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Price and Financial Stability
Why are financial prices so much more crisis-prone and unstable than real econ-
omy prices? Because they are doing different things. Unlike real economy prices,
rooted in the real goods and services produced and exchanged, financial prices
attempt to value future income flows from financial and capital assets. These valu-
ations fluctuate erratically because expectations of the future fluctuate – and large
liquid financial markets can amplify, rather than correct, these effects. The book
builds on the insights of economists Frank Knight and John Maynard Keynes, that
uncertainty of the future is essential to understand the processes of economic pro-
duction and capital investment, and adds to this Karl Popper’s general explanation
of how expectations of an uncertain future are formed and tested through a trial
and error process. Rather than relying on fluctuating financial prices to provide a
guide to an uncertain future, it suggests a better approach would be to adopt the
methods common to other branches of science, and create testable (falsifiable)
theories allowing reasonable predictions to be made. In finance, the elements of
one such theory could be based on the concept of forecasting yield from capital
assets, which is a measurable phenomenon tending towards aggregate and long-
term stability, and where there is a plentiful supply of historic data. By methods
like this, financial economics could become a branch of science like any other. To
buttress this approach, the widely accepted public policy objective of promoting
real economy price stability could be widened to include financial price stability.
David Harrison is Legal Director at London law firm DAC Beachcroft LLP,
UK. He previously held several positions relating to economic and international
affairs, including speechwriter for the UK Foreign Secretary and for the Presi-
dent of the European Bank for Reconstruction and Development. Previous publi-
cations include The Organisation of Europe (Routledge, 1995) and Competition
Law and Financial Services (Routledge, 2014).
Banking, Money and International Finance
For more information about this the series, please visit www.routledge.com/series/
BMIF
Price and Financial Stability
Rethinking Financial Markets
David Harrison
First published 2018
by Routledge
2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN
and by Routledge
711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017
Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa
business
© 2018 David Harrison
The right of David Harrison to be identified as author of this work has
been asserted by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copy-
right, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or repro-
duced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other
means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and
recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without
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Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or
registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explana-
tion without intent to infringe.
British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data
A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Names: Harrison, D. M. (David M.), 1955- author.
Title: Price and financial stability : rethinking financial markets /
David Harrison.
Description: Abingdon, Oxon ; New York, NY : Routledge, 2018. |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identifiers: LCCN 2017060375 (print) | LCCN 2018001458 (ebook) |
ISBN 9781315098142 (eBook) |
ISBN 9781138299146 (hardback : alk. paper)
Subjects: LCSH: Financial crises. | Uncertainty.
Classification: LCC HB3722 (ebook) | LCC HB3722 .H374 2018 (print) |
DDC 332/.0415—dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2017060375
ISBN: 978-1-138-29914-6 (hbk)
ISBN: 978-1-315-09814-2 (ebk)
Typeset in Times New Roman
by Sunrise Setting Ltd, Brixham, UK
Contents
Preface vi
Why are financial prices so much more crisis-prone and unstable than real econ-
omy prices? This book develops certain themes from an earlier book, Competition
Law and Financial Services (2014), written mainly for those with some knowl-
edge of competition law, and so somewhat technical. In this work I go much fur-
ther into the problem of radical uncertainty and its impact on economics, which so
concerned John Maynard Keynes. It seemed to me that while Keynes was right,
and the future is unknown and uncertain, there was more yet to say on the subject.
In other branches of human knowledge, including the social and natural sci-
ences, we accept the future is unknown and uncertain, and yet we get by. We do
so by building theories which allow us to see over the horizon, around corners and
a little way into the future; knowing all the time these theories may be wrong, but
giving them our provisional acceptance until something better comes along. This
scientific method is explained, so far as I know, by no-one better than the philos-
opher Karl Popper; and so this book looks at the economic problem of radical
uncertainty from the perspective of Popper’s theory of knowledge.
The bridge between the two is Popper’s idea of expectations. Man is a problem-
solving animal (in fact, Popper would say all life is problem-solving) and we
increase our knowledge by the trial and error process of testing our expectations
against the world we find ourselves in. It was Keynes’ genius to observe that in
economics there are two types of expectation: the short-term expectations of the
producer when he wants to sell something; and the long-term expectations of the
same producer when he wants to add to his capital equipment, through investment.
From this we can get to Minsky’s two-price system in the market economy, and the
difference between real economy markets and financial markets. We can also see
why the former can be stable and the latter can be unstable. And from this we can
see why financial crises arise.
The real world policy problem is then what to do about it. Keynes was a prob-
lem-solving animal too, and the post-war global arrangement he left behind
(admittedly not in the pristine form he conceived it) was known as the Bretton
Woods system. This perished in its original form in 1971 at the hands of Richard
Nixon, and the global economy has been spinning off its axis ever since. However,
the Bretton Woods treaty arrangements still exist, at least on paper, and there is
something to be said for seeing what can be salvaged.
Preface vii
Hayek (who was close to Popper) made the profound comment that the price
system diffuses useful knowledge around the economy. But this only applies in
the first, real economy, price system. The second, unstable, financial price sys-
tem diffuses expectations, rather than useful knowledge. Those expectations shift,
moment by moment, day by day, year by year, in line with moods and sentiment
in investment markets, but not reality.
There may be other ways of solving this problem, but the suggestion I put for-
ward in the book is that expectations of this nature need a standard to guide them,
and that standard should be the public good of relative financial and asset price
stability. Since the present unstable system is global, a global response is required,
and the easiest method would be to use the Bretton Woods framework – which
still exists – as a means to promote greater stability.
I am greatly indebted, for comments, criticism and encouragement, on all
or parts of the book, to Edward Hadas, Robert Pringle, Jacques de Larosière,
Philip Ward, Markus Reule, Andy Haldane, Paul Woolley, Kristina Abbotts, Nick
Scarles, Anthony Teasdale, Stan Maes, Jeffrey Franks, Beatrice Heuser, my son
Thomas and above all my wife Valerie Caton. An article from 2014 in the Law and
Financial Markets Review, on which the chapter on a new European capital mar-
ket is based, was greatly improved by Phoebus Athanassiou. (Jacques de Larosière
very kindly commended it in a speech before the European Parliament in 2016.)
I have, finally, framed a wonderful letter from a certain Jack Bogle of Valley
Forge, Pennsylvania, enthusing about an article from 2015, entitled “The Logic of
Price Discovery”, sketching out a possible application of Popper’s method to the
problems of finance. (The article is now available via the Karl Popper Foundation,
Klagenfurt, Austria.)
I felt suitably encouraged by all comments received to pursue the writing of this
book; but of course no-one mentioned above is expected to agree with the final
result, or the suggestions made. (I also have an email from Bogle, commenting on
ideas for global monetary reform, observing “ideas are a dime a dozen: implemen-
tation is everything.” Popper could not have put it better.)
Like Gandalf in the Shire, who refused to utter the language of Mordor, I have
omitted to refer to “Brexit” in this book. While I can understand the discontents
which led to the UK vote in 2016 (many of which flow from the subject matter
of the book), the decision of the UK government to leave the EU can best be
described as a detour from reality, which will not solve the underlying problems.
Ending the post-war Bretton Woods global order in 1971 was a step backwards;
opting out of the post-war European order now will not improve matters. It fol-
lows from the argument of this book that a more productive strategy for the UK
would be to work with the rest of Europe to create a more stable global system, so
that the crisis of 2008 does not repeat itself, and sufficient productive investment
comes on stream to ensure decent growth and jobs. The proposal in these pages
for a long-term European capital market as a motor for growth would be a useful
step in that direction.
1 A brief history of our time
The political economy of the global financial order has come under intense scru-
tiny since the 2008 financial crisis. Opinions are divided. On the one hand, since
the collapse of communism few still seriously doubt that the market economy in
some sense “works”, and that Adam Smith’s division of labour is a better route
to prosperity than anything else available. On the other hand, few doubt that the
financial system in some sense does not. And when it is explained that the last
financial crisis was not unique, but merely the latest and the largest of a series of
unfortunate events, anxieties understandably multiply.
This book will look into the disjunction more deeply. Why is it that the market
economy can process countless transactions over many decades involving real,
every-day goods and services without blowing up, and increase the wealth and
wellbeing of the nations which participate; and yet the same or very similar pro-
cesses, when applied in the realm of finance, end up not adding to but subtracting
from this same wealth of nations, with periodic crises?
Common to both the market economy and the financial system is the price
mechanism, whereby participants buy and sell both normal goods and services
and also financial assets. It seems, at first sight, as if prices must mean the same
thing in both cases. And yet, this may be something of an optical illusion. Prices
in the real economy are rooted in the real goods and services exchanged, passing
from producers and sellers to buyers and distributors on their way to final consum-
ers. Prices usually have a close link to costs, and there is generally a mark-up, or
margin, over cost as items pass from hand to hand. Similar goods or services can
be compared for value for money.
But prices in finance are not performing exactly the same function. In finance,
millions of titles, or claims in the form of securities, pass from hand to hand,
very often in large organised international financial markets, but the price of a
transaction of this kind reflects more of an anticipation or estimate of the value of
something else represented, such as an underlying asset. There is no relationship
to costs, and in fact nothing is produced which can be costed: securities are really
claims on streams of income from existing real items (like factories, or companies,
or the debt of countries); or else they are claims on such claims (like derivatives).
Real economy prices are relatively stable, and do not normally oscillate wildly
around central values. In recent decades, inflation, measured in terms of real
2 A brief history of our time
economy prices, has been subdued in most of the developed world, with near
price stability becoming the norm. But in finance, prices are, as a matter of course,
much more unstable, whether we are looking at stock prices, currency values or
derivatives based on financial values. Stock markets boom and crash in ways
totally unlike markets for cars, or furniture, or computers.
