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Swing Extreme Testing The Extreme approach to
complete Java application testing 1st Edition Lindsay
Peters Digital Instant Download
Author(s): Lindsay Peters, Tim Lavers
ISBN(s): 9781847194824, 1847194826
Edition: 1
File Details: PDF, 11.03 MB
Year: 2008
Language: english
Swing Extreme Testing

The Extreme Approach to Complete Java

Application Testing

Tim Lavers
Lindsay Peters

BIRMINGHAM - MUMBAI
Swing Extreme Testing

Copyright © 2008 Packt Publishing

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval
system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, without the prior written
permission of the publisher, except in the case of brief quotations embedded in
critical articles or reviews.

Every effort has been made in the preparation of this book to ensure the accuracy of
the information presented. However, the information contained in this book is sold
without warranty, either express or implied. Neither the author(s), Packt Publishing,
nor its dealers or distributors will be held liable for any damages caused or alleged to
be caused directly or indirectly by this book.

Packt Publishing has endeavored to provide trademark information about all the
companies and products mentioned in this book by the appropriate use of capitals.
However, Packt Publishing cannot guarantee the accuracy of this information.

First published: May 2008

Production Reference: 1260508

Published by Packt Publishing Ltd.

32 Lincoln Road
Olton
Birmingham, B27 6PA, UK.

ISBN 978-1-847194-82-4

www.packtpub.com

Cover Image by Vinayak Chittar (vinayak.chittar@gmail.com)

 Credits

Authors Project Manager

Tim Lavers Abhijeet Deobhakta
Lindsay Peters
Project Coordinator
Reviewers Lata Basantani
Prabhakar Chaganti
Valentin Crettaz Indexer
Hemangini Bari
Senior Acquisition Editor
David Barnes Proofreader
Angie Butcher
Development Editor
Ved Prakash Jha Production Coordinator
Aparna Bhagat
Technical Editor
Himanshu Panchal Cover Work
Aparna Bhagat
Editorial Team Leader
Mithil Kulkarni
 About the Authors

Tim Lavers is a Senior Software Engineer at Pacific Knowledge Systems, which

produces LabWizard, the gold-standard for rules-based knowledge acquisition
software. In developing and maintaining LabWizard for almost ten years, Tim
has worked with many Java technologies including network programming,
Swing, reflection, logging, JavaHelp, Web Services, RMI, WebStart, preferences,
internationalization, concurrent programming, XML, and databases as well as tools
such as Ant and CruiseControl. His job also includes a healthy mix of user training,
technical support, and support to marketing. In his previous job, he wrote servlets
and built an image processing library. Along with his professional programming, he
writes and maintains the distributed testing tool 'GrandTestAuto'. Previously he has
published a JavaWorld article on RMI as well as a number of mathematical papers.

Tim's hobbies include running and playing the piano.

Lindsay Peters is the Chief Technical Officer for Pacific Knowledge Systems.
He has 25 years experience in software management, formal analysis, algorithm
development, software design, and implementation for large commercial and
defense systems. Ten years ago Lindsay and his team were early adopters of Java,
coupled with more rigorous design processes such as Design by Contract. