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Core Web Programming Volumes I II Includes index 2nd
ed Edition Hall Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Hall, Marty;Brown, Larry
ISBN(s): 9781941961995, 1941961991
Edition: 2nd ed
File Details: PDF, 9.30 MB
Year: 2001
Language: english
CORE
Web Programming

MARTY HALL
LARRY BROWN

Prentice Hall PTR

Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
www.phptr.com
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Hall, Marty.
Core web programming / Marty Hall, Larry Brown.
p. cm.
Only Marty Hall’s name appears on previous edition.
Includes index.
ISBN 0-13-089793-0
1. Internet programming. 2. HTML (Document markup language) 3. Java (Computer
program language) 4. CGI (Computer network protocol) 5. World Wide Web. I. Hall,
Marty. II. Title.
QA76.625 .B757 2001
005.2'76--dc21
2001021692
© 2001 Sun Microsystems, Inc.—
Printed in the United States of America.
901 San Antonio Road, Palo Alto, California
94303-4900 U.S.A.
All rights reserved. This product and related documentation are protected by copyright and
distributed under licenses restricting its use, copying, distribution, and decompilation. No part
of this product or related documentation may be reproduced in any form by any means without
prior written authorization of Sun and its licensors, if any.
RESTRICTED RIGHTS LEGEND: Use, duplication, or disclosure by the United States
Government is subject to the restrictions set forth in DFARS 252.227-7013 (c)(1)(ii) and
FAR 52.227-19.
The products described may be protected by one or more U.S. patents, foreign patents, or
pending applications.
TRADEMARKS—HotJava, Java, Java Development Kit, Solaris, SPARC, SunOS, and Sunsoft
are trademarks of Sun Microsystems, Inc. All other products or services mentioned in this book
are the trademarks or service marks of their respective companies or organizations
The publisher offers discounts on this book when ordered in bulk quantities.
For more information, contact Corporate Sales Department, Prentice Hall PTR ,
One Lake Street, Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458. Phone: 800-382-3419; FAX: 201- 236-7141.
E-mail: corpsales@prenhall.com.

Production Editor and Compositor: Vanessa Moore

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 Chapter

INTRODUCTION XXXIII
Real Code for Real Programmers xxxiv
How This Book Is Organized xxxv
Conventions xxxviii
About the Web Site xxxix
About the Authors xxxix

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS XLI

Part 1
THE HYPERTEXT MARKUP LANGUAGE 2

C hap t er 1
DESIGNING WEB PAGES WITH HTML 4.0 4
1.1 The HyperText Markup Language 5
1.2 HTML 4.0 and Other HTML Standards 7
1.3 Steps to Publish a Document on the Web 9
Create the Document 9

iii
iv Contents

Put the Document on the Web 10

Validate the Document 12
1.4 The Basic Structure of HTML Documents 12
HTML Document Template 13
DOCTYPE Declarations 14
1.5 HEAD—High-Level Information About the Page 16
Required HEAD Element 17
Optional HEAD Elements 17
1.6 BODY—Creating the Main Document 22
1.7 Summary 25

ChapTer 2
BLOCK-LEVEL ELEMENTS IN HTML 4.0 28
2.1 Headings 30
2.2 Basic Text Elements 32
Basic Paragraphs 32
Paragraphs with White Space Preserved 34
Indented Quotations 35
Addresses 35
2.3 Numbered, Bulleted, and Indented Lists 35
Numbered Lists 36
Bulleted Lists 39
Definition Lists 40
2.4 Tables 41
The Basic Table Structure 42
Defining Table Rows 46
Table Headings and Data Cells 48
Grouping Table Contents 50
2.5 Fill-Out Forms 54
2.6 Miscellaneous Block-Level Elements 54
2.7 Summary 57
 Contents v

ChapTer 3
TEXT-LEVEL ELEMENTS IN HTML 4.0 58
3.1 Physical Character Styles 59
3.2 Logical Character Styles 64
3.3 Specifying Hypertext Links 67
3.4 Embedded Images 70
Animated GIFs 71
The IMG Element 71
3.5 Client-Side Image Maps 75
3.6 Embedding Other Objects in Documents 79
Embedded Applets 80
Embedded Video, Audio, and Other Formats with Plug-ins 82
Embedded ActiveX Controls 83
Embedded Scrolling Text Banners 85
3.7 Controlling Line Breaks 86
3.8 Summary 87

Chapter 4
FRAMES 88
4.1 Frame Document Template 90
4.2 Specifying Frame Layout 91
4.3 Specifying the Content of Frame Cells 96
Examples 98
4.4 Targeting Frame Cells 100
Predefined Frame Names 103
4.5 Solving Common Frame Problems 103
Bookmarking Frames 104
Printing Frames 104
Updating Multiple Frame Cells Simultaneously 105
Preventing Your Documents from Being Framed 108
Creating Empty Frame Cells 109
4.6 Inline Frames 109
4.7 Summary 113
vi Contents

Chapter 5
CASCADING STYLE SHEETS 114
5.1 Specifying Style Rules 116
5.2 Using External and Local Style Sheets 118
External Style Sheets 119
The STYLE Element and JavaScript Style Sheets 120
Inline Style Specification 121
5.3 Selectors 121
HTML Elements 122
User-Defined Classes 123
User-Defined IDs 124
Anchor Pseudoclasses 124
5.4 Cascading: Style Sheet Precedence Rules 125
5.5 Font Properties 126
5.6 Foreground and Background Properties 132
5.7 Text Properties 135
5.8 Properties of the Bounding Box 139
Margins 140
Borders 141
Padding 142
Bounding Box Display Types 143
5.9 Images and Floating Elements 143
5.10 List Properties 146
5.11 Standard Property Units 147
Lengths 147
Colors 147
5.12 Layers 148
Specifying Layers with the LAYER and ILAYER Elements 149
Specifying Layers with Style Sheets 153
5.13 Summary 157
 Contents vii

Part 2
JAVA PROGRAMMING 158

Chapter 6
GETTING STARTED WITH JAVA 160
6.1 Unique Features of Java 162
Java Is Web-Enabled and Network Savvy 162
Java Is Cross-Platform 166
Java Is Simple 168
Java Is Object Oriented 169
Java Is Rich with Powerful Standard Libraries 170
6.2 Myths About Java 171
Java Is Only for the Web 172
Java Is Cross-Platform 172
Java Is Simple 174
Java Is Object Oriented (the One True Way of Programming) 174
Java Is the Programming Language for All Software Development 175
6.3 Java Versions 175
Which Version Should You Use? 177
Whichever Version You Use 177
6.4 Getting Started: Nuts and Bolts 178
Install Java 178
Install a Java-Enabled Browser 179
Bookmark or Install the On-Line Java API 180
Optional: Get an Integrated Development Environment 180
Create and Run a Java Program 181
6.5 Some Simple Java Programs 182
The Basic Hello World Application 182
Command-Line Arguments 183
The Basic Hello World (Wide Web) Applet 183
Applet Customization Parameters 185
6.6 Summary 187
viii Contents

Chapter 7
OBJECT-ORIENTED PROGRAMMING IN JAVA 190
7.1 Instance Variables 191
7.2 Methods 194
7.3 Constructors and the “this” Reference 196
Static Initialization Blocks 199
7.4 Destructors 199
7.5 Overloading 200
7.6 Public Version in Separate File 204
7.7 Javadoc 209
Javadoc Tags 211
Javadoc Command-Line Arguments 213
7.8 Inheritance 216
7.9 Interfaces and Abstract Classes 221
7.10 Packages, Classpath, and JAR Archives 230
The CLASSPATH 233
7.11 Modifiers in Declarations 236
Visibility Modifiers 236
Other Modifiers 238
7.12 Summary 239

Chapter 8
BASIC JAVA SYNTAX 242
8.1 Rules of Syntax 243
8.2 Primitive Types 245
Primitive-Type Conversion 247
8.3 Operators, Conditionals, Iteration 248
Arithmetic Operators 248
Conditionals 249
Loops 255
8.4 The Math Class 259
Constants 259
 Contents ix

General-Purpose Methods 259

Trigonometric Methods 261
BigInteger and BigDecimal 261
8.5 Input and Output 263
Printing to Standard Output 263
Printing to Standard Error 265
Reading from Standard Input 265
8.6 Execution of Non-Java Programs 266
8.7 Reference Types 273
Java Argument-Passing Conventions 275
The instanceof Operator 275
8.8 Strings 277
String Methods 278
Constructors 284
8.9 Arrays 284
Two-Step Array Allocation 285
One-Step Array Allocation 286
Multidimensional Arrays 287
8.10 Vectors 288
Constructors 289
Methods 289
8.11 Example: A Simple Binary Tree 291
8.12 Exceptions 296
Basic Form 296
Multiple Catch Clauses 299
The Finally Clause 300
Thrown Exceptions 300
Unchecked Exceptions 302
8.13 Summary 303
x Contents