It was the American economist Hyman Minsky who explained there are actu-
ally two completely different price systems in the market economy: there is one
price system for the current output of current goods and services and the need to
recover costs; and then there is a second price system for the values placed upon
future income flows from outstanding financial and capital assets.
It is the instability of this second price system, valuing income flows from
financial and capital assets, which is the heart of the matter, and the subject of this
book. And when we look into it, this question turns out to be of more than just
narrow economic interest. It is a basic question of political economy, touching on
the organisation of our society, the very nature of knowledge and how we should
best deal with a future that is always uncertain.
The open political societies we value are clearly suited to much in the mod-
ern world, including the exchange economy where there is trade in goods and
services, nationally and internationally. Yet these societies, no matter how open
and advanced, have still been buffeted by financial crises as seemingly blind and
inexplicable as the Furies of antiquity, leaving winners and losers in their wake.
Is this something inevitable that can only be endured, like the weather, or can
improvements be made? Can this modern world be made more stable?
To help answer these questions, and to see the scale of the issues at stake, we
need to look at how finance came to diverge from the real economy, when a shift
took place several decades ago in the developed world, with the ending in the
early 1970s of the post-war Bretton Woods global monetary and financial system.
An entire book could be written on the full geopolitical and economic con-
sequences. In many respects, the world we live in now was set by a seemingly
technical decision to break the link between gold and the dollar, taken in 1971
by US President Nixon with the aim of winning a second term in office. Until
that date, and since the end of the Second World War, the gold price had been
fixed in dollars at US$35 per ounce, and under the rules of the Bretton Woods
system other currencies’ exchange rates had been fixed to the dollar. (The precise
gold/dollar rate predated the war, having been set by Roosevelt as long ago
as 1934.)
The untying in 1971 of the world’s monetary and financial system from a secure
anchor led waves of instability to wash progressively through the world’s econ-
omy, over the decades leaving hardly any political or economic order unshaken.
Price signals became erratic and unreliable. Currencies shifted against other cur-
rencies. Commodity values (including that of gold) went up and down like yo-yos.
Oil prices quadrupled, causing the disease of inflation to grip normal goods and
services, until cured by a bout of extraordinarily high interest rates. The prices of
capital assets – and financial prices generally – became detached from underly-
ing economic reality, and instead became almost magnetically attached to each
A brief history of our time 3
other. And no fewer than four waves of large scale international crises ensued,
each one preceded by a credit bubble involving serious mispricing of financial
and capital assets.1
Before we go on to look at the underlying and deeper causes, a brief review of
what has happened in the decades since 1971 will illustrate the scale of events, in
political and economic terms.
The 1980s
The build-up in private credit came to a halt in 1982, after US interest rates had
risen in 1981 to 20% to combat domestic inflation and Mexico declared it could
no longer service its debts. The flow of inward commercial bank credit stopped,
4 A brief history of our time
there was a reversal in flows, and a serious Latin American debt crisis ensued,
lasting for about a decade into the 1980s (a “lost decade”).
The 1981 US interest rate rise epitomised counter-inflationary measures
adopted throughout the developed world after the inflationary 1970s. The UK
experimented with three different types of controls: first a prices and incomes
policy; then domestic monetary targets; and then an exchange rate anchor. In the
European Community the European Monetary System, launched in 1979, largely
succeeded in re-establishing an island of comparative internal exchange rate sta-
bility over the next decade. Exchange rate realignments became less frequent
and inflationary pressures were cooled by the alignment of monetary policies in
Europe on those of the German Bundesbank, committed by law to a policy of
safeguarding the currency.
As capital controls were lifted on the ending of the Bretton Woods system,
financial innovation took off. In the first decade estimated daily turnover on the
foreign exchange markets grew to become 50 times that on the New York Stock
Exchange, in dollar value. Notwithstanding this (or perhaps because of it) cur-
rency fluctuation persisted globally. The dollar fell by 56% against the German
mark in the period 1968 to 1979; rose by 81% between 1979 and 1984; fell by
49% between 1984 and 1987; and rose by 12% between 1987 and 1988.3
The low growth and high debt of the 1970s affected not only the developed
world, and market economies. At the beginning of the 1970s the Soviet Union was
still seen by some as a candidate to overtake the United States economically,4 but
as the 1980s drew on it too came under severe strain, with economic stagnation
and mounting hard currency commercial debts in several Soviet bloc countries
(Poland, Hungary and East Germany), as well as the Soviet Union itself. When
Gorbachev arrived in power in Moscow in 1985 it was with a policy of restruc-
turing the failing Soviet economy (through “perestroika”) not abolishing it. How-
ever, the attempts at reform, involving the introduction of market measures into
the command economy, led to political liberalisation and the eventual secession
from the communist system by Soviet bloc countries, and finally the dismantling
of the Soviet Union itself.5
Nor was all well in the market economies, even as communism collapsed. In
the UK, liberalisation of the financial markets in 1986 (“Big Bang”) preceded
a major global stock market crash in 1987, the worst such crash since 1929.
