Visit ebookfinal.

com to download the full version and

explore more ebooks or textbooks

Fundamentals in Hadronic Atom Theory 1ST Edition

A. Deloff

_____ Click the link below to download _____

https://ebookfinal.com/download/fundamentals-in-hadronic-
atom-theory-1st-edition-a-deloff/

Explore and download more ebooks or textbook at ebookfinal.com

Here are some recommended products that we believe you will be
interested in. You can click the link to download.

Fallout Winter of Atom 1st Edition Mophidius

https://ebookfinal.com/download/fallout-winter-of-atom-1st-edition-
mophidius/

Atom Resolved Surface Reactions Nanocatalysis 1st Edition

P.R. Davies

https://ebookfinal.com/download/atom-resolved-surface-reactions-
nanocatalysis-1st-edition-p-r-davies/

The Ghost in the Atom A Discussion of the Mysteries of

Quantum Physics 1st Edition P. C. W. Davies

https://ebookfinal.com/download/the-ghost-in-the-atom-a-discussion-of-
the-mysteries-of-quantum-physics-1st-edition-p-c-w-davies/

The Atom The Building Block of Everything 1st Edition Jack

Challoner

https://ebookfinal.com/download/the-atom-the-building-block-of-
everything-1st-edition-jack-challoner/
Fundamentals of Grid Computing Theory Algorithms and
Technologies 1st Edition Frederic Magoules

https://ebookfinal.com/download/fundamentals-of-grid-computing-theory-
algorithms-and-technologies-1st-edition-frederic-magoules/

The Basics of Information Security Understanding the

Fundamentals of InfoSec in Theory and Practice 1st Edition
Jason Andress
https://ebookfinal.com/download/the-basics-of-information-security-
understanding-the-fundamentals-of-infosec-in-theory-and-practice-1st-
edition-jason-andress/

Silicon Chemistry From the Atom to Extended Systems 1st

edition Edition Peter Jutzi

https://ebookfinal.com/download/silicon-chemistry-from-the-atom-to-
extended-systems-1st-edition-edition-peter-jutzi/

Theory vs anti theory in ethics a misconceived conflict

1st Edition Nick Fotion

https://ebookfinal.com/download/theory-vs-anti-theory-in-ethics-a-
misconceived-conflict-1st-edition-nick-fotion/

The Basics of Cyber Warfare Understanding the Fundamentals

of Cyber Warfare in Theory and Practice 1st Edition Steve
Winterfeld
https://ebookfinal.com/download/the-basics-of-cyber-warfare-
understanding-the-fundamentals-of-cyber-warfare-in-theory-and-
practice-1st-edition-steve-winterfeld/
Fundamentals in Hadronic Atom Theory 1ST Edition A.
Deloff Digital Instant Download
Author(s): A. Deloff
ISBN(s): 9789812383716, 9812383719
Edition: 1ST
File Details: PDF, 23.22 MB
Year: 2003
Language: english
 A. Deloff

Fundamentals
inHaaronic
Atom Theory
.Fundamentals
inHaaronic
Atom Theory
This page is intentionally left blank
.Fundamentals
in hiaaronic
Atom Theory
A. Deloff
Soltan Institute for Nuclear Studies, Warsaw, Poland

V f e World Scientific
WB SL
New Jersey • London • Singapore • Hong Kong
Published by
World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd.
5 Toh Tuck Link, Singapore 596224
USA office: Suite 202, 1060 Main Street, River Edge, NJ 07661
UK office: 57 Shelton Street, Covent Garden, London WC2H 9HE

British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

FUNDAMENTALS IN HADRONIC ATOM THEORY

Copyright © 2003 by World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd.
All rights reserved. This book, or parts thereof, may not be reproduced in any form or by any means,
electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording or any information storage and retrieval
system now known or to be invented, without written permission from the Publisher.

For photocopying of material in this volume, please pay a copying fee through the Copyright
Clearance Center, Inc., 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, USA. In this case permission to
photocopy is not required from the publisher.

ISBN 981-238-371-9

Printed in Singapore by World Scientific Printers (S) Pte Ltd

 Preface

The purpose of this book is to describe some of the major advances in our
understanding of the fundamental properties of hadronic atoms and this
text is an outgrowth of our personal research in the field over the years.
The book has two parts: the first part is devoted to methods and the second
part contains applications and a brief survey of the experimental situation.
It has been assumed that the reader has a good knowledge of quantum
mechanics and has completed a first course on quantum field theory.
Since our primary intention was to present in a unified and integrated
manner the foundations of the macroscopic approach, we have stayed in
principle within the conventional picture of hadronic atoms based on a two-
body model Hamiltonian in which all strong interaction effects have been
simulated by an absorptive effective potential representing the complicated
interaction between the hadron and the nucleus. Thus, strictly speaking
we present here a quantum mechanical theory of the hadronic hydrogen
as in this case the two-body model happens to be exact. It is understood
that for heavier elements all many-body complications have been deferred
as they are supposed to be accounted for in the derivation of the effective
potential which in general can be expected to be an immensely complex
object. In this book, however, the problem of a microscopic derivation of
the effective potential has not been our primary concern. Instead, we adopt
a pragmatic philosophy that one has to explore first a simple macroscopic
prototype, especially that the phenomenological approach has had consid­
erable successes in reproducing the hadronic atoms data, using effective
potentials of the simplest possible form. Nevertheless, it should be kept
in mind that some important many-body aspects of the problem might be
missed in result of this simplification.
The introduction of a complex nuclear potential into the description
vi Fundamentals in Hadronic Atom Theory

of a hadronic atom has two observable effects: a shift in the energy of

the otherwise hydrogen-like level position, and a broadening of the atomic
level arising from the fact that the system can now decay through the ab­
sorptive strong interaction. When the measured level energies and widths
in hadronic atoms are identified with the complex eigenvalues of the the
model Hamiltonian the calculated spectrum could be directly confronted
with experiment. However, since the underlying Hamiltonian is a non-
selfadjoined operator the calculation of the spectrum is a non-trivial task,
and, in particular, the usual quantum mechanical rules such as orthogonal­
ity, normalization and completeness are no longer valid. Since this point
has received little attention in the literature we demonstrate explicitly how
the standard quantum mechanical scheme could be extended in order to
incorporate the above rules in a consistent way. Having established the cal-
culational scheme, we can use the powerful analytic methods developed long
time ago for studying the singularities of the S-matrix in potential scatter­
ing. These methods are directly applicable to the problem at issue since the
task of finding bound states corresponding to hadronic atoms is equivalent
to locating the poles of the appropriate S-matrix in the upper part of the
complex momentum plane (k-plane). The presence of the Coulomb poten­
tial is here a major complication since the origin of the k-plane becomes
a highly singular point where the S-matrix has both a logarithmic branch
point, which makes necessary introducing a branch cut, and an essential
singularity. These singularities appear as a consequence of the infinite range
of the Coulomb potential and of crucial importance for understanding the
hadronic atoms phenomena. Also this point does not seem to have received
enough appreciation in the literature.
In order to get further insight into the fundamental properties of
hadronic atoms, we consider a quantum mechanical two-potential prob­
lem in which all complications have been stripped down to essentials. So,
we have deliberately disregarded many possible extensions which might
complicate the problem in an uninteresting way assuming that the absorp­
tive nuclear potential is local, central, energy independent and has a short
range, i.e comparable with the nuclear sizes. Although at first sight this
might have appeared as a severe limitation, yet we argue that this model
contains the basic ingredients necessary to capture much of the important
physics, and, in particular it provides means to examine certain phenomena
of considerable theoretical interest arising as a result of mixing between the
atomic and the nuclear effects. Also, as we shall see, many of the exten­
sions we choose to leave out could be easily re-introduced once the more
 Preface vn

fundamental questions have been resolved. On the formal side, when the
nuclear potential is supplemented with the hadron-nucleus Coulomb inter­
action, one has to cope with a quantum mechanical bound state problem
which is sufficiently complex to exhibit a highly non-trivial dynamical struc­
ture. Consequently, our second objective was to assemble all the necessary
mathematical tools required to take on this complicated problem.
The actual nuclear potentials are known to be quite strong so that in
general one has to consider situations when they might be capable of sup­
porting bound states of their own. In addition to the atomic spectrum
one would then expect to have nuclear bound states but since binding re­
sults from a collaborative action of two potentials we prefer to call them
quasi-nuclear bound states: they become identical with the usual nuclear
bound states when the Coulomb interaction is turned-off. In contrast with
the atomic states, these quasi-nuclear bound states can be expected to
have much bigger binding, commeasurable with the energy scale typical for
strong interactions. On the other hand, it is well known that the atomic
level shifts could also be quite large and it is far from obvious how it might
be possible to distinguish the atomic states from the quasi-nuclear states.
In this book we show that this could be done by investigating pole trajecto­
ries of the associated S-matrix. We believe that a clear-cut ramification of
the spectrum of a two-potential Hamiltonian is a new development of con­
siderable importance. To amplify this point, suppose that we have located
a number of bound states in our two-potential problem, i.e we have located
a number of poles of the corresponding S-matrix in the k-plane. When the
depth of the nuclear potential is varied these poles will be moving in the
k-plane along certain trajectories and in the limit of vanishing depth the
poles corresponding to atomic states should resume unperturbed Coulomb
positions on the positive half of the imaginary axis. If this does not hap­
pen, we have to do with a quasi-nuclear bound state. In the latter case,
when the nuclear attraction falls below certain minimal value, the bound
state pole travels towards the negative real axis and finally crosses to the
lower half of the k-plane. When this happens, the pole does not repre­
sent a bound state anymore. Such behavior is typical for a bound state
pole generated by a short-ranged potential as has been well documented
in the literature. Although the quasi-nuclear bound states appear to have
similar features as the nuclear bound states but the presence of Coulomb
potential introduces one important difference. The central point here is
a remarkable saturation theorem, which to the best of our knowledge has
not been presented in the literature. This theorem states that given a real
viii Fundamentals in Hadronic Atom Theory

nuclear interaction plus attractive Coulomb potential, then in such a two-

potential problem we can have nothing else but the atomic spectrum and
the bound states are in one-to-one correspondence with the unperturbed
Coulomb levels, no matter how strong is the nuclear attraction. In this case
the quasi-nuclear bound states simply do not exist. The point is that for
real potentials all bound state poles must necessarily reside on the positive
imaginary axis but the poles generated by the nuclear interaction are not
allowed to enter the upper half of the k-plane. When the nuclear attrac­
tion increases the poles in the lower half of the k-plane approach to the
origin, exactly as in the Coulomb-free case, but in the two-potential case
passing through the origin is impossible without hitting the Coulomb sin­
gularities. Since the trajectory never enters the positive imaginary axis it
is interesting to know what does the trajectory do when the attraction is
increased arbitrarily. It turns out that by increasing the nuclear attraction
the trajectory is pushed away from the origin and through the Coulomb
cut enters another Riemann sheet. This picture may change providing that
the absorption exceeds critical level. Only then the bound state pole, not
confined then to the imaginary axis, is given the chance to evade the singu­
lar point at the origin. To generate a quasi-nuclear bound state, both the
nuclear attraction and the absorption must exceed certain minimal values.
Formal considerations have been illustrated by numerous explicit examples
showing the behavior of pole trajectories when both the nuclear attraction
and the absorption are varied. Pole trajectories for local potentials have
been studied in several papers but the addition of the Coulomb potential
introduces new singularities changing qualitatively the behavior of the pole
trajectories and this case so far does not seem to have been presented in the
literature. The quasi-nuclear bound states might well exist in nature and
one such example is the antiprotonic-hydrogen where the possible existence
of bound antinucleon-nucleon or baryonium states has been advocated by
a number of authors using both nuclear and quark models. The strongly
bound baryonium states are expected to have large binding energies so that
they are markedly different from the bound states corresponding to atomic
levels of antiprotonic hydrogen.
When the attraction of the nuclear potential increases the atomic spec­
trum becomes strongly distorted and this gives rise to many interesting
effects. For real nuclear potentials the key role plays an utmost important
no-crossing theorem which states that all bound states poles of the S-matrix
are necessarily simple, so that two pole trajectories must never cross in the
upper half of the k-plane. The atomic binding energies when plotted as
 Preface IX

functions of the nuclear potential strength, in order to avoid crossing re­

arrange themselves in a complicated way displaying a collective step-like
behavior. This phenomenon which is known as Zeldovich effect is shown
here to be a consequence of the saturation and the no-crossing theorems.
Since the formation of a quasi-nuclear level is prohibited, when the nuclear
attraction is sufficiently large, the atomic levels behave the same way as nu­
clear level would. For complex nuclear potentials the no-crossing theorem
is no longer valid and crossing of two pole trajectories in the upper part
of the k-plane becomes possible which has profound consequences. At the
crossing point the S-matrix has a second order pole and the corresponding
two eigenfunctions become identical. Although we have than one function
less but we show that the completeness relation still holds if the set of
eigenfunctions is supplemented with the derivative with respect to k of the
eigenfunction corresponding to the crossing point eigenvalue. The other
important point is that the eigenmomentum is a non-analytic function of
the potential strength, and, in particular, has a branch point singularity at
the critical value of the strength which gives rise to crossing. As a result, in
the vicinity of this critical strength both the binding energy and the level
width show a rapid variation, a phenomenon observed a long time ago by
Krell and known as Krell oscillations.
The two-potential model considered in this book is relevant also in many
other problems, in particular in the analysis of the low energy scattering
data. Because the standard Coulomb wave functions have complicated an­
alytic properties in the complex k-plane the calculations of the low-energy
scattering parameters have been cumbersome, often involving unjustified
approximations. In consequence, many simple results have been obscured
by technical aspects and this important practical problem has been avoided
in the textbooks devoted to scattering theory. The introduction of a differ­
ent set of Coulomb wave functions which are analytic in k2 turns fuzziness
into clarity. In particular, these functions may be expanded in powers of
k2, which allows to calculate very easily the scattering lengths and effective
ranges for all angular momenta. We believe that an up-to-date presentation
of this very old topic will be useful in practical applications.
Of course, a book on hadronic atoms would have been incomplete with­
out reference to the modern developments based on Chiral Perturbation
Theory. Admittedly, this promising approach is not in the mainstream of
our exposition but we have appended a Chiral Theory Primer just to give
the reader some feeling of what has been going in this area. This is a rather
fashionable trend these days with a large outflux of papers which deserve
x Fundamentals in Hadronic Atom Theory

a separate survey.
It is our experience, that a heavy load of formalism is much easier
digested when a rapid access to a calculational stage has been appreciated.
We would like to believe, that this text will be useful for a practitioner in
the field looking for a complete box of tools so we have presented a variety
of different methods which could be immediately used to solve the complex
eigenvalue problem, testing numerically in each case their performance.
In addition to that, we have attempted to make the presentation as self-
contained as possible by covering the technical details and mathematical
techniques which are necessary to solve the problems discussed in the text
but with which the reader might be unfamiliar.
As mentioned above, in the second part of this book we make contact
with experiment. We thought that it would be convenient to have the
full hadronic atoms data base in one place. Therefore, we have taken the
trouble of tabulating the experimentally available strong interaction level
shifts and widths data. In our survey of the experimental material we
start with the simplest two-body systems like the two-meson atomic bound
states and the hadronic hydrogen atoms. Then, we turn to the much more
complicated three-body system of the hadronic deuterium. In this case a
microscopic treatment involves a Faddeev approach. Finally, we consider
all the remaining heavier atomic species for which the microscopic approach
becomes prohibitively difficult and therefore the analysis must be based on
the optical, or effective potential concept.
Although we have drawn freely from many different sources, we make no
pretense for completeness. Therefore, it is not unlikely that some important
subjects might have been omitted; after all, the selection of topics thought
to be fundamental obviously must be biased by personal prejudices of the
author.
The organization of this book is as follows. We begin with a quick
overview of the subject in the next chapter. Then, in Chapter 2, we ar­
gue that with complex potentials the standard quantum mechanical scalar
product has to be modified by taking as the "bra" states the time reversed
eigenfunctions. They replace the usual complex conjugate eigenfunctions.
This extension allows to sustain orthogonality of the eigenfunctions but
the norm integral becomes a complex number which can take any value
and in particular may vanish. Chapter 3 contains a modern survey of
Coulomb wave functions whose arguments have been extended into the
complex domain. In Chapter 4 we discuss the Coulomb resolvent and the
different scattering operators. Chapter 5 summarizes the basic results of
 Preface XI

the formalism describing two-potential scattering that are needed in the

remaining parts of this work. A thorough discussion of the effective range
approximation is presented in Chapter 6. We give explicit expressions for
the scattering lengths and effective ranges for arbitrary angular momenta.
Also in Chapter 6 we formulate three important theorems which control
the motion of the poles of the S-matrix. We investigate the behavior of the
pole trajectories both analytically and numerically. The atomic spectrum
is considered in Chapter 7. We demonstrate that the general theorems
formulated in Chapter 6 provide explanation of both, the Zeldovich and
the Krell effect. Formal considerations are illustrated by numerous exam­
ples. We conclude this chapter discussing various forms of the small shift
approximations which generalize the famous Deser-Trueman formula and
we examine their accuracy. Chapter 8 addresses the role of Gamow states
and shows how to normalize these states. These results are subsequently
used to prove that even in the case of crossing of two pole trajectories
in the upper half of the k plane the solutions of the wave equation still
obey a generalized completeness relation. In Chapter 9 we present an ab
initio derivation of the total X-ray transition rate taking into account the
nuclear interaction. We obtain the "line shape" and provide an estimate
of the corrections due to the nuclear interaction. Chapter 10 is devoted
to computational methods of solving the complex eigenvalue problem. We
discuss in detail the matching method, the variational techniques, Fred-
holm theory and the momentum space approach. In each case we provide
numerical examples testing the performance of the method. The general
formalism developed in this book has been also illustrated in Chapter 11
by a number of simple models where analytic solutions could be obtained.
In Chapter 12, concluding Part I, we give a pedestrian introduction to the
Chiral Perturbation Theory.
In Part II theory is confronted with experiment. In Chapter 13 we
discuss the two-meson atomic systems. The hadronic hydrogen atoms are
analyzed in Chapter 14. The three-body techniques based on the Fad-
deev equation are presented in Chapter 15 and applied for analyzing the
hadronic deuterium atoms. The optical potential concept is introduced in
Chapter 16. We outline a formal derivation of the optical potential and
discuss various semi-phenomenological forms that have been applied to fit
the heavier (A>4) hadronic atoms data.
The author wishes to thank Professor R.H. Dalitz for his engagement
in this project when it was in a formative stage, as well as for perceptive
criticism and for making incisive comments on the early manuscript. This
work has been supported, in part, by a KBN grant 5P03B04521.
This page is intentionally left blank
 Contents

Preface v

Part I: Theoretical Background

1. Hadronic Atoms - An Overview 3

2. Extended Quantum Mechanical Framework 11

3. Coulomb Wave Functions 23

4. Coulomb Propagator and Scattering Operators 41

5. Two-Potential Scattering Formalism 53

6. Bound States and Low-Energy Scattering 65

6.1 Effective Range Approximation 65
6.2 Nuclear and Quasi-Nuclear Bound States 76

7. Atomic Spectrum 103

7.1 Real Nuclear Potentials 103
7.2 Complex Nuclear Potential 110
7.3 Small Shift Approximation (SSA) 120

8. Gamow States and Completeness Problem 131

8.1 Normalization of Gamow States 132
8.2 Completeness Problem 134

9. X-Ray Transition Rate 141

xiii
xiv Fundamentals in Hadronic Atom Theory

10. Computational Methods 151

10.1 The Matching Method 153
10.2 Variational Methods 157
10.3 Fredholm Integral Equation Method 174
10.4 Momentum Space Methods 177

11. Examples 185

11.1 Rank-One Separable Potential 185
11.2 Delta-Shell Potential 188
11.3 Square-Well Potential 190
11.4 Cut-off Coulomb Potential 191
11.5 Bound States in Extended-Charge Coulomb Potential . . 192

12. Chiral Theory Primer 195

12.1 Quantum Mechanics: Zero-Range Potential 197
12.2 Effective Field Theory Approach 202
12.3 Chiral Perturbation Theory 206

Part II: Comparison with Experiment

13. Two-Meson Atomic Bound States 223
13.1 Pionium 223
13.2 KTT Atom 238
13.3 Kaonium 240

14. Hadronic Hydrogen 243

14.1 Pionic Hydrogen 244
14.2 Kaonic Hydrogen 256
14.3 Antiprotonic Hydrogen 264

15. Hadronic Deuterium 273

15.1 Pionic Deuterium 273
15.2 Kaonic Deuterium 291
15.3 Antiprotonic Deuterium 295

16. Hadronic Atoms with A > 4 301

16.1 Hadron-Nucleus Effective Potential 303
16.2 Pionic Atoms 319
16.3 Kaonic Atoms 325
 Contents xv

16.4 Antiprotonic Atoms 328

16.5 S - Atoms 332
16.6 Deeply Bound Pionic Atoms 336

Bibliography 341

Index 349
This page is intentionally left blank
 PARTI
Theoretical Background
This page is intentionally left blank
 Chapter 1

Hadronic A t o m s — A n Overview

When a negatively charged particle (different from electron) stopped in

matter is captured into an atomic orbit we have to do with an exotic atom.
In this book we shall be specifically interested in hadronic atoms, i.e. atomic
systems in which one of the electrons has been replaced by a hadron. Nev­
ertheless, most of the results presented below will remain valid for arbi­
trary exotic atoms. Since the captured particle besides the Coulomb force
brings in also some other types of interactions with atomic nuclei, the in­
vestigation of exotic atoms provides a unique opportunity to study that
interaction close to threshold. It is therefore not surprising that studies of
hadronic atoms have had impact on a whole range of disciplines as diverse
as physical chemistry, solid state physics, nuclear and elementary particle
physics.
Because the hadrons are much more massive as compared with electrons,
by a factor of roughly 103, according to simple Bohr theory the Coulomb
binding energies will go up by that factor while the radii of the classical
atomic orbits will be decreased by the same amount. Thus, hadronic atoms
could be envisaged as very small and tightly bound objects. As a result of
scaling, the energies of the corresponding radiative transitions furnish the
range appropriate for the X-rays. Typically, the transition energies from
hadronic atoms span the interval between a few keV and a few MeV. The
radii of the atomic orbits are proportional to n? where n is the principal
quantum number and for low orbital momenta become so small as to be
comparable in size with the nuclear radii. Consequently, except perhaps for
the very lightest elements, the hadron will be captured by the nucleus be­
fore ever reaching atomic levels with the lowest orbital momenta. Nuclear
capture initiates a nuclear reaction with numerous exit channels and the
hadron is likely to disappear altogether. By contrast with ordinary atoms a

3
Discovering Diverse Content Through
Random Scribd Documents
 CHAPTER VI

Arrival in London. Conditions I found there. Preparations and Start.

reached London very early next morning, and drove

directly to the lodgings of my friend, Mr. Wellington
Lee, the only American resident in London whom I
knew. These were on a short street extending from the
Strand down to the river, a short distance west of
Temple Bar, the ancient city gate, which was then
standing. Who was Mr. Lee and what was he doing in London?
These were questions in which I had an interest of which I was as
yet entirely ignorant. The firm of Lee & Larned were the first
successful designers of steam fire-engines in this country. More than
seventy of these steamers had been built from their plans and under
their direction by the Novelty Iron Works in New York, and the fire
department of that city was completely equipped with them. One of
their engines had been sold to the city of Havre, and Mr. Lee had
gone over with it to test it publicly on its guaranteed performance. Mr.
Amos, one of the senior members of the great London engineering
firm of Easton, Amos & Sons, went over to Havre to witness this trial,
with a view to the manufacture of these steam fire-engines in
London. He was so much pleased that he determined to make the
fire-engines, and engaged Mr. Lee to take the direction of their
manufacture. So it came to pass that at this particular time Mr. Lee
was in London superintending the first manufacture of his steam fire-
engines by this firm.
After our salutations Mr. Lee said: “First of all I have something to
tell you.” Before relating this, I must mention something that I knew
before I sailed. About the time when the cargo of United States
exhibits started, the well-known Mason and Slidell incident occurred.
These gentlemen, commissioners sent by the Confederacy to
represent their cause before European governments, had sailed on a
British vessel flying the British flag. This vessel was overhauled on
the high seas by one of our cruisers, and the commissioners were
taken off and brought prisoners to New York. Mr. Lincoln made haste
to disavow this illegal proceeding, so singularly inconsistent with our
own principles of international law, and to make all the reparation in
his power. But a bitter feeling towards England was then growing in
the Northern States, and in a moment of resentment Congress
hastily passed a resolution repealing the law creating the Exhibition
Commission and making an appropriation for its expenses, and
Secretary Seward issued a proclamation dissolving the commission.
The vessel carrying the exhibits had been gone scarcely more than a
day when this action of Congress and Mr. Seward surprised the
country.
I now take up Mr. Lee’s narrative. The news of this action, carried
by a mail steamer, had reached London several days before the
arrival of the exhibits. Under the pressure of an urgent demand the
Royal Commission confiscated the space allotted to the United
States and parceled it out to British exhibitors. Mr. Holmes on his
arrival found not a spot in the Exhibition buildings on which to set his
foot. But he was a man of resources. He went before the
commission with an eminent Queen’s counsel, who made the point
that they had received no official notification of any such action by
the United States Government, but had proceeded on a mere
newspaper rumor, which they had no right to do; and there was the
United States assistant commissioner with his credentials and a
shipload of exhibits, and they must admit him.
The commissioners yielded most gracefully. They said: “Now, Mr.
Holmes, the American space is gone; we cannot restore that to you,
but there are unoccupied spots all over the Exhibition, and you may
take up any of these, and we will undertake that your whole exhibit
shall be well placed.” Upon this Mr. Holmes had gone to work and
had been able to find locations for every exhibit, except my engine.
 Wellington Lee

“But only yesterday,” said Mr. Lee, “Mr. Holmes learned that an
engine ordered by the commission to drive the British exhibit of
looms, of which there were thirty-three exhibitors, had been
condemned by the superintendent of machinery, Mr. Daniel Kinnear
Clark, and ordered out of the building.” He added that Mr. Holmes
went directly to Mr. Clark and applied for the place for my engine, the
bedplate of which, thanks to my precipitate action, had arrived and
was then on a truck, in England called a lurry, waiting to be
unloaded. In answer to Mr. Clark’s questions, Mr. Holmes had given
him his personal assurance that I would be there, and the rest of the
engine would be there in ample time, and it would be all that he
could possibly desire; and on that assurance he had got the place for
me.
I informed Mr. Lee that I also had something to tell him. I then
gave him the situation as already related. He looked very grave.
When I had finished he said: “Well, you are in a hole, sure enough;
but come, let us get some breakfast, and then we will see what
Easton & Amos can do for you.” After eating my first English mutton-
chop in a chop-house on the Strand, I accompanied Mr. Lee to their
works in the Borough, a long distance away, on the south or Surrey
side of the Thames, to reach which we crossed the Southwark
bridge.
None of the partners had yet reached the office. Very soon Mr.
James Easton arrived. He was a young man about my own age. Mr.
Lee introduced me and told my story. The instant he finished Mr.
Easton came across the room and grasped my hand most cordially.
“That’s the kind of pluck I like,” said he; “we will see you through, Mr.
Porter; we will build this engine for you, whatever else may have to
wait.” Directly he added: “We have a good deal of ‘red tape’ here, but
it won’t do in this case. There will be no time to lose. Come with me.”
He then took me through the shops and introduced me to every
foreman, telling them what he had undertaken to do, and gave each
of them the same instruction, as follows: “Mr. Porter will come
directly to you with his orders. Whatever he wants done, you are to
leave everything else so far as may be necessary, and do his work
as rapidly as possible.”
As I listened to these orders, I could hardly believe my senses or
keep back the tears. Coming on top of the devotion of Mr. Holmes
they nearly overcame me. The sudden relief from the pressure of
anxiety was almost too much. It seemed to me to beat all the fairy
stories I had ever heard. This whole-hearted cordiality of the first
Englishman I had met gave me a high idea of the people as a whole,
which, I am happy to say, a residence of over six years in England
served only to increase.
Returning to the office, we found Mr. Lee, who said, “Now, Mr.
Porter, I think Mr. Holmes would like to see you.” Getting the
necessary directions, in due time I found myself in the Exhibition
building on Cromwell Road and in the presence of Mr. Holmes, who
received me joyfully and led me at once to Mr. Clark’s office. As he
opened the door, Mr. Clark looked up from his desk and exclaimed,
“Good morning, Mr. Holmes; where is that engine?” “Well,” replied
Mr. Holmes, “here is Mr. Porter, and the engine is here or on the
way.” Mr. Clark asked me a number of questions about the engine,
and finally how many revolutions per minute it was intended to make.
I replied, “One hundred and fifty.” I thought it would take his breath
away. With an expression of the greatest amazement he exclaimed:
“What! a hundred and fifty! B—b—b—but, Mr. Porter, have you had
any experience with such a speed as that?” I told him my experience
with the little engine, which did not seem to satisfy him at all. Finally
he closed the matter, or supposed he had done so, by saying: “I
cannot allow such a speed here; I consider it dangerous.” I decided
instantly in my own mind not to throw away all that I had come for;
but I made no sign, but humbly asked what speed I might employ.
After a little consideration Mr. Clark replied: “One hundred and
twenty revolutions; that must not be exceeded.” This he considered a
great concession, the usual speed of stationary engines being from
fifty to sixty revolutions. I meekly acquiesced, then made my plans
for one hundred and fifty revolutions, and said nothing to anybody. I
had no idea of the gravity of my offence. It was the first time since I
was a child that I had been ordered to do or not to do anything, and I
had no conception of orders except as given by myself. If there was
any risk, I assumed it gaily, quite unconscious how such a daredevil
defiance of authority would appear to an Englishman. Mr. Clark
showed me my location, and gave me an order for my engine-bed to
be brought in immediately, and also other parts of the engine as
soon as they arrived. Trucks generally, I was told, had to wait in the
crowd about ten days for their turn to be unloaded.
 Charles T. Porter
A.D. 1862

I hurry over the time of erection. Everything arrived promptly and

the whole came together without a hitch, as I knew it would. The fly-
wheel and pulley and cylinder lagging I had left to be made in
England. I was at the works of Easton, Amos & Sons every morning
at 6 o’clock, and laid out the work for the day. I made the gauges for
boring the fly-wheel and pulley, which I had now learned how to do,
and adjusted everything about the engine myself, and knew it was
right.
I had a talk with the foreman of the pattern-shop about the best
thickness of felt on the cylinder to be covered by the mahogany
lagging, in the course of which I remarked, “It is the air that is the
real non-conductor.” “Yes,” he replied, “and felt, you know, is ‘air’.”
I learned several things I did not know before, among others how
the English made a steam-pipe joint, using parallel threads and a
backing-up nut, packed with long hemp which was filled with a putty
made of red and white lead rubbed together dry.
I had great luck in the way of a driving-belt. An American exhibitor
of india-rubber belting asked the privilege of exhibiting a belt in use
on my engine, which I was glad enough to have him do. Otherwise I
hardly know what I should have done. The widest English belts were
12 inches wide, double, and sewn together from end to end with five
rows of sheepskin lacing. The belt ran on the knobs of this lacing.
English machinists then knew nothing of the hold of belts by
excluding the air. The ends of all belts were united by lapping them
about two feet and sewing them through and through with this same
lacing. Fine pounding these joints would have made on the pulleys. I
got a governor belt from him also. Both belts were united by butt-
joints laced in the American fashion. I did this job myself, and,
indeed, I put the whole engine together mostly with my own hands,
although Easton, Amos & Sons sent two of their best fitters to help
me. I learned afterwards that I should have had a sorry time driving
my governor by a belt laced in the English way.
In spite of all efforts and all our good luck, we were not ready to
start until a week after the opening day, May 1, and the exhibitors
were in despair, for none of them believed that this new-fangled
American trap would work when it did start at the frightful speed of a
hundred and twenty revolutions per minute, which they had learned
from Mr. Clark it was to make. Finally one day after our noon dinner I
turned on the steam, and the governor rose at the speed of one
hundred and fifty revolutions precisely. It was immediately
surrounded by a dense crowd, every man of whom looked as if he
expected the engine to fly in pieces any instant.
It was not more than two minutes after it started when I saw Mr.
Clark coming with his watch in his hand. Some one had rushed to his
office and told him the Yankee engine was running away. The crowd
opened for him, and he came up to the engine and watched it for
some time, walking leisurely around it and observing everything
carefully from all points of view. He then counted it through a full
minute. At its close he turned to me and exclaimed, “Ah, Porter—
but,” slapping me cordially on the shoulder, “it’s all right. If you will
run as smoothly as this you may run at any speed you like.”
And so the high-speed engine was born, but neither Mr. Clark, nor
I, nor any human being then knew what it was that made it run so
smoothly.
I have since realized more and more what a grand man Mr. Clark
then showed himself to be. A small souled man might have regarded
the matter entirely from a personal point of view, and been furious at
my defiance of his authority. There are such men. I will show one to
the reader by and by. Officialism is liable to produce them. I was
quite unconscious of the risk in this respect that I was running. I have
always felt that I could not be too thankful that at this critical point I
fell into the hands of so noble a man as Daniel Kinnear Clark.
Mr. Porter’s Exhibit at the London International Exhibition, 1862
 CHAPTER VII

My London Exhibit, its Success, but what was the matter? Remarkable Sale of the
Engine.

hus, as the result of a remarkable combination of

circumstances, upon which I look back with feelings
more of awe than of wonder, the high-speed system
made its appearance in the London International
Exhibition of 1862, installed in the midst of the British
machinery exhibit, under conditions more
advantageous than any which I could have imagined.
But the engine had a weak feature: it was wanting in an essential
respect, of which I was, and remained to the end, quite unconscious,
as will presently appear. Before entering on this subject I will give the
reader an idea of what the exhibit was like. The accompanying half-
tone from a photograph will, with the help of a little explanation,
make this quite real.
The location was in a narrow space between a side aisle and the
wall of the temporary wooden structure, 300 feet wide by nearly
1000 feet long, which formed the machinery hall. The engine was
crowded closely by looms on both sides. Here were shown together
the first high-speed engine, the first high-speed governor, and the
first high-speed indicator. My marine governor could not be
accommodated there, and had to be shown elsewhere. I was so
much afraid of deflection or vibration of the shaft that I shortened up
the length between the bearings and placed the driving-pulley on the
overhanging end of the shaft, which for the light work to be done
there answered sufficiently well. I showed also the largest and the
smallest sizes of my stationary-engine governors. These were belted
from the shaft to revolve so as to stand always in positions
coincident with those of the governor which regulated the engine.
 On a table between the railing and the head of the engine I
showed mahogany sectional models of the valves at one end of the
cylinder in the engine exhibited, and of the now well-known Allen
slide valve, with double opening for admission made by a passage
over the exhaust-cup.
The Richards indicator is seen placed on the cylinder midway of its
length, and connected by pipes with the ends over the clearances,
so that in the familiar manner by means of a three-way cock the
opposite diagrams could be taken on the same sheet. After a few
days’ use I mistrusted that the lead lines were not correctly drawn,
and I took away these pipes, placing the indicator on the cylinder
itself, at the opposite ends alternately. The diagrams then taken
showed that the error from transmission through these pipes had
been even greater than I had feared. I have, of course, employed the
close connection ever since.
This identifies the time when the photograph was taken. It must
have been within a few days after starting.
The center of the eccentric coinciding with the crank, as already
stated, and the center line of the link being in the same horizontal
plane with that of the engine, I was able to take the motion of the
paper drum from the sustaining arms of the link instead of from the
cross-head. This was very convenient.
During the first two or three weeks the steam pressure was kept
up to 75 pounds, as intended, and I was able to get diagrams cutting
off quite early, which were then erroneously supposed to show
superior economy. But when all the steam-eaters had got in their
work the pressure could not be maintained much above 40 pounds,
and for that exhibition the day of fancy diagrams was over. Gwynne
& Co. showed a large centrifugal pump driven by a pair of engines
which always brought the pressure down at the rate of a pound a
minute. They were not allowed to run longer than fifteen minutes at a
time, but it took a long time after they stopped before the pressure
could be got up again even to 40 pounds. Whenever I took a
diagram somebody was always standing ready to take it away, and
so among my mementoes I have been able to find none cutting off
earlier than the one here represented. On the wall at the back I hung
the largest United States flag I could find, with a portrait of President
Lincoln. This seems all that needs to be said about the photograph
and the diagram.

INTERNATIONAL EXHIBITION, UNITED STATES DEPARTMENT

1862 DIAGRAM TAKEN FROM 1862
THE ALLEN ENGINE BY THE RICHARDS INDICATOR.
ENGINE, 8 INCHES BY 24 INCHES, REVOLUTIONS PER MINUTE, 150.
SCALE, 40 LBS. TO THE INCH.

But what was the matter? I will clear the way to answering this
question by relating the following incident: Six months later, with a
feeling of bitter disappointment, I contemplated my engine standing
alone where the place had been thronged with surging life. All the
other exhibits had been removed. This was left in stillness and
desolation, and I was making up my mind to the necessity of
shipping it home again, its exhibition to all appearance absolutely
fruitless—a failure, which I was utterly at a loss to comprehend,
when I had a call from Mr. James Easton, the same man who had
first welcomed me in England. His firm had perhaps the largest
exhibit in the Machinery Hall, of a waterfall supplied by a centrifugal
pump, and they had been frequent observers of the running of my
engine, which was quite near them. Mr. Easton bluntly asked me if I
thought my engine could be run 50 per cent. faster or at 225
revolutions per minute, because they had concluded that it could be,
and if I agreed with them they had a use for it themselves. Under the
circumstances I did not hesitate long about agreeing with them in
respect to both ability and price, and the sale was quickly concluded.
I noted an entire absence of any disposition to take an undue
advantage. Mr. Easton then told me that they were troubled with lack
of power every afternoon when the foundry blower was on, and had
long wanted to drive this blower independently. It needed to make
2025 revolutions per minute to give the blast they required, and they
had planned to drive it by a frictional gearing, nine to one, if my
engine could run at the necessary speed. So this most peculiar and
exceptional opportunity for its application, absolutely the only chance
for its sale that had appeared, and that at the very last moment,
prevented my returning home in disappointment. It is hardly
necessary to add that the engine proved completely successful. I
shall refer to it again.
The point of the incident is this: It established the fact, the
statement of which otherwise no one from the result would credit for
an instant, that, from the afternoon when the black and averted looks
of my loom exhibitors were changed to smiling congratulations down
to the close of the exhibition, the engine never once had a warm
bearing or was interrupted for a single moment. It was visited by
every engineer in England, and by a multitude of engine users, was
admired by every one, and won the entire confidence of all
observers in its speed, its regulation, and the perfection of its
diagrams; and yet in all that six months not a builder ever said a
word about building it, nor a user said a word about using it; and, as
week after week and month after month passed without a sign, I
became almost stupefied with astonishment and distress.
The explanation of this phenomenon was entirely simple, but I did
not know it, and there was no one to even hint it to me. I was among
a people whose fundamental ideas respecting steam-engines were
entirely different from those to which I had been accustomed, and I
knew nothing about them, and so could not address myself to them.
In the view of every Englishman a non-condensing engine was
rubbish. Those which were made were small, cheap affairs, mostly
for export. Neither a builder nor a user could regard a non-
condensing engine with the slightest interest.
Now I do not think that in my limited sphere of observation at
home I had ever seen a condensing stationary engine, except the
engine which pumped out the dry-dock at the Brooklyn Navy Yard. In
my mind condensing engines were associated with ships and
steamboats. At this exhibition also there were shown only non-
condensing engines. I did not think of the reason for this, that in this
part of London, far away from the Thames, no water could be had for
condensing purposes. I took it all as a matter of course, though I was
astonished at the queer lot of engines in the company of which I
found myself.
I was, of course, familiar with the development of the stationary
engine in England from the original type, in which the pressure of
steam below that of the atmosphere, and sometimes the pressure of
the atmosphere itself furnished the larger proportion of the power
exerted; but after all I carried with me my American ideas, which
were limited to non-condensing engines, and had no conception of
the gulf that separated my thoughts from those of the men about me.
My visitors always wound up with the same question, “How do you
drive your air-pump?” And in my innocence I uniformly replied, “The
engine is a non-condensing engine; it has no air-pump”; all
unconscious that every time I said that I was consigning the engine
to the rubbish heap. This reply was taken necessarily as a frank
admission that the high-speed engine was not adapted for
condensing. Of course, then, it had no interest for them. No doubt
many wondered why I should have troubled myself to show it there
at all. If I had thought more deeply I must have been struck by the
unvarying form of this question, always assuming the air-pump to be
a part of the engine, but which, of course, could not be used there,
and only inquiring how I worked it; and also by the fact that after
getting my answer the questioner soon departed, and I scarcely ever
saw the same visitor again. But I did not think deeply. Perhaps the
conditions of excitement were not favorable to reflection. All I thought
was that this same everlasting question, which at home I would
never have heard, was getting awfully monotonous. After a while this
annoying question came to be asked less and less frequently, and
also the engine attracted less and less attention. The engine had
failed in a vital respect, and I did not know it. That the fact of the
engine being non-condensing should have been an objection to it
never once entered my mind.
But I doubt if I could have bettered the matter, however alive to
this difficulty I might have been. I showed all I had yet accomplished.
In the minds of my visitors it no doubt appeared impossible to run an
air-pump successfully at such a speed; the water and air would be
churned into foam, and the valves would not close in time. This
objection I was not prepared to meet, for I had not thought on the
subject at all. Moreover, it could not have been met in any way
except by a practical demonstration. For that demonstration I had yet
to wait five years.
There were many things connected with this season which were
well worth remembering. One of these was the visit of the jury. It was
the only time I ever met Professor Rankine. There were two or three
Frenchmen on the jury, and they engaged in an animated discussion
of the question whether the steam could follow the piston at so great
a speed. I well remember the sharp exclamation with which
Professor Rankine put an end to this nonsense, when he had got
tired of it. “There is no limit to the speed at which steam will follow a
piston.”
One day I had a call from Mr. John Penn, Mr. William Fairbairn,
and Mr. Robert Napier, who came together on a visit of ceremony,
and presented me their cards. In return I presented to them the
cards of the engine. But their visit, like most others, closed with the
same inevitable question.
It was a delightful hour that Mr. F. W. Webb spent with me. He was
then assistant engineer of the London & Northwestern Railway under
Mr. Ramsbottom, afterwards Mr. Ramsbottom’s successor, and the
pioneer builder of compound-cylinder locomotives. He told me about
the new form of traveling-crane invented by Mr. Ramsbottom for the
shops at Crewe, which was driven by a flying-rope, a ³⁄₄-inch cotton
cord, and also of other inventions of Mr. Ramsbottom—among these
the automatic cylinder lubricator, in which the condensation of the
steam was so rapid, from the locomotive rushing through the
atmosphere, that only the water formed on the conical end of a bolt
was permitted to drop into the oil, other condensation running into a
circular trough and back through an external gooseneck pipe to the
steam-chest; and of their experiments to observe the rate of this
condensation. For this purpose they used soda-water bottles, which
they found capable of resisting a pressure of 200 pounds on the
square inch, and in which they could see the rapidity with which the
condensed water displaced the oil, thus leading to the above device
for limiting this action; also about the Ramsbottom piston rings,
which came to be, and still are, so largely used. These consist, as is
well known, of square wrought-iron rods, say ¹⁄₂ inch square, two for
each piston, sprung into grooves. What is not so generally known is
the way in which these rings were originated, which Mr. Webb then
described to me. As sold, these are not circular rings, but when
compressed in the cylinder they become truly circular and exert the
same pressure at every point. The original form was found for each
size in this way: A circular iron table was prepared, provided with a
large number of pulleys located radially and equidistant around its
edge. A ring having the section of the proposed rings, turned to the
size of the cylinder, and cut on one side, was laid on this table, and
cords were attached to it at equal distances passing over these
pulleys. Equal weights were hung on these cords, sufficient to
expand this ring to the extent desired. The form of the expanded ring
was then marked on the table, and to the lines thus obtained the
rings were then rolled. He told me also of the trough and scoop
invented by Mr. Ramsbottom, and now used the world over, for
refilling locomotive tanks while running at full speed. Being a
locomotive man, Mr. Webb did not ask about the way I drove my air-
pump.
Mr. Clark formed a scheme to indicate all the engines in the
exhibition, twenty-four in number, all English except mine, so far as I
remember, and employed my indicator for the purpose, the diagrams
being taken by myself. Only two exhibitors declined to have their
engines indicated. As I afterwards learned, most of the engines were
bought for use there, as exhibitors would not exhibit non-condensing
engines.
One of those who refused permission were Gwynne & Co., the
principal partner a nephew of my centrifugal-force friend of earlier
days. They exhibited a centrifugal pump supplying a waterfall. They
employed Mr. Zerah Colburn, then editor of The Engineer, to
investigate their pair of non-condensing engines and find out why
they used so much steam. He borrowed my indicator to make a
private test. Of course, I never saw the diagrams, but Mr. Colburn
informed me that by making some changes he had reduced the back
pressure to 7 pounds above the atmosphere, which he claimed to be
as good as could be expected. No material improvement in the
engines was to be observed, however.
Some of the diagrams taken on these tests exhibited almost
incredible faults. The only really good ones were from a pair of
engines made by Easton, Amos & Sons, also to drive a large
centrifugal pump, built for drainage purposes in Demerara, and
sustaining another waterfall. These showed the steam cut off sharply
at one third of the stroke by separately driven valves on the back of
the main slides. A mortifying feature of this work for myself was that
on testing the indicator Mr. Clark found that the area of the piston,
which was represented to be one quarter of a square inch, was really
considerably less than this, showing lamentable inaccuracy on the
part of the makers, as well as my own neglect to discover it. This
rendered the instrument valueless for measuring power, but it
showed the character of the diagrams all right.
The finest mechanical drawing I ever saw—or any one else, I think
—was shown in this exhibition. It was a drawing of the steamship
“Persia,” then the pride of the Cunard fleet, and was the only
mechanical drawing ever admitted to the walls of the National
Gallery, where it had appeared the year before. It represented side
and end elevations and plan, as well as longitudinal and cross-
sections, was painted and shaded in water-colors, and involved an
almost incredible amount of work. It was made by Mr. Kirkaldy, then
a draftsman in the employ of the Napiers, of Glasgow, the builders of
the vessel. I am tempted to refer to this, as it forms a prominent
datum point from which to measure the development of steam
navigation in the brief space of forty years. The vessel did not
possess a single feature, large or small, that now exists. It was of
only about 3000 tons burden. It was an iron ship built in the days of
the rapid transition from wood to steel. It was propelled by paddle-
wheels. These were driven by a pair of side-lever engines. The
engines had each a single cylinder. The steam pressure carried was
nominally 25 pounds above the atmosphere, but practically only from
15 to 20 pounds. Full pressure was not pretended to be maintained.
They had jet condensers. All forged work was of iron. The vessel
was steered by hand. The rigging, standing as well as running, was
of hemp. It was full bark-rigged.
Frederick E. Sickels
Welcome to our website – the ideal destination for book lovers and
knowledge seekers. With a mission to inspire endlessly, we offer a
vast collection of books, ranging from classic literary works to
specialized publications, self-development books, and children's
literature. Each book is a new journey of discovery, expanding
knowledge and enriching the soul of the reade

Our website is not just a platform for buying books, but a bridge
connecting readers to the timeless values of culture and wisdom. With
an elegant, user-friendly interface and an intelligent search system,
we are committed to providing a quick and convenient shopping
experience. Additionally, our special promotions and home delivery
services ensure that you save time and fully enjoy the joy of reading.

Let us accompany you on the journey of exploring knowledge and

personal growth!

ebookfinal.com