Chapter 9
APPLETS AND BASIC GRAPHICS 304
9.1 What Are Applets? 305
9.2 Creating an Applet 306
Template for Applets 307
Template for HTML 307
9.3 An Example Applet 309
Redrawing Automatically 311
Reloading Applets During Development 311
9.4 The Applet Life Cycle 312
9.5 Other Applet Methods 314
9.6 The HTML APPLET Element 320
9.7 Reading Applet Parameters 322
Reading Applet Parameters: An Example 323
9.8 HTML OBJECT Element 326
9.9 The Java Plug-In 328
9.10 Graphical Applications 331
9.11 Graphics Operations 332
Drawing Operations 333
Colors and Fonts 336
Drawing Modes 336
Coordinates and Clipping Rectangles 337
9.12 Drawing Images 337
Loading Applet Images from Relative URLs 338
Loading Applet Images from Absolute URLs 340
Loading Images in Applications 342
9.13 Preloading Images 344
9.14 Controlling Image Loading: Waiting for Images and Checking
Status 348
9.15 Summary 355
 Contents xi

Chapter 10
JAVA 2D: GRAPHICS IN JAVA 2 358
10.1 Getting Started with Java 2D 360
Useful Graphics2D Methods 363
10.2 Drawing Shapes 366
Shape Classes 367
10.3 Paint Styles 371
Paint Classes 372
Tiled Images as Fill Patterns 375
10.4 Transparent Drawing 378
10.5 Using Local Fonts 381
10.6 Stroke Styles 383
Stroke Attributes 384
10.7 Coordinate Transformations 390
Shear Transformations 393
10.8 Other Capabilities of Java 2D 394
10.9 Summary 395

Chapter 11
HANDLING MOUSE AND KEYBOARD EVENTS 398
11.1 Handling Events with a Separate Listener 400
Drawing Circles 402
11.2 Handling Events by Implementing a Listener Interface 404
11.3 Handling Events with Named Inner Classes 406
11.4 Handling Events with Anonymous Inner Classes 407
11.5 The Standard Event Listeners 409
11.6 Behind the Scenes: Low-Level Event Processing 415
11.7 A Spelling-Correcting Textfield 418
11.8 A Whiteboard Class 421
A Better Whiteboard 423
11.9 Summary 425
xii Contents

Chapter 12
LAYOUT MANAGERS 426
12.1 The FlowLayout Manager 428
FlowLayout Constructor Options 429
Other FlowLayout Methods 429
12.2 The BorderLayout Manager 430
BorderLayout Constructor Options 432
Other BorderLayout Methods 432
12.3 The GridLayout Manager 433
GridLayout Constructor Options 434
Other GridLayout Methods 435
12.4 The CardLayout Manager 436
CardLayout Constructor Options 440
Other CardLayout Methods 440
12.5 GridBagLayout 441
The GridBagConstraints Object 442
Example 444
GridBagLayout Constructor Options 448
Other GridBagLayout Methods 448
12.6 The BoxLayout Manager 449
BoxLayout Constructor Options 452
Other BoxLayout Methods 453
12.7 Turning Off the Layout Manager 454
12.8 Effective Use of Layout Managers 455
Use Nested Containers 456
Turn Off the Layout Manager for Some Containers 459
Adjust the Empty Space Around Components 461
12.9 Summary 464
 Contents xiii

Chapter 13
AWT COMPONENTS 466
13.1 The Canvas Class 468
Creating and Using a Canvas 469
Example: A Circle Component 469
13.2 The Component Class 472
13.3 Lightweight Components in Java 1.1 479
13.4 The Panel Class 482
Default LayoutManager: FlowLayout 482
Creating and Using a Panel 483
Example: Using a Panel for Grouping 483
13.5 The Container Class 485
13.6 The Applet Class 487
13.7 The ScrollPane Class 487
Creating and Using a ScrollPane 487
Example: ScrollPane with 100-Button Panel 488
13.8 The Frame Class 489
Default LayoutManager: BorderLayout 489
Creating and Using a Frame 490
Frame Examples 491
A Closeable Frame 492
Menus 493
Other Useful Frame Methods 495
13.9 Serializing Windows 497
Writing a Window to Disk 497
Reading a Window from Disk 497
Example: A Saveable Frame 498
13.10 The Dialog Class 501
Creating and Using a Dialog 501
Example: A Quit Confirmation Dialog 502
13.11 The FileDialog Class 504
xiv Contents

Example: Displaying Files in a TextArea 504

13.12 The Window Class 507
Default LayoutManager: BorderLayout 507
Creating and Using a Window 507
13.13 Handling Events in GUI Controls 508
Decentralized Event Processing 509
Centralized Event Processing 511
13.14 The Button Class 512
Constructors 513
Example: Applet with Three Buttons 513
Other Button Methods 514
Handling Button Events 515
13.15 The Checkbox Class 518
Constructors 519
Example: Checked Checkboxes 519
Other Checkbox Methods 520
Handling Checkbox Events 521
13.16 Check Box Groups (Radio Buttons) 521
Constructors 522
Example: Check Boxes vs. Radio Buttons 522
Other CheckboxGroup and Checkbox Methods 523
Handling CheckboxGroup Events 524
13.17 Choice Menus 524
Constructor 525
Example: Simple Choices 525
Other Choice Methods 526
Handling Choice Events 527
13.18 List Boxes 529
Constructors 529
Example: Single and Multiple List Selections 529
Other List Methods 531
Handling List Events 533
 Contents xv

13.19 The TextField Class 538

Constructors 538
Example: Creating TextFields 539
Other TextField Methods 539
Handling TextField Events 542
13.20 The TextArea Class 543
Constructors 543
Example: Empty and Filled Text Areas 544
Other TextArea Methods 544
Handling TextArea Events 545
13.21 The Label Class 545
Constructors 546
Example: Four Different Labels 546
Other Label Methods 547
Handling Label Events 548
13.22 Scrollbars and Sliders 550
Constructors 550
Example: Variety of Sliders 551
Other Scrollbar Methods 552
Handling Scrollbar Events 554
13.23 Pop-up Menus 556
Constructors 556
Example: Applet Pop-up Menu 556
Other PopupMenu Methods 558
Handling PopupMenu Events 559
13.24 Summary 560

Chapter 14
BASIC SWING 562
14.1 Getting Started with Swing 564
Differences Between Swing and the AWT 564
xvi Contents

14.2 The JApplet Component 572

14.3 The JFrame Component 574
14.4 The JLabel Component 576
New Features: Images, Borders, and HTML Content 576
JLabel Constructors 577
Useful JLabel Methods 578
14.5 The JButton Component 581
New Features: Icons, Alignment, and Mnemonics 581
HTML in Button Labels 582
JButton Constructors 582
Useful JButton (AbstractButton) Methods 582
14.6 The JPanel Component 585
JPanel Constructors 585
New Feature: Borders 585
Useful BorderFactory Methods 586
14.7 The JSlider Component 590
New Features: Tick Marks and Labels 590
JSlider Constructors 590
Useful JSlider Methods 591
14.8 The JColorChooser Component 594
Constructors 595
Useful JColorChooser Methods 595
14.9 Internal Frames 598
JInternalFrame Constructors 598
Useful JInternalFrame Methods 598
14.10 The JOptionPane Component 602
Useful JOptionPane Methods 602
14.11 The JToolBar Component 607
JToolBar Constructors 609
Useful JToolBar Methods 609
14.12 The JEditorPane Component 614
Following Hypertext Links 615
 Contents xvii

JEditorPane Constructors 616

Useful JEditorPane Methods 616
Implementing a Simple Web Browser 618
HTML Support and JavaHelp 621
14.13 Other Simple Swing Components 622
The JCheckBox Component 622
The JRadioButton Component 623
The JTextField Component 625
The JTextArea Component 625
The JFileChooser Component 625
14.14 Summary 626

Chapter 15
ADVANCED SWING 628
15.1 Using Custom Data Models and Renderers 630
15.2 JList 631
JList with a Fixed Set of Choices 631
JLists with Changeable Choices 636
JList with Custom Data Model 639
JList with Custom Renderer 646
15.3 JTree 650
Simple JTree 650
JTree Event Handling 654
15.4 JTable 664
Simple JTable 664
Table Data Models 669
Table Cell Renderers 674
Table Event Handling 676
15.5 Swing Component Printing 680
Printing Basics 681
The Role of Double Buffering 683
xviii Contents

A General-Purpose Component-Printing Routine 684

Printing in JDK 1.3 689
15.6 Swing Threads 691
SwingUtilities Methods 693
15.7 Summary 696

Chapter 16
CONCURRENT PROGRAMMING WITH JAVA THREADS 698
16.1 Starting Threads 700
Mechanism 1: Put Behavior in a Separate Thread Object 700
Mechanism 2: Put Behavior in the Driver Class,
Which Must Implement Runnable 703
16.2 Race Conditions 706
16.3 Synchronization 709
Synchronizing a Section of Code 709
Synchronizing an Entire Method 710
Common Synchronization Bug 710
16.4 Creating a Multithreaded Method 712
16.5 Thread Methods 717
Constructors 718
Constants 719
Methods 719
Stopping a Thread 725
16.6 Thread Groups 727
Constructors 727
Methods 727
16.7 Multithreaded Graphics and Double Buffering 729
Redraw Everything in paint 730
Implement the Dynamic Part as a Separate Component 734
Have Routines Other Than paint Draw Directly 735
Override update and Have paint Do Incremental Updating 737
Use Double Buffering 743
 Contents xix

16.8 Animating Images 748

16.9 Timers 753
Constructor 757
Other Timer Methods 757
16.10 Summary 759

Chapter 17
NETWORK PROGRAMMING 760
17.1 Implementing a Client 762
Example: A Generic Network Client 765
17.2 Parsing Strings by Using StringTokenizer 768
The StringTokenizer Class 768
Constructors 769
Methods 769
Example: Interactive Tokenizer 770
17.3 Example: A Client to Verify E-Mail Addresses 771
17.4 Example: A Network Client That Retrieves URLs 774
A Class to Retrieve a Given URI from a Given Host 775
A Class to Retrieve a Given URL 777
UrlRetriever Output 778
17.5 The URL Class 779
Reading from a URL 779
Other Useful Methods of the URL Class 781
17.6 WebClient: Talking to Web Servers Interactively 783
17.7 Implementing a Server 791
Example: A Generic Network Server 793
Connecting NetworkClient and NetworkServer 797
17.8 Example: A Simple HTTP Server 797
ThreadedEchoServer: Adding Multithreading 802
17.9 RMI: Remote Method Invocation 804
Steps to Build an RMI Application 805
A Simple Example 806
Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents
Dr. Damrosch was succeeded by his son Walter, who conducted the
society until 1889, introducing to America Berlioz's Te Deum, his own
'Scarlet Letter' and 'Manila Te Deum,' Gounod's 'Redemption,'
Edward Grell's Missa Solemnis, George Henschel's Stabat Mater,
Gustav Mahler's 'Choral Symphony' (No. 2), Horatio Parker's 'St.
Christopher,' Saint-Saëns' 'Samson and Delilah,' Heinrich Schütz's
'Seven Last Words,' Edgar Tinel's 'St. Francis of Assisi,' and
Tschaikowsky's 'Legend,' Pater noster, and Eugen Onegin. He also
gave a complete version in concert form of Parsifal. Frank Damrosch,
another son of Dr. Damrosch, became conductor of the society in
1889. In the meantime Mr. Andrew Carnegie had become interested
in the work and it was mainly this interest which led him to build the
Carnegie Music Hall. The Oratorio Society, which had given its
concerts successively in Steinway Hall, the Academy of Music, and
the Metropolitan Opera House, moved to the new hall in 1891,
celebrating the event with a festival made memorable by the
presence of Tschaikowsky as a guest conductor. During his twelve
years as conductor of the society Mr. Frank Damrosch raised its
repertory to eighty-six compositions, adding fourteen works to the
list. Several of these were given for the first time in America,
including Sir Edward Elgar's 'The Apostles' and 'The Kingdom,'
Gabriel Pierné's 'The Children's Crusade,' Strauss's 'Taillefer,' and
Wolf-Ferrari's La vita nuova. Other important performances were
Bach's 'B Minor Mass' and Beethoven's 'Mass in D.' Chicago
anticipated the Oratorio Society by three days in the first American
performance of Elgar's 'The Dream of Gerontius.' In 1912 it
collaborated with the Symphony Society in a Brahms festival, singing
'Nenia,' the 'Triumphal Hymn,' and 'A German Requiem.' Frank
Damrosch resigned in the same year and was succeeded by Louis
Koemmenich. The novelties of Mr. Koemmenich's first two seasons
were Otto Taubmann's Eine Deutsche Messe and Georg Schumann's
'Ruth,' and there were two performances of the 'Ninth Symphony' in
conjunction with the Symphony Society at a Beethoven festival in
1914.
In 1893 Frank Damrosch organized a professional chorus under the
title of the Musical Art Society, for the performance of a cappella
works of Bach, the Palestrina school, and more modern masters. The
society was quite different from any choral organization that had
ever been formed in America, aiming at the interpretation of a style
of music that is in the highest degree difficult and unusual. To cover
acceptably the field of a cappella music from Josquin des Près,
Palestrina, Orlando di Lasso, Eccard, Gabrieli and Orlando Gibbons to
Debussy, d'Indy and Richard Strauss is an artistic enterprise which
only a chorus of artists, one would think, would venture to
undertake. The Musical Art Society has succeeded very well in its
difficult task and its concerts are invariably among the most
interesting events of the New York season. Its repertory to date
includes the names of over one hundred composers, with special
emphasis on Palestrina, Bach, and Brahms, and it includes also a
large number of delightful old Minnelieder, mediæval hymns and
German, Scandinavian, Scotch, French, Bohemian, and English folk-
songs.

Similar work is done by the Schola Cantorum, under Kurt Schindler,

which has given especially interesting programs of old troubadour
songs and madrigals of the French renaissance. It was originally
organized, under the auspices of the MacDowell Club, as the
MacDowell Chorus. The Lambord Choral Society, organized under the
conductorship of Benjamin Lambord in 1912, is devoted to the study
and performance of small, rarely heard choral works by modern
composers. During its first season its activities included a series of
chamber music concerts, as well as a concert with chorus and
orchestra in celebration of the centenary of Wagner's birth. The
Modern Music Society was organized in 1913, with the Lambord
Choral Society as one of its constituent parts. The new society made
its first public appearance with a noteworthy concert devoted
altogether to works of modern American composers, its avowed
purpose being the encouragement of native composition.
Among other New York choral organizations may be mentioned the
United Singers and the People's Choral Union, which may be cited as
a prominent example of community music in a large city. The
People's Choral Union and Singing Classes were established in 1892
by Frank Damrosch in close affiliation with the work of the Cooper
Institute, established to disseminate knowledge and culture among
the people, particularly working men and women.

In Brooklyn the Oratorio Society and the Choral Society are probably
the best of a number of good choruses, though in Brooklyn, as in
most big cities, there are several German singing societies which
excel in their own particular field.

Considering its great musical activity, Philadelphia is not especially

conspicuous for its choral organizations, but the Orpheus Club, a
male chorus founded in 1872, the Cecilia Society, founded in 1875,
and the Philadelphia Chorus Society are worthy of mention. By far
the most interesting centre of choral music in Pennsylvania is the
Moravian settlement of Bethlehem, which since its foundation in
1741 has been cultivating that branch of musical art with splendid
sincerity and idealism. As early as 1811 Haydn's 'Creation' was
performed there; Bach's great B minor Mass was given by the Bach
Choir of Bethlehem for the first time in America in 1900, and in 1903
the choir held a Bach festival during which it performed the entire
'Christmas Oratorio,' the Magnificat, 'St. Matthew's Passion,' and the
B minor Mass.

Of course, every city and town of any size in the East has one or
more singing societies which do their own fair share in entertaining
and improving it musically. It would be impossible to enumerate
them. New England is, as it always has been, an especially lively
centre of choral work, and such cities as Portland, Me., Springfield
and Concord, Mass., Burlington, Vt., and New Haven, Conn., possess
highly trained and efficient choruses. Of particular interest is the
Worcester County Musical Association, of Worcester, Mass., an
outgrowth of the old musical conventions held for the purpose of
promoting church music. It was organized in 1863 and for a few
years confined itself to psalm-tunes and simple, sentimental
cantatas; but it soon graduated to Handel, Haydn, Mendelssohn,
Rossini, Verdi, Gounod, and other serious composers of oratorios
and masses. The annual festivals of the association now rank among
the most important events of the American musical year.

III
In the West Cincinnati takes the lead as a pioneer in choral music.
As early as 1819 there was a Haydn Society in Cincinnati which
seems to have been the successor of an older organization. Its first
concert was devoted to Handel and Haydn, and its second included
also Mozart. Soon afterward were born the Episcopal Singing Society
and the Euterpean Society. Then came the Sacred Music Society and
the Amateur Musical Association. The latter gave the 'Creation' in
1853. Coincidentally there grew up a number of Männerchor
societies, which in 1849, collaborating with several similar bodies in
neighboring towns, organized the first of the great Sängerfeste
already mentioned. In 1856 the Cecilia Society came into being and
inaugurated a new era for choral music in Cincinnati. At its first
concert it performed Mendelssohn's 'Forty-second Psalm,' a cantata
of Mozart, a chorus for female voices from Spontini's Vestale,
Haydn's 'Come, Gentle Spring,' and some choruses from Schneider's
'Last Judgment.' Subsequently it presented other works of Haydn,
Mozart, and Mendelssohn, as well as compositions of Beethoven,
Schumann, Handel, Gluck, Gade, Neukomm, Weber, and Wagner.

The next important society in Cincinnati was the Cincinnati

Harmonic, out of which grew the Festival Chorus Society. The latter
was organized in connection with the Cincinnati May Festivals which
started in 1873 and in which thirty-six societies from the West and
Northwest, including over one thousand singers, participated. The
stimulation furnished by this and subsequent coöperative festivals
resulted, as Theodore Thomas hopefully predicted, in sending 'new
life and vigor into the whole musical body of the West.' Cincinnati
still retains its activity in choral music and possesses a large number
of excellent singing societies, most of which are German. Among
these we may mention the Männerchor and the Orpheus as perhaps
the most conspicuous.

It would indeed be impossible to estimate fully the value the

influence exercised by Germans and German singing societies had
on the cultivation of music in America. In Milwaukee, for example,
the Musikverein, organized in 1849, stood for years as a beacon light
of musical culture, shedding its rays far and near over the artistic
darkness of the newly settled West. 'The elements of which the
Musik-Verein was composed,' says Ritter, 'were many-sided. There
were to be found that German indigenous growth, the Männerchor
(male chorus), the orchestra, the chorus composed of male and
female voices, amateurs performing the different solo parts. The
whole field of modern musical forms was cultivated by those
enthusiastic German colonists, the male-chorus glee, the cantata,
the oratorio, the opera, chamber music in its divers forms, the
overture, the symphony were placed on the programs of this active
society. Its musical life was a rich one and its influence through the
West was of great bearing on a healthy musical development.'

There are over twenty German choruses in Milwaukee; in St. Louis

there are probably as many, while in Chicago the number is beyond
count—there are certainly more than one hundred. St. Louis started
its musical life rather early and established a Philharmonic Society in
1838. Seven years later a Polyhymnia Society was formed and about
the same time a Cecilian Society and an Oratorio Society came into
being. A new Philharmonic Society was organized in 1859 and later
came the St. Louis Choral Society. These, of course, leave out of
account the German societies, of which the most prominent are the
Liederkranz, the Socialer Sängerchor, the Germania Sängerbund, the
Orpheus, and the Schweizer Männerchor. As early as 1858 Chicago
had a Musical Union devoted to the study of oratorio. During the
eight years of its existence it gave the principal oratorio classics,
including the 'Creation,' 'Messiah,' and 'Elijah.' It was succeeded by
the Oratorio Society, which persevered, under the conductorship of
Hans Balatka, until the great fire. After the fire it was revived, but in
1873 its library and effects were again burned and further attempts
to continue it were unavailing. The summer of 1872 saw the
organization of the Apollo Club, which is to-day the only society of
importance in Chicago devoted to the cultivation of oratorio music.
There is also a Chicago Musical Art Society patterned after the
Musical Art Society of New York and doing similar work. These are
the chief agencies for the cultivation of choral music in Chicago,
apart from the multitude of German societies to which we have
already alluded.

San Francisco had an oratorio society, organized by Rudolph Herold,

as early as 1860, and soon afterward a Handel and Haydn Society
entered the field. The fact that these societies received support
during several years of competitive existence speaks well for the
state of musical cultivation in San Francisco at that date. And
certainly the city has not deteriorated musically since then, if we
may judge from the number of choral societies now active there.

The most notable of these is the Loring Club, a male chorus,

founded in 1876, which gives concerts of unusual artistic excellence.
Los Angeles, Seattle, Portland—in fact all the coast cities—are wide-
awake and progressive musical centres and possess efficient
organizations devoted to church work. It would be impossible to
note all of them. Indeed, the compass of a bulky volume would
scarcely inclose reference to all the choral societies at present active
in the United States. There is scarcely a community in the land
which does not possess one or more such societies, ranging in
character from church choirs to the most pretentious of choral
organizations. Many of them, especially in such cities as Baltimore,
Washington, New Orleans, Richmond, Louisville, Dallas, Denver, and
Kansas City, compare favorably with the more widely known societies
of New York, Boston, and Chicago. We must also advert again to the
work of the German singing societies, which flourish in practically
every city in the country, and to the less widespread activities of the
Scandinavian singing societies in such centres as Lindsborg, Kansas.
These supplement splendidly the work of the native American
societies, which, to tell the truth, are more exclusively devoted to
the classics of sacred music than is good for their æsthetic health.
Altogether the cultivation of choral music is carried on most
vigorously throughout the length and breadth of America. It must be
admitted that, except in certain circumscribed localities—
Massachusetts, for example—it has not yet struck root among the
people. It is still carried on chiefly by social coteries, by churches, by
artistic circles, by people with aspirations. Americans do not get
together and sing from an inward urge to sing, as do the Germans
and other people implanted in our midst. Possibly that will come with
the racial homogeneity which this great crucible of a country is
striving to bring forth. In the meantime, everything that an eager,
ambitious, and optimistic people can do to overcome its musical
handicaps is now being done by the people of America and the
multiplicity and activity of its choral organizations are symptomatic of
the energy of its endeavor.

In the meantime the only choral organization in the American

continent that can compare with the premier European ensembles
has been developed in Canada. The fact is not without its
significance. The Toronto Mendelssohn Choir, to which we refer,
stands out among American choirs even more prominently than does
the Boston Symphony Orchestra among American orchestras, and its
marked preëminence has been acknowledged without a dissentient
voice by the whole body of critical opinion in this country. It was
founded in 1894 by Sir Edmund Walker, Dr. A. S. Vogt, Dr. Harold
Clark and Messrs. W. E. Rundle, W. H. Elliott, A. E. Huestis, and T.
Harold Mason, and since the beginning it has been under the
conductorship of Dr. Vogt. The general policy of the Toronto Choir is
the study and performance of works concerning practically the whole
range of choral composition, including all forms of a cappella work,
operatic excerpts, standard oratorios, cantatas and lesser forms.
Among the more important works performed by the choir may be
mentioned Brahms' 'German Requiem,' Verdi's 'Manzoni Requiem,'
Bach's 'B Minor Mass,' Wolf-Ferrari's 'The New Life,' Elgar's 'King
Olaf,' 'Caractacus' and 'The Music Makers,' Pierné's 'The Children's
Crusade' and Coleridge-Taylor's 'Hiawatha' and 'A Tale of Old Japan.'
Included also in the repertory of the choir are smaller works by
Palestrina, Lotti, Elgar, Hugo Wolf, Granville Bantock, Percy Pitt, Max
Reger, Tschaikowsky, Moussorgsky, Sibelius, Rachmaninoff,
Gretchaninoff, Brahms, Richard Strauss, Nowowiejski, and others.
Besides its annual cycle of five festival performances at home the
Toronto Choir has made frequent visits to the more important
musical centres of the United States. It has given three concerts in
Chicago, two in Cleveland, seven in Buffalo, four in New York, and
one in Boston.

As indicating the impression made by this organization on the

centres of musical culture in the United States we may quote the
following from Philip Hale's criticism of its first performance in
Boston: 'It is not too much to say that its performance was a
revelation to even those who heard the celebrated choruses of this
country and in European cities. Other choruses may show a high
degree of technical perfection; they may be conspicuous for decisive
attack, perfect intonation, unvarying precision, fleetness in rapid
passages, the management of breath or distribution of singers that
insures musical and rhetorical phrasing. The Mendelssohn Choir is
thus conspicuous, but it has other qualities that are rare in choirs
even for a small and carefully selected number. This choir of Toronto
is remarkable for exquisite tonal quality. In piano passages the tone
is as though disembodied. There is no thought of massed singers or
of any individual singer. The vigor of these singers never approached
coarseness, and in fortissimos that were "as the voice of many
waters" there was always the suggestion of reserve force, so that
there was beauty in strength. There were delicate nuances in the
performance, sudden and surprising contrasts without disturbance in
rhythm and without loss in purity of intonation. These nuances and
contrasts were apparently spontaneous.' H. T. Parker wrote on the
same occasion: 'In our musical generation Boston has heard no such
choral singing as that of the Mendelssohn Choir in Symphony Hall,
last evening, and applauded no choral conductor of such ability as its
leader, Dr. Vogt. Now, whether the singers be one or two hundred, a
beautiful tone, an expressive tone, a varied tone, is the sum and the
substance, the beginning and the end of musical impartment. No
choir, no choral conductor, has so mastered these secrets or gone so
far in high and various attainment in them as Dr. Vogt and these
Torontans. It seems almost pedagogical, before these higher
achievements of the Mendelssohn Choir, to rehearse the technical
skill of the choristers and their conductor—their fidelity to the true
pitch, their decisiveness of attack, their precision of utterance, their
separate and collective command of vocal technique, their sense of
pace and rhythm. Like unanimity and a unique sensitiveness equally
distinguished the singing of the choir on its expressive, its poetizing,
its dramatizing side.'

IV
One is frequently impelled to wonder at the peculiar trait of human
psychology which leads people to gather together for the celebration
of festivals. We do not allude here to national festivals, or even local
festivals, in honor of some historic event or personage. We have in
mind such apparently motiveless gatherings as the majority of music
festivals. Some of them, of course, have a very definite purpose, and
some, such as the Bayreuth Festival and the Mozart Festival at
Salzburg, have a very obvious motive. But most of them seem to
have no other raison d'être than the instinctive desire of a number of
people to gather into a crowd and make a big noise. Festivals of this
sort are extraordinarily common in America. It is difficult to say
whether the amount of labor involved in the organization of them
could not be more profitably expended. Undoubtedly in territories
where musical culture is as yet a delicate, doubtful growth they
furnish a decided stimulation. To borrow a phrase from the
expressive American slang, they are excellent contrivances for
'whooping things up.' But in a deeper sense they seem in the main
rather futile. We may instance the case of the Worcester Festival to
which we have already alluded. It has been held annually for fifty-six
years and each year it has been very finely planned and carried out.
Each year also it has cost much money. Yet during that time it has
not brought into the light a single new composer, new singer or new
instrumentalist; nor has it made Worcester and its environs any
more musical than they have always been. Like most of its kind it is
merely an inflated concert and the value of inflated concerts at
stated intervals is at least open to discussion.

These festivals are peculiarly American and seem to have grown out
of the old musical conventions so dear to the hearts of the psalm-
singing New Englanders. As far as we can discover, the first musical
convention was instituted at Montpelier, Vermont, by Elijah K. Prouty
and Moses Elia Cheney, both singing-school instructors. It seems to
have been a combination of concert and musical debate. This was in
1839. Later conventions were held at Newberry, Windsor,
Woodstock, Middlebury, and elsewhere in the Green Mountain state.
In 1848 Chicago had a musical convention, held at the First Baptist
Church, and another four years later under the direction of William
Bradbury. Rochester (N. Y.), New York, Richmond, Washington,
Quincy (Ill.), Jacksonville (Ill.), and North Reading (Mass.) took up
the movement in turn under the direction of George F. Root. All
these conventions were purely educational in character and were
concerned chiefly with the art of teaching music.

The Worcester Festival, when it started in 1858, was a convention of

the same sort, with 'lectures upon the voice; the different styles of
church music, ancient and modern; the philosophy of scales,
harmony, etc., with singing by the whole class and by select voices;
solos by members of the convention and ladies and gentlemen from
abroad.' But the promoters of the project—Edward Hamilton and
Benjamin F. Baker—hoped that at no distant day it might be possible
'to achieve the performance of the oratorios and other grand works
of Handel, Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven.' This purpose has been
gradually achieved as the educational features of the festival have
been dropped. Carl Zerrahn was chief conductor of the festival from
1866 to 1897 and was assisted at various times by W. O. Perkins,
George F. Root, Dudley Buck, Victor Herbert, Franz Kneisel, and
others. His successors have been George W. Chadwick, Wallace
Goodrich, and Arthur Mees, in the order named.

The next festival of importance was the May festival of Cincinnati,

started by Theodore Thomas in 1873. Thomas had a peculiar
penchant for festivals. Quite probably they were of some value in
stirring up interest in choral singing throughout the West. The
prospect of going to the city every two years and participating in a
big musical jamboree undoubtedly had the effect of stimulating
choral societies in the smaller towns. Since 1873 the Cincinnati May
Festival has been held regularly under the conductorship of Dr. Otto
Singer, Arthur Mees, Frank Van der Stucken, and others. For several
years, starting in 1881, the city also held annual opera festivals.

To follow the spread of the festival epidemic from coast to coast

would be impossible. Nearly every city and town in the country has
at one time or other been infected. With some of them it has
become chronic. Boston had it for a time. New York and Chicago
later caught it from Theodore Thomas, but recovered quickly. We
may also mention the peace jubilees of Patrick Sarsfield Gilmore,
which were a particularly virulent form of the trouble. In Maine there
have been regular festivals for eighteen years, with centres in
Bangor and Portland. They are very big and well-conducted affairs,
with a mammoth chorus, a large orchestra and soloists of
international reputation. Similar in type are the South Atlantic States
musical festivals held at Birmingham and Spartansburg for the last
twenty years. Chicago has had a North Shore Festival Association for
six seasons. Then there are the festivals of the North American
Sängerbund, the North Eastern Sängerbund, and the innumerable
Männergesangvereine all over the country; the Youngstown Music
Festival, the Albany Music Festival, the festival of the Buffalo Musical
Association and the Wednesday Club of Richmond, the Hampden
County Festival, and the Kansas Farmers' Easter Festival; festivals in
Los Angeles, Seattle, and Bellingham on the coast—a perfectly
bewildering array of festivals.

There are, however, two festivals which stand out from all the others
by virtue of their origin and the nature of their activities. The older
of these is the Norfolk Festival of the Litchfield County Choral Union,
which has now (1914) completed its twenty-eighth season. This is
not a drummed-up affair. It is a perfectly natural outgrowth of the
numerous old singing societies with which Litchfield county was
dotted in the psalm-singing days; it is in the best sense a product of
the soil. The Litchfield County Choral Union grew out of the
association of neighboring small ensembles for the occasional
production of large choral works in a manner which none of them
individually could accomplish in an effective manner. The purpose
was a very useful one and it has had the effect of raising materially
the standard of the choral work among the small societies
composing the union. The Norfolk Festival itself, which is a
comparatively recent institution, owes most of its present value to
the efforts of Robbins Battell, the founder of the professorship of
music at Yale, and more specially to the generosity and artistic
idealism of Carl Stoeckel, who was, during Mr. Battell's lifetime, his
secretary and aid. Mr. Stoeckel, as Mr. Battell's successor, has backed
the festival with unstinted liberality. He has enabled it to bring before
the public new works of famous as well as little known contemporary
composers—particularly American—giving substantial cash prizes for
the best new American compositions. He has placed at the disposal
of the Litchfield County Choral Union a meeting place in ideal
surroundings, modestly termed the 'Music Shed,' and he has brought
to the support of the chorus for each festival an orchestra recruited
from the best New York and Boston organizations, as well as an
array of distinguished soloists. To secure the best possible
performance of new works produced at the festival he has spared
neither trouble nor expense, as may be instanced by the fact that he
brought Jean Sibelius to America to conduct his own compositions.
The value of these festivals to all the choral societies and church
choirs composing the Litchfield County Union is obvious, but they
have a still wider and greater value in introducing to the world the
creations of native American composers and in holding up an
example of fine artistic idealism which cannot be without its
influence on the soul of the nation.

Of peculiar interest is the MacDowell Festival, held annually since

1910 at Peterborough, N. H., under the auspices of the MacDowell
Memorial Association. It is a fact that Edward MacDowell did some of
his best and most characteristic work—the Norse and Keltic sonatas,
the New England Idyls and Fireside Tales, and many songs and
choruses—in a log cabin on his farm at Peterborough, 'surrounded
by enormous pines facing through a lovely vista Monadnock and the
setting sun.' Realizing the value to a creative artist of such inspiring
surroundings, he conceived the idea of bequeathing the place as a
centre for artists seeking congenial conditions for work and rest.
After his death the property was transferred by Mrs. MacDowell to
the MacDowell Memorial Association. To quote the language of the
deed of gift, 'it is expressly and especially desired that this home of
Edward MacDowell shall be a centre of interest to artists working in
varied fields, who, being there brought into contact, may learn to
appreciate fully the fundamental unity of the separate arts. That in it
the individual artist may gain a sympathetic attitude toward the
works of artists in fields other than that in which such artist tries to
embody the beautiful by recognizing that each part has a special
function just so far as it has gained a special medium of expression.'

It is obvious that the beneficent influence of the MacDowell bequest

is not confined to music, but it is natural under the circumstances
that music should be the main beneficiary. Consequently the
MacDowell Festival, which is a sort of annual get-together party, is
predominantly a musical event, though the drama and the dance
have their share in it. It is valuable primarily as the free expression
of æsthetic aspiration unshackled by the deadening fetters of
commercialism; and secondarily as a reasonably good opportunity
for the American composer to obtain a public hearing. If its intent is
finer than its accomplishment that is a fault unfortunately only too
common to idealistic enterprises. Locally it accomplishes something
of practical artistic value by supporting the MacDowell Choral Club
(75 voices) and the MacDowell Choir of Nashua (100 voices), both
under the leadership of Eusebius Godfrey Hood, and undoubtedly it
exercises a stimulating effect upon those who participate in it.

One cannot omit here a notice of the pageant movement which has
grown to quite striking proportions in America within the past few
years and which its leading promoters designate as the most
significant feature of our present artistic development. The term
pageant is not particularly definitive. As applied to certain mediæval
entertainments it was sufficiently explicit, but being a convenient
and picturesque word it has been borrowed somewhat freely and
indiscriminately of recent years. The beginning of the modern
pageant occurred in England in 1905 and its father was Sir Gilbert
Parker. It is a sort of tableau vivant, recreating for a few hours some
especially picturesque period of the country's history. The
Elizabethan period seems to be preferred. Music enters into it only
incidentally. Boston was the first American city to adopt the idea.
This was in 1908. Quebec followed soon afterward and Philadelphia
staged an elaborate pageant in 1912. All these were modelled after
the English type.

In the meantime some Americans, notably William Chauncy Langdon

and Arthur Farwell, had been evolving an idea to which they applied
the convenient name of pageant but which is fundamentally different
from the English type and its imitators. Briefly, the new pageant is a
community drama; it is a drama with the place for its hero and the
development of the community for its plot. In this novel type of
drama the individual is entirely submerged and the historical
incidents are chosen rather for their symbolical value than for their
intrinsic interest. The spirit informing the history of the community is
the dominant theme. Out of this idea, it is claimed, there is being
developed a new art-form representatively American and
interpretative of the American spirit. The first pageant embodying
the community idea was written by William Chauncy Langdon for
Thetford, Vt., in 1911. Some of the music was composed by James
T. Sleeper, but most of it was adapted. The pageant of St.
Johnsbury, Vt., also written by Mr. Langdon, followed in 1912.
Brookes C. Peters, a local man, composed most of the music for it.
Then came the pageant of Meriden, N. H., in 1913, in which Mr.
Langdon and Arthur Farwell collaborated and which was the first
pageant composed as a musical art form complete. Mr. Farwell
brought to this work a large enthusiasm for the idea and an ardent
faith in its possibilities, and he has since taken a very conspicuous
part in its development. The pageant of Darien, Conn., in 1913,
composed by him to the book of Mr. Langdon, shows considerable
progress in the evolution of the pageant as a distinct art-form.
Another step in advance was taken by the pageant of Cape Cod in
1914, written by Mr. Langdon with music by Daniel Gregory Mason.
The elaborate pageant and masque of St. Louis in 1914 was of a
somewhat different order and resembled more closely the English
type. The music of the masque was composed by Frederick S.
Converse, and, being conceived as an independent art unit rather
than as incidental music, may be regarded as a new departure in the
'masque' rather than a development of the pageant-form.

Regarding the musical side of this and other pageants Mr. Langdon
says in a letter to the writer: 'So far as I know in no English pageant
has there been any attempt to recognize the pageant as a new
musical art-form in itself and to develop the music as an art-unit,
comparable to the sonata, symphony, or opera. The music has all
been incidental music, though often filling quite thoroughly all
openings for anything of the kind. Herewith much original composing
has been done, and some of it at least very fine composing. The
formative idea, or precedent I almost call it, is to be found in the
chorus of the Greek drama set to music. So, too, the music written
for the Philadelphia pageant of 1912 is of the same type, as that
pageant itself was modelled after the English type quite closely
rather than following the American departures. But thus far, so far as
I know, my pageants are the only ones that regard the pageant as a
musical as well as dramatic art-form and seek to work out its
development as such.' Certainly the new pageant is one of the most
interesting developments in American art, and it is especially
interesting in view of the fact that it is a distinctly American idea
particularly well calculated, one would think, to be a vehicle for the
expression of the American spirit. So far, of course, it is largely an
experiment and its history lies rather in the future than in the past.
Its susceptibility to national application favors its possibilities
considerably.

The lack of such susceptibility lessens the importance of many other

local and very characteristic art developments. The most interesting
of these are the Grove Plays, or Midsummer High Jinks of the
Bohemian Club of San Francisco, which are briefly an expression in
drama and music of the spirit of joy. Climate, locale and a body of
artists with the sort of traditions indicated by their club name,
combine to give these affairs their characteristic flavor, and it is
doubtful if they could be imitated successfully under different
conditions. But it would seem that similar attempts at local
expression, whatever form they may take, are likely to become
common in America in the future, and serve as valuable and much-
needed stimulants to the creation of a worthy native art.

W. D. D.
 FOOTNOTES:
[54] As we have already noticed, the 'Messiah' was performed at Trinity Church,
New York, in 1771 and 1772, but there is a reasonable doubt whether on either of
these occasions the work was given in its entirety.

[55] See Thayer's 'Life of Beethoven.'

 CHAPTER X
MUSICAL EDUCATION IN AMERICA

Early singing teachers and schools—Music societies in colleges—

Introduction of music in the public schools—The Germanic
influence—Conservatories—Musical courses in colleges and
universities; community music—Present state of public school
music—Municipal music.

There seems to be general agreement among students of American

music that we are entering upon a national era. That we did not
attain this stage long before has generally been laid to the
inadequacy of our educational system in music. A less apparent yet
more rational statement would be that our educational equipment,
growing with the increasing culture of the people and adapting itself
to their timely needs and developing comprehension, was the kind
most desirable. A 'mugwump' was defined by General Horace Porter
as 'a man educated beyond his ability.' Had a European system of
musical education, however theoretically ideal, been imposed on
young America when necessarily occupied with material problems,
we might now be a nation of musical mugwumps, smugly satisfied
with ourselves, and incapable of original achievement.

If it be granted, then, that musical culture is conditioned, in kind and

degree, upon the character of the people concerned, then the
colonization of our country becomes a subject of prime importance,
affording, indeed, the best logical method, in conjunction with a
general chronological order, for discussing the present subject.

The various colonies which were planted on our eastern shores

developed by permeating in successive waves of immigration New
York, northern Ohio, Indiana and Illinois, and Michigan and
Wisconsin; thence the lines became divergent, broadening through
the trans-Mississippi plains until, emerging on the Pacific, they
embrace the entire coast, from Seattle to Los Angeles. While the
original spirit has been greatly tempered in the course of this
progress, its distinctive character still remains—a pale tinge of
Puritanism, as it were, which colors every expression of life, and
which can be traced on the sociological map of the United States by
a narrowing belt of ever-deepening hue, back to its undiluted
source: the all-pervasive theocracy of colonial New England.

From the time when this religious influence began to reach beyond
its original boundaries, it met and amalgamated, in a social though
not sectarian sense, with Presbyterianism, a kindred spirit which,
somewhat later than Puritanism, came to America, largely from
Scotland, and took root in almost all the colonies from New York to
the Carolinas. The 'blue laws' of Connecticut, so repressive of the
graces of life, of love and laughter and music, found their
counterpart in the Westminster Catechism, wherein the 'moral law,'
that is, the regulation of social relations, is said to be 'summarily
comprehended in the Ten Commandments,' the first four of which
are specifically religious.

Religion being the dominant factor in this stream of social influence

which flowed through America, and the Bible standing as the chief
and final authority on all matters of life, music, the ever-willing
handmaid of every human institution asking her assistance, was
naturally drafted into the exclusive service of the church. The first
singing books were psalm books; the first singing schools were
organized for the purpose of the instruction and training of church
congregations and church choirs.
 I
Private instruction in music was unknown for more than a century
after the settlement of the country. In 1673 the British Commissioner
for the Plantations reported that there were no 'musicians by trade'
in the United States. Indeed, it was not until 1730 that an
advertisement appears of a music teacher. In that year a newspaper
in Charleston, S. C., printed a notice that John Salter was teaching
music in a young ladies' boarding school conducted by his wife.

It is true that some of the psalm-books contained hints for singing,

but these were either too obvious or too vague to be of practical
value. Thus in the 1698 edition of the 'Bay Psalm-Book' (the work,
first published in 1640, ran through seventy editions) there is this
general direction: 'First, observe how many note-compass the tune is
next the place of your first note, and how many notes above and
below that, so as you may begin the tune of your first note, as the
rest may be sung in the compass of your and the people's voices,
without Squeaking above or Grumbling below.'

As we have seen (in Chapter II), the first books of psalmody

pretending to be works of instruction were those of the Rev. John
Tufts, of Newbury, Mass., published in 1712 and 1714, and that of
the Rev. Thomas Walter, of Roxbury, Mass., published in 1721.
Largely as a result of Tufts' and Walter's publications, singing schools
to teach the reading of psalm-tunes by sight began to be established
in New England, although not without strenuous opposition.

In 1723 the Rev. Thomas Symmes, of Bradford, Mass., published a

'joco-serious dialogue concerning regular singing,' which bore the
title 'Utile Dulci.' In this he presents and answers prevalent
objections to singing by note, among which the following are
significant of the ignorance, intolerance and pruriency of the 'unco
guid' of that day:
'5. That it is Quakerish and Popish, and introductive of instrumental
musick.

'6. That the names given to the notes are bawdy, yea blasphemous.'

The second stimulus to musical education in America was imparted

by various American reprints of two English books on psalmody: W.
Tansur's collection, 'The Royal Melody Complete,' published in 1754,
and Aaron Williams' 'The New Universal Psalmodist,' published in
1763. The prevalent taste in England for musical rococo, such as
florid and meaningless 'fuguing choruses,' was thus transplanted to
the colonies, where it made a deep impression which was harder to
remove and persisted longer than in the mother country.

The most conservative strain of English musical culture, that

associated with the Anglican church, existed also in America,
awaiting its turn to reign, when growth in general culture and artistic
capacity should cause the people to tire of the ingratiating but
inconsequential music which held sway. Its exponent was William
Tuckey, an English musician of high training and culture, who came
to New York in 1753 and made an earnest attempt to educate the
colonial people in an appreciation of the best church music. His
career as teacher as well as organist and composer has already been
touched upon in these pages (see Chap. II). Tuckey called himself
'Professor of the Theory and Practice of Vocal Music,' and the part he
played in the musical education of New York and Philadelphia fully
justifies the assertion that he was the first teacher in America worthy
of the title. His pupils became prominent in all movements of their
respective cities for the elevation of not only sacred but secular
music to the best standards of Europe.

Already there was the leaven of German influence working for the
betterment of music in America. In 1741 Moravian Brethren in their
community at Bethlehem, Pa., a little town which has retained to the
present day the distinction of being a home of music of the highest
order, had established singing schools. Ten years later they formed,
in connection with these, an orchestra for the rendition of secular as
well as sacred music. In the correspondence of the time, lovers of
their country, men who, like Samuel Adams, of Boston, had begun to
think nationally and who shortly afterward were to become patriots
of the Revolution, put on record their gratification at this important
contribution to American culture.

A taste for good music and a desire to inculcate it were also

developing in Philadelphia and Baltimore, as shown by records of the
time. In 1764 the vestry of St. Peter's and Christ Church in the
prosperous city founded by William Penn extended a vote of thanks
to two of its most cultured and public-spirited citizens, William Young
and Francis Hopkinson (who was soon to achieve distinction as a
poet and patriot of the Revolution), for instructing the children of the
church in psalmody. In 1765, at St. Anne's Church, Baltimore, Hugh
Maguire, probably the organist, established a singing school, for use
in which he published 'a new version of the psalms, with all the
tunes, both of particular and common measure.' He announced that
he would teach singing at their homes to young ladies who played
the spinet, his remuneration to be fifteen shillings a quarter and an
entrance fee of one dollar.

Returning to New England, we find in William Billings, the 'great

Yankee singing-master,' the most important musical influence of the
time. The date of publication of his original compositions, 1770,
marks an era in American music. By this time the old psalm-tunes in
use, only four in number, were worn to death, and the new tunes,
having been composed in the novel fuguing style of the English
compositions, became instantly popular with the singing schools,
which Billings was energetic in organizing and conducting. The most
notable of these, that at Stoughton, Mass., is elsewhere described,
as well as the general activities of Billings and other teachers of the
same general school.

In the circle of musical development of which Philadelphia was the

centre, Andrew Adgate of that city was the leading spirit. In 1784 he
established an 'Institution for the Encouragement of Church Music'
supported by subscription and governed by trustees. So fervent was
Adgate in the cause of 'music for the people' that, as conductor of
the institution, he organized 'public singings,' which became so
popular that within a year the trustees, objecting to 'the
indiscriminate assemblage' of the general public, restricted
admission to subscribers. Adgate thereupon resigned his position
and established a free school, 'Adgate's Institution for diffusing more
generally the knowledge of vocal music.' It is significant of the public
spirit of the 'cradle of independence' that he found a number of
influential men willing to act as trustees of the new organization.
The splendid institution which is now the University of Pennsylvania
opened its doors to the new enterprise. Inviting requests to join
these free classes, Adgate announced: 'The more there are who
make this application and the sooner they make it, the more
acceptable will it be to the trustees and the teacher.'

Adgate's Institution had a marked influence in Philadelphia in the

development of musical appreciation, which is an essential
precedent in any community of the practical cultivation of the art.
Foreign music teachers after trying vainly in other places, such as
New York, for something like remunerative recognition, finally found
it in the city whose civic spirit had been broadened by Adgate to
include artistic as well as material progress. Among these may be
mentioned William Tuckey, already noted; the English musician,
Rayner Taylor, who came to America in 1792; and Filippo Trajetta, a
Venetian, the son of the noted composer Tomaso Trajetta. Filippo
was trained by the best masters, notably Piccini; entering the
revolutionary army of Italy, he was captured by the royalists, but,
escaping, fled to America, arriving in Boston in 1799, where he
taught singing. He toured through the South as a theatrical
manager, and finally settled in Philadelphia, teaching and composing
music ('Washington's Dead March' being his most popular
composition) until his death at the age of seventy-eight in 1854. He
published 'Rudiments of the Art of Singing' as a text-book for the
'American Conservatorio,' an institution established in Philadelphia by
his pupil, Uri K. Hill; in this he advocated the Italian system of
solfeggio to supersede the 'defective sol-fa-ing' in universal use in
America.

In New England, more particularly Boston, we find that the foreign

influence was making itself felt in music through 'The Massachusetts
Compiler,' a work which embodied something of the theory of music
as given in the works of German, French, and English authorities.
The introduction of this element was probably due to Hans Gram,
the German organist at Brattle Church, Boston, who, with Oliver
Holden and Samuel Holyoke, published the work in 1795. To Gottlieb
Graupner, another German, was mainly due the foreign influence
which caused Boston to become for half a century the leading city of
the country in musical influence. The 'Philharmonic Society,' which
was formed by Graupner and his associates in 1810, prepared the
way for the Handel and Haydn Society, founded in 1815, which not
only educated Boston and New England in musical appreciation, but
had a formative influence on the taste of the entire country.

English talent conjoined at Boston with German in this educational

work. Dr. G. J. Jackson, an English musician of the order of William
Tuckey and Rayner Taylor—indeed, he was Taylor's schoolmate—had
come to America in 1796, and taught music at Norfolk and
Alexandria, Va., and Baltimore, Philadelphia, and New York. In his
northward progress he arrived in Boston in 1812, and became
organist successively of the Brattle Street Church, King's Chapel,
Trinity Church, and St. Paul's Church. He was the leading
choirmaster of his day, teaching the English method of chanting, and
was employed as music teacher by the first families. He published a
book of chants, anthems, etc., and contributed original compositions
to 'The Churchman's Choral Companion,' published in New York in
1808 by the Rev. William Smith. His friend Rayner Taylor was also
represented in the collection.
 II
A singing club, more social than serious in its purpose, had been
formed at Harvard in 1786. In 1808 a novel institution, the 'Pierean
Sodality,' was established at the college. This was a singing
fraternity, the members of which were linked together by a common
interest in music. The Sodality was the germ of the present
Department of Music in Harvard University. Out of it there arose in
1837 the 'Harvard Musical Association,' composed of alumni of the
college who had been members of the Sodality. The report of the
committee on organization admirably described the fraternal function
of music and stated the fashion in which this was to be realized by
the new association:

'Nothing unites men more than music. It makes brothers of

strangers; it makes the most diffident feel at home; the most shy
and suspicious it renders frank and full of trust; it overflows the
rocks of separation between us; it comes up like a full tide beneath
us, and opens a free intercourse of hearts.