More long-lasting in its impact was the build-up of the Japanese credit bubble
through the 1980s, the second major credit bubble in the post-Bretton Woods era.
Deregulation of the Japanese financial system led to an increase in bank loans
based on property, and property prices increased five to six times in the space
of a few years. 1989 saw the fall of the Berlin Wall, appearing to confirm the
triumph of market economics. But the following year, 1990, saw the collapse
of the Japanese stock market and property-based credit bubble. Until that point
Japan had been widely admired as one of the most advanced and innovative econ-
omies in the world. A long recession ensued, the effects of which are felt in Japan
to this day.
A brief history of our time 5
The 1990s
The 1990s saw the market system consolidate in Europe, with several countries
of the former Soviet bloc merging into it. The building of the European single
market led on to preparations for a single European currency, but absorbing East
Germany had a high interest rate cost in Germany, which created strains in the
European Monetary System, leading to the debacle of UK exit in 1992 from the
exchange rate mechanism, only two years after joining. The UK withdrew back
into a policy of domestic inflation targeting, while continental Europe proceeded
to the launch of the euro in 1999.
The decade of the 1990s, like the 1970s and the 1980s before it, had its own
large scale credit bubble, this time mostly affecting the countries of South East
Asia. Flows of money into China, Malaysia, Thailand and Indonesia, largely from
Japan after the implosion of the earlier Japanese bubble, pushed up asset prices
and currencies across the region. Stock prices, manufacturing activity and real
estate values surged.
This bubble persisted until 1996, when consumer finance companies in Thai-
land began to experience large losses on their loans, foreign lenders to Thailand
grew concerned and the flow of international money into countries in the region
declined. In 1997 the Thai baht depreciated sharply, triggering a contagion effect
so that within six months the values of currencies across the region declined by
30% or more, stock prices declined by 30% to 60%, real estate prices fell sharply
and banks across the region failed. Increasing interlinkages between financial mar-
kets, and a tendency for investors to view emerging markets as an “asset class”,
caused ripple effects to spread internationally. There was a Russian rouble crisis
in 1998, and the Russian banking system collapsed the same year.
One result of the consequent panic in the bond market in 1998 was the near-
collapse of US hedge fund Long-Term Capital Management. In a dress rehearsal
of the global financial crisis ten years later, this thinly capitalised financial inter-
mediary, which had taken the wrong (optimistic) view of developments in the US
bond market, had to be bailed out by a consortium of banks and securities firms
put together by the Federal Reserve Bank of New York, on the grounds that not to
do so would cause even further financial panic.6
Meanwhile, in Moscow, following the rouble crisis and collapse of the banking
system Russian President Yeltsin unexpectedly resigned in 1999. He was replaced
by one Vladimir Putin, who in 2018 (in his third term of office, plus a spell as
Prime Minister) remained Russian President.
In South East Asia, political upheavals after the crisis included complete
changes of regime in Thailand and Indonesia.
The quarter of a century between 1945 and 1971 now looks like some sort of
economic golden age. For it was the period in which the world economy –
victor and vanquished, developed and developing – experienced the most
sustained and widespread growth in living memory. And not just growth but
stability as well. Price stability, or something like it, was the norm by which
we then lived.10
The argument which will be developed in this book is that behind the economic
failings there lies a deeper conceptual, and indeed philosophical, problem. This
helps explain why the market system “works” and the financial system does not.
The Soviet economic system which collapsed under Gorbachev was genuinely
worse than the western market economy model (as the clear evidence of the post-
war division of Germany into two parts until 1990 attests). The shift in China to
a market system has lifted millions out of poverty. But what we have around the
world now cannot be said to be the last word in economic progress. Indeed, in
terms of “sustained and widespread” global growth, it has been a disappointment.
The deeper underlying conceptual problem appears, perhaps surprisingly,
closely connected to the incapacity of anyone, whether in open societies and mar-
ket economies or anywhere else, to see very far into the future. This might seem
a statement of the blindingly obvious. Yet the full implications do not seem to
have been properly appreciated. In the post-war period open societies and market
economies have developed strongly around the world, in a process termed “glo-
balisation”. In many respects this is very welcome, but there are consequences
that need careful consideration.
In political and social terms, to borrow the language of pre-eminent philosopher
Karl Popper, the future can be described as always open, and not determined by
the past. In the open societies of today’s world there are no iron laws of history, or
“historicist” inevitabilities. It is impossible to predict the future growth of knowl-
edge, and it is impossible to predict the future course of history.11
Popper is famous for writing The Open Society and Its Enemies, the great Sec-
ond World War work of philosophy in support of democratic open societies, and
against dictatorship, whether of the right or the left.12 But Popper was also (and
primarily) a philosopher of science, and his argument that the future is open was
not limited to the social sciences. Even the best and most sophisticated natural
scientific knowledge is tentative. The future of the universe itself is open.
In the language of a pre-war generation of economists like Frank Knight and
John Maynard Keynes, the future is described, not as open, but as “uncertain”,
incapable of being reduced to any probability analysis or to a calculation of risks.
There comes a point where the near future stretches into the longer-term future
and, as to what might happen, as Keynes put it, “We simply do not know.”13
Knight built a micro-economic theory of how firms operate in the economy
on the assumption they faced fundamental (or, as it is now known, “Knightian”)
8 A brief history of our time
uncertainty.14 Keynes constructed a macroeconomic theory of how the entire
economy works, resting upon a similar premise. (Hyman Minsky said that Keynes
without uncertainty is something like Hamlet without the prince.)15
To discount the inability to see very far into the future can have profound impli-
cations in the economic sphere, in particular where activities have a long duration,
such as with the accumulation of savings or the use of savings for investment,
which leads to future growth. The same applies to major macroeconomic devel-
opments, which evolve over a long time-scale. Yet, rather than drawing practical
consequences for public policy of the severe limits of human knowledge, modern
economic and financial theory has side-stepped the problem entirely by adopt-
ing simplifying assumptions of rational expectations and efficient markets. These
assumptions have dominated mainstream thinking since the 1970s – a period
characterised by low growth, instability and recurrent bubbles and crashes.
The assumption of rational expectations is that operators in a market economy,
such as individuals and firms, have expectations of the future which are “rational”,
in the sense that the predictions they make are the best that can be made. Large
complex macroeconomic models have been based on this premise since the 1970s,
a period of research sometimes called the “rational expectations revolution”.16
The assumption of efficient markets is that securities prices at any time fully
reflect all available information, and these prices are reliable for investment deci-
sions taken both by investors and firms themselves.17 Although originally con-
ceived for stock prices, by extension the same mode of thinking applies across the
board in other financial markets, including currencies: the more trading there is of
any financial asset the more information is incorporated in the price, and the more
efficient the market.
Both sets of assumptions simplify real world market structures and interactions
between firms to the point of abstraction, and remove uncertainty from the entire
picture.
The curiosity is that, although modern economic and financial theory would like
to think of itself as scientific, the rest of science does not work like this. As Popper
pointed out, science proceeds not by putting forward hypotheses which can never
be tested by experiment, but rather by putting forward theories which are capa-
ble of being disproved, or falsified.18 Scientific theories are always tentative, and
can never be proved by observation and testing – but they can be disproved. For
economic theories to be “scientific” they should therefore not be dogmatic. They
should be tentative, and they should be capable of being falsified.
It will be the argument of this book that since a fixed global monetary standard
was abandoned in 1971 the loss of relative certainty of the future does much to
explain financial price instability in a two-price market economy, and the resulting
economic and political instability. When uncertainty is heightened, the relative
certainty of what others (frequently competitors) can be observed to be doing
now becomes more important, and subjectivity seizes liquid financial markets,
too often with disastrous consequences. Instead of buyers and sellers opposing
one another in competition over a financial price, everyone buys assets at the same
time, or sells at the same time – the opposite of what is supposed to happen in the
A brief history of our time 9
market economy. There is no division of labour, as in the real economy, which
would cause the economy to grow, but instead a duplication of effort, with nothing
new produced. The wealth of nations is not increased.
Many market operators have come to expect this, and take positions accord-
ingly, in “momentum” trading, where the essence of success is timing the short-
term movements of asset prices. If enough operators do this, movements in prices
become self-fulfilling prophecies. But these self-fulfilling prophecies do not relate
to the real world. In the case of currencies, since a global standard has been aban-
doned, and since nearly all foreign currency supply and demand arises within the
inter-bank market, it is expectations arising almost entirely within this inter-bank
market which determine prices. At one time it was supposed that a better currency
system would result, and even that an “information standard” might become the
new global standard, after Bretton Woods. What happened instead is that shifts
in expectations create shifting prices and a moving standard, which, in the end,
represents no standard at all.
Stability of real economy prices is usually seen as a public good, and institu-
tions and policies exist to promote it. But it is the instability of financial prices
which has been the greater problem in recent decades. Just as periods of high
inflation undermine confidence in political institutions, financial instability insid-
iously shifts the ground beneath our feet, distorting perspectives and fracturing
certainties. Restoring stability here could be a public good too.
To say that the future is “open”, or that it is “uncertain”, is important, but only
the beginning. Neither the philosopher Popper nor economists like Knight and
Keynes left matters there. The future still has to be faced, and decisions taken
today which will affect tomorrow. How, therefore, do we get around the funda-
mental problem that we never know today what tomorrow will bring?
The answer, as the next chapter will explain, is that in practice we do always
have expectations of the future – but those expectations may sometimes be right
and sometimes be wrong.
Notes
1 Kindleberger C and Aliber R, Manias, Panics and Crashes, 2011, New York, Palgrave
MacMillan.
