Fahr’s Patent-Grasmäher
‚Fahria‘
mit Fusshebel-Aufzug.

Fahr’s Patent-Heuwender
‚Universal‘
combiniert mit Schwadenrechen.

Von der Deutschen Landwirtschafts-

Gesellschaft mit
 „Neu und beachtenswert“
und der „Grossen bronzenen
Denkmünze“ anerkannt.

Ferner:
Garbenbinder Gabelwender
‚Alemannia‘ ‚Stabil‘ u. ‚Piccolo‘
Getreidemäher ‚Greif‘ Haspelwender
‚Herold‘ u. ‚Krone‘
Patent- Pferderechen
Schwadenrechen ‚Ideal‘
‚Perfekt‘
Fahr’s Vorderwagen ‚Alemannia‘

Weltausstellung Turin 1911: „Grosser

Preis“. Höchste Auszeichnung

Fahr-Fabrikate stehen heute an

erster Stelle und sind in
Konstruktion und
Arbeitsleistung unübertroffen.
= Man verlange unsere neuesten
Prospekte. =
Alleinvertretung in Luxemburg
Allg. Verband landw.
Lokalvereine.
●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●
●●●●●●●●●●●●●

Alleinvertretung für
Luxemburg
und zu beziehen durch den
Allgem. Verband landw.
Lokalvereine, Luxemburg.
●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●●
●●●●●●●●●●●●●
 Maison J. Charles
Printz
Eisenhandlung
Telephon Telephon
— 458 — Luxemburg — 458 —

Kochmaschinen und Oefen.

Werkzeuge und Beschläge.

Haus- und Küchengeräte.

Kleineisenwaren wie Schrauben,

Nieten, Nägel etc.

Armaturen für Gas, Wasser und

Dampf.

Stabeisen und Bleche.

Rohre, Verbindungsstücke, Carbid u.

Carbidlampen.
 die bei zweckentsprechender
Anwendung neben Stickstoff und
Phosphorsäure dem Landwirt
Höchsterträge seines Ackers sichern.

Alle Früchte, gleichviel in

welchen Bodenarten,
benötigen eine
regelmässige Düngung
mit K a l i s a l z e n.
Landwirte, welche die Kalidüngung
vernachlässigen, werden niedrige
Erträge und bei den Halmfrüchten
Spätreife und Lagerung, bei den
Knollengewächsen Zucker- bezw.
Stärkearmut beklagen.
Nähere Auskünfte über alle Düngungsfragen
erteilt bereitwilligst

Prof. J. P. Beiler, Ettelbrück,

Luxemburg.
*** END OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK BERELS BERTA:
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