'We propose, then, to form an association which shall meet here

annually on commencement day: if for nothing more, at least to
exchange salutations and review recollections, and feel the common
bond of music and old scenes....

'But the ultimate object proposed is the advancement of the cause

of music, particularly in this university. We would have it regarded as
an important object of attention within its walls, as something which
sooner or later must hold its place in every liberal system of
education; and that place not accidental or a stolen one, but
formally recognized. We that love music feel that it is worthy of its
professorship, as well as any other science.'

As we shall see later this high purpose was fulfilled in the

establishment of a Department of Music in Harvard on an equal basis
with the other departments. The association stated that one of its
objects was to collect a musical library, and another to promote the
production of great symphonies. This program was greatly extended
in the course of the existence of the association; chamber concerts,
hitherto unknown in Boston, were given in the winter under the
leadership of such artists as Herwig and Hohnstock. These concerts
led in 1849 to the organization of the Mendelssohn Quintet Club for
the exclusive cultivation of chamber music. In 1852, with the moral
backing of the association, J. S. Dwight, one of its leading spirits,
established 'Dwight's Journal of Music,' a periodical of the highest
aim and most authoritative character. Its publication ceased in 1881.

The 'Handel Society of Dartmouth College,' discussed in another

connection, had a fate unworthy of its high character and sadly
significant of the low state of musical appreciation in the smaller
colleges of the times, and in the 'common people' from which class
their students were chiefly drawn. It dwindled and died for lack of
recruits. Pity it is that some loyal patron of the college had not
provided for the perpetuation of the society, if only as a memorial of
Dartmouth's chief glory, even surpassing that of having trained in
some measure the classic rhetoric and Olympian accents of the
greatest of American orators. Our democracy alone, unaided by
college culture, produced Lincoln, in most minds the rival of Webster
in perfect phrase and his superior in heart-moving utterance, if not
in ear-entrancing tone. It has not yet brought forth the compeers of
these in music, since education is required to supply the nurturing
musical environment found abroad but hitherto lacking in American
life. Had music been permanently established as a part of the
curriculum of Dartmouth alone, not to speak of the other colleges, a
few young men with a native taste for it would undoubtedly have
been found in every class and these would have cherished and
transmitted the sacred fire with increasing ardor until the inevitable
time arrived when native genius would be kindled into immortal
flame.
 III
A new order of native-born music teachers, those who pursued
European methods in their instruction, was now arising. The chief of
this class was Lowell Mason. Mason was born at Medfield, Mass., and
spent his youth and early manhood in Savannah, Ga., where he was
engaged in business. A music-lover from early childhood, he carried
to the South the psalmody of New England, but, becoming master of
a church choir, he felt the inadequacy of existing collections of
church music and, with the valuable assistance of a local music
teacher, Mr. Abel, prepared a new one suited to his needs.

He came to Boston seeking a publisher and found it in the Handel

and Haydn Society, which, in 1822, not only published the collection
but gave the society's name to it. It met with great success, running
through many editions. In 1826 its compiler delivered a series of
lectures in Boston churches on church music which attracted such
favorable attention that he was induced to make his home in the
city. In time he became president of the Handel and Haydn Society,
and, when the Boston Academy of Music was established, largely
through his efforts, he was put in charge of it.

At this period began a movement to reform radically our entire

system of school instruction, and the moment was propitious for the
introduction of music in the public schools, a purpose upon which Mr.
Mason had set his heart. In 1830 William C. Woodbridge delivered
before the American Institute of Instruction in Boston an address on
'Vocal Music as a Branch of Common Education,' illustrated by
Mason's pupils, in which the lecturer, recently returned from Europe,
warmly advocated the cultivation of music as an essential element of
American, as it was of foreign life. One sentence of his lecture is
startling to us of the present generation in its inferential revelation of
the primitive nature of juvenile instruction in the United States as
late as 1830. Mr. Woodbridge, speaking of music being 'the property
of the people' in Germany and Switzerland, heard in field and
factory, and in gatherings for pleasure no less than in assemblies for
worship, added: 'But we were touched to the heart when we heard
its cheering animating strains issuing from the walls of a
schoolroom.'

Mr. Woodbridge was an enthusiast over the Pestalozzian method as

applied to instruction in music. He not only collected all the literature
he could on the subject, but even translated the more important
works and turned over the entire material to Mr. Mason. This wise
teacher experimented first with the method before adopting it. The
success of the trial made him an ardent supporter of the new system
of instruction, which completely overthrew the old custom of starting
the pupil off with a complete tune and correcting defects as these
manifested themselves. The Pestalozzian method is truly the natural
one, building up, instead of patching up. This will be seen by
examining its principles:

1. To teach sounds before signs (have the pupil learn notes orally
first).

2. To lead the pupil to observe and execute differences in sound,

instead of explaining these to him, i. e., to make him active
instead of passive in learning.

3. To teach one thing at a time—rhythm, melody, expression—

instead of a selection embodying all these elements.

4. To have the pupil master each step by practice before passing to

the next.

5. To explain principles after practice (the inductive method).

6. Analysis and practice of articulation of speech in order to use it in

song.

To apply this revolutionary method to teaching music was the central

purpose of the establishment of the Boston Academy of Music. It
had a useful career during the fourteen years of its existence. Mr.
Mason, like Mr. Adgate, of Philadelphia, believed in 'music for the
people,' and his generosity in extending this without considering
material profit kept the institution in constant need of funds until it
gave up the struggle and closed its doors in 1847.

The Academy was more than a New England institution: it was a

national one, in that music teachers in every part of the country
wrote to it for guidance in their work. And it left behind it the finest
of mmorials, the establishment in Boston, and, through Boston's
example, all over the nation, of music in the public schools, not
merely as a relief from other studies, but as a study itself. This
innovation was made by the city fathers of Boston in 1837, after a
trial of the propositions had proved successful. T. Kemper Davis,
chairman of the school committee, made a long and learned report
upon the subject which is a classic of its kind, and as such may be
read with profit by teachers of music, particularly those in the public
schools.[56]

Music in the public schools of New York had an independent origin.

In 1835 Darius E. Jones experimented with the idea of forming
singing classes in the schools and teaching them without
compensation. The trial was successful, and the school board gave
him permission to continue the work provided no expense was
incurred and regular studies were not interfered with. Music in the
New York schools was not effectively recognized by provision for
compensation until 1853. T. B. Mason, the brother of Lowell Mason,
introduced singing in the public schools of Cincinnati. Pittsburgh
began such instruction in 1840. Nathaniel D. Gould, a music teacher
and composer, claimed to have been the first to teach singing to
children in a systematic method. From 1820 onward he organized
such classes in New England, New York, and New Jersey.

The recognition by municipal authority of music as an essential

element of education has been ratified in the fullest manner by
national authority. Philander P. Claxton, United States Commissioner
of Education, addressing the National Education Association
convened at St. Paul, in July, 1914, asserted that music is of more
practical value than any subject of the usual curriculum, except
reading and writing, and with these studies, and physical culture and
arithmetic, forms the fundamentals in elementary education.

While in the later thirties colleges and universities were not prepared
to grant music a place in the academic curriculum, they began to
recognize it as an important element of culture, and to extend to it
their patronage. In 1838 William Robyn, a professor in St. Louis
University, formed, under the auspices of the institution, a musical
society called the 'Philharmonic' for the performance of public
concerts. These were well patronized.[57]

IV
The German immigration was in full force in the forties, cities such
as St. Louis, Cincinnati, and Milwaukee becoming the homes of great
numbers of this music-loving people. In the broad sense of the term,
they formed the greatest educational influence in music that the
country had yet received. It is said that wherever two Germans
settled in America they organized themselves into a Sängerbund.
Tyrolese and Swiss singers and bell-ringers began to tour the
country in 1840 and delighted Americans of every class—even now
they are popular in the Chautauqua circles. However, when, lured by
the success of the jodlers, really fine German bands, such as the
Steiermarkers, Gungl's band, the Saxonia and Germania, came over
in quest of American dollars, they met with consistent failure, and
were forced to dissolve—to the great benefit of American musical
education, for the individual members generally became teachers of
instrumental music in the localities where they were stranded. It was
only by playing dance music and popular airs that the bands met
with any success whatsoever. Gungl (whose 'Railroad Galop,' an
imitative composition, was the most popular in his répertoire) wrote
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