2 Hammes D and Wills D, “Black Gold: The End of Bretton Woods and the Oil Price
Shocks of the 1970s”, Spring 2005, The Independent Review, IX, 4: pages 501–511.
See also Authers J, The Fearful Rise of Markets, 2010, London, Financial Times Pren-
tice Hall, page 32.
3 Figures from Robert Triffin figures in Guyot J, Avant Qu’il Ne Soit Trop Tard, 1991,
Paris, Fondation Hippocrène.
4 Samuelson P, Economics, 1970, New York, McGraw-Hill.
5 Attali J, Europe(s), 1994, Paris, Fayard.
6 Jickling M, “Lessons of Long-Term Capital Management and Amaranth Advisors”,
Chapter 11, Athanassiou P (Ed.), Research Handbook on Hedge Funds, Private Equity
and Alternative Investments, 2012, Cheltenham, Edward Elgar.
7 Haldane A, “Banking on the State”, 2009, Bank for International Settlements Review, 139.
8 Sigurjonsson F, “Monetary Reform: A Better Monetary System for Iceland”, 2015,
Report commissioned by the Prime Minister of Iceland.
10 A brief history of our time
9 Skidelsky R, Keynes, The Return of the Master, 2010, London, Penguin; Piketty T,
Capital in the Twenty-First Century, 2014, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Belknap; and
Bush O, Farrant K and Wright M, “Reform of the International Monetary and Financial
System”, 2011, Bank of England Financial Stability Paper No. 13.
10 Howe G, Conflict of Loyalty, 1994, London, Macmillan, page 161.
11 Popper K, The Poverty of Historicism, 1957, 1991, London, Routledge.
12 Popper K, The Open Society and Its Enemies, 1971, Princeton, New Jersey, Princeton
University Press.
13 Keynes, JM, “The General Theory of Employment”, 1937, Skidelsky R (Ed.), The
Essential Keynes, 2015, London, Penguin, page 265.
14 Knight F, Risk, Uncertainty and Profit, 1921, Boston, Houghton Mifflin.
15 Minsky H, John Maynard Keynes, 1975, 2008, New York, McGraw-Hill, page 55.
16 Blanchard O, Amighini A and Giavazzi F, Macroeconomics: A European Perspective,
2010, Harlow, Financial Times Prentice Hall, page 355.
17 Fama E, “Efficient Capital Markets: A Review of Theory and Empirical Work”, 1970,
Journal of Finance, 25:2: pages 383–417.
18 Popper K, The Logic of Scientific Discovery, 1959, 1992, London, Routledge.
2 Expectations, knowledge
and prices
In his book The End of Alchemy (2016), reflecting on the origins and nature of
financial crises, former Governor of the Bank of England Mervyn King recom-
mends a switch in economic thinking away from modern risk-based calculations
of utility based on probabilities, towards a recognition that “radical uncertainty”
has its place too, and that new events can and do take place to which no probabil-
ities can be assigned beforehand.
By “radical uncertainty” King means therefore much the same as Knight and
Keynes. Beyond a certain point the future is not calculable. There exists “uncer-
tainty so profound that it is impossible to represent the future in terms of a
knowable and exhaustive list of outcomes to which we can attach probability.”1
According to King, failure to incorporate radical uncertainty into economic the-
ories was partly responsible for the misjudgements that led to the latest crisis.
And faced with radical uncertainty, operators in market economies fall back on
“coping strategies”, which for investors include shared narratives. Under radical
uncertainty, market prices are determined, not by objective fundamentals, but by
“narratives about fundamentals”.
In this chapter we will consider this kind of radical uncertainty in more detail,
and put it into context. While it is true that the future is unknown, this is by no
means limited to the world of economics. Uncertainty applies across the board in
many other human endeavours, including other social and natural sciences. It is
not so much by espousing uncertainty that market economics becomes unique,
or uniquely difficult: it is more that by doing so it reverts to the same position as
other forms of science and knowledge, which have to deal with an uncertain future
all the time. The creation of knowledge itself is a battle against uncertainty. So
how is this battle fought in other fields?
The writings of Karl Popper provide perhaps the fullest explanation.
It will be observed that the main uncertainty which affects the entrepreneur
is that connected with the sale price of his product. His position in the price
system is typically that of a purchaser of productive services at present prices
to convert into finished goods for sale at the prices prevailing when the oper-
ation is finished. There is no uncertainty as to the prices of the things he buys.
14 Expectations, knowledge and prices
He bears the technological uncertainty as to the amount of physical product
he will secure, but the probable error in calculations of this sort is generally
not large; the gamble is in the price factor in relation to the product.4
Knight laid stress on the fact that the ordinary decisions of everyday economic life
are not based on perfect knowledge, but rather on estimates of a crude and super-
ficial character. The normal economic situation involves an entrepreneur having
an opinion as to an outcome, within more or less narrow limits. If he is inclined
to make a venture, this opinion is either an expectation of a certain definite gain,
or a belief in the real probability of a larger one. As Knight put it, “At the bottom
of the uncertainty problem in economics is the forward-looking character of the
economic process itself.”
Expectations in the face of an uncertain future also play a major role in The
General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money (1936), by John Maynard
Keynes. Two entire chapters are devoted to the subject: Chapter Five (“Expecta-
tion as Determining Output and Employment”) and Chapter Twelve (“The State
of Long-Term Expectation”).
The key point is made by Keynes at the outset of Chapter Five, in terms similar
to Knight. All production is for the purpose of ultimately satisfying a consumer,
but time usually elapses between the incurring of costs by a producer and the pur-
chase of output by the ultimate consumer. The entrepreneur has to form the best
expectations he can as to what consumers will be prepared to pay when he is ready
to supply them after the elapse of what may be a lengthy period. An entrepreneur
has no choice but to be guided by these expectations, if he is to produce at all by
processes which occupy time.
Keynes then adds the following crucial point:
These expectations, upon which business decisions depend, fall into two
groups, certain individuals or firms being specialised in the business of fram-
ing the first type of expectation and others in the business of framing the
second. The first type is concerned with the price which a manufacturer can
expect to get for his “finished” output at the time when he commits himself to
starting the process which will produce it; output being “finished” (from the
point of view of the manufacturer) when it is ready to be used or to be sold to
a second party. The second type is concerned with what the entrepreneur can
hope to earn in the shape of future returns if he purchases (or, perhaps, man-
ufactures) “finished” output as an addition to his capital equipment. We may
call the former short-term expectation and the latter long-term expectation.5
The two types of expectation are therefore about different things. In the first case,
it is the price at which output can be sold which matters. In the second case, it is
the more nebulous concept of what can be earned in the shape of “future returns”
if there is an addition to capital equipment.
Keynes also describes how the two types of expectation vary in different ways.
Short-term expectations, which relate to the cost of output and the sale-proceeds
Expectations, knowledge and prices 15
of that output, tend to be revised in a gradual and continuous way, in the light of
results as they are realised. Long-term expectations, which relate to an addition to
the existing stock of capital equipment (or investment), are, by contrast, subject to
sudden revisions: “it is of the nature of long-term expectations that they cannot be
checked at short intervals in the light of realised results.”6
It is relatively easy to fit the ideas of both Knight and Keynes into a Popperian
trial and error process. The existence of time brings the element of uncertainty of the
future into both production and capital investment, which means that entrepreneurs
have no choice but to be guided by their expectations of the future. But whereas it is
possible to test expectations for current output by the price mechanism in the short
term, so that these kinds of expectation vary in a relatively gradual way, no such
possibility exists for the long-term expectations which govern capital investment.
We will look at the problem of long-term expectation and investment in more
detail in the next chapter. For the present, it is enough to register the point that,
because in the short term expectations can be checked by the price mechanism,
such expectations do not usually veer erratically from great over-production to
great under-production; or from production boom to production bust. (Conversely,
in non-market or command economies, as in those of the Soviet bloc, the absence
of a price mechanism did lead to great over-production and under-production.)
A final contribution to the chain of reasoning is provided by Friedrich Hayek.
In his 1945 essay entitled “The Use of Knowledge in Society” Hayek describes
the price mechanism in a market economy as a system for diffusing knowledge
rapidly around society, ensuring that only the most essential information is passed
on, and passed on only to those concerned. In a famous metaphor, he wrote of the
price system as if it were a kind of machinery for registering change, or:
Anti-competitive behaviour
One thing that clearly can go wrong is if producers short-circuit the price mech-
anism by agreeing their sales prices to consumers between them, in the form of
cartels. In this way they can coordinate their expectations, reduce or eliminate
uncertainty between them, and frustrate the operation of the price signalling
process.
Since the Second World War, competition policy has developed globally in an
attempt to combat this type of behaviour. Policy before then was not always so
clear cut, and in the inter-war period views were mixed on whether co-operation
between firms might not be better than competition. Immediately after the devas-
tation of the First World War, a wave of international cartels developed in Europe,
partly to reduce the frequency and amplitude of price fluctuations and to provide
a cushion against prevailing political and economic uncertainty; partly as a result
of excess production capacity after the war; and partly to reduce the impact of
high rates of inflation and currency volatility. At the League of Nations World
Economic Conference in 1927 some delegates argued that cartels might even be
a way of increasing international co-operation, which could reduce the scope for
conflict.8
After the Second World War economic reconstruction was, however, based
firmly on competitive principles, encouraged by the influence of US antitrust pol-
icy, German ordo-liberal market philosophy and the creation first of the European
Coal and Steel Community and then the European common market, both of which
included strong competition policy components. Eventually all EU member states
have developed domestic competition regimes modelled on EU competition law.
The EU as a whole has developed a strong antitrust relationship with the US. And
similar competition policies and laws have also been adopted by most developed
countries around the world. Although there is no global competition law (an idea
which figured in the 1948 International Trade Organisation treaty, but which failed
to enter into force after US non-ratification in 1950), there exists a global network
Expectations, knowledge and prices 17
of informal co-operation between national competition authorities, with the Inter-
national Competition Network now numbering over 100 member agencies.
Competition laws vary slightly from jurisdiction to jurisdiction, but nearly
always prohibit competing firms from agreeing to fix their sales prices between
them, and prohibit firms which occupy a dominant position in any market from
abusing that position. Prices in a market are expected to result from a process of
free competition between sellers and buyers, which firms should not distort either
through agreeing their sales prices between one another, or by unilaterally distort-
ing the market if they are in a position to do so.
In Europe, an impressive body of precedent and case-law has developed in the
decades since the 1950s, making clear what is considered to be anti-competitive
behaviour by firms operating in the European Economic Area (the vast economic
zone comprising the Single Market and the EFTA countries, encompassing over
30 countries with a total population exceeding 500 million). These rules are taken
seriously, and large fines are imposed on firms which infringe them, either by the
European Commission or by national competition authorities.
The doctrine which has emerged is that competing firms are expected to take
their own commercial decisions when putting products on the market, and not
coordinate them with other firms. This includes sales prices, but also extends to
purchasing decisions and other commercial terms and conditions. The principle is
that each firm should exercise its own commercial decision-taking independence
on the market.
Competition policy therefore also supports the idea of the price mechanism
as a means of testing expectations. The requirement of decision-taking indepen-
dence means there must be no contacts between competing firms allowing one
firm to influence the conduct on the market of another, or to disclose to another its
own decisions or intentions on the market. The exchange of information between
competing firms will be considered anti-competitive if it removes or reduces the
degree of uncertainty as to the operation of the market, with the result that compe-
tition between firms is restricted.9
In other words, competition policy assumes the existence of uncertainty
between firms about the prices they will obtain when selling their products on
the market. If that uncertainty is removed, through an agreement or an exchange
of information between them, the price mechanism will not function properly.
Hayek’s telecommunications system cannot be expected to work if firms have
private means of communication between them, bypassing it. Knowledge will
not be diffused around society, but remain locked up within the firms in question.
Expectations of output prices will not be tested.
Notes
1 King M, The End of Alchemy: Money, Banking and the Future of the Global Economy,
2016, London, Little, Brown, page 9.
2 Popper K, All Life is Problem Solving, 1999, London, Routledge.
3 Popper K, A World of Propensities, 1990, Bristol, Thoemmes Press; Popper K and
Eccles J, The Self and Its Brain, 1977, 1993, London, Routledge; Popper K, The Open
Universe, 1982, 1995, London, Routledge; Popper K, Quantum Theory and the Schism
in Physics, 1982, 1989, London, Unwin Hyman.
4 Knight F, Risk, Uncertainty and Profit, 1921, Boston, Houghton Mifflin, Part III, Chap-
ter XI, section 8.
5 Keynes, JM, The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money, 1936, London,
Macmillan, page 46.
6 The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money, page 51.
7 Hayek F, “The Use of Knowledge in Society”, 1945, American Economic Review,
XXXV, 4: pages 519–530.
8 Gerber D, Global Competition: Law, Markets and Globalization, 2010, Oxford, Oxford
University Press, page 27.
9 Judgment in Case C-8/08, T-Mobile Netherlands and Others, ECR 2009, I-4529, para 35.
10 Popper K, The Open Society and Its Enemies, 1971, 1991, London, Routledge, page 121.
3 Beyond price
As a way of testing expectations of the future the price mechanism can only go so
far. As we saw in the previous chapter, Keynes classified expectations about the
price of current production as “short-term”. In practice, relatively few commercial
contracts for the sale of products (goods or services) are of more than a few years’
duration, at least without a mechanism for the buyer and seller to renegotiate the
price. (Exceptions are in areas like energy, where long-term sales contracts offset
the high investment costs associated with its production, for example by power
stations or through oil extraction.)
Under competition law in Europe, there is a presumption that producers and
purchasers should not normally be locked into exclusive arrangements that exceed
five years. For the purposes of reviewing competitive markets, competition policy
focuses on the actual day-to-day behaviour of producers and purchasers within
what are known technically as “relevant markets”, a combination of the products
in question and the geographical area where they are bought and sold. Compa-
nies are considered to be competitors where they are currently active in the same
relevant market. A company is considered a potential competitor of another if, in
response to a permanent price increase in a given relevant market, it is likely to
make the additional investments or incur the costs to allow it to enter the market
within a short period of time, generally not more than three years.1
So today’s competition policy focuses on the here and now and the next few
years, and output from existing investments. Beyond that, and the further ahead
we look into the future, the more uncertain that future becomes. As short-term
expectations stretch out into the longer term there becomes less scope for testing
expectations against prices. Hayek’s telecommunications system may work well
when it comes to transmitting signals about prices of current production around
the economy, but it is not equipped to foretell the future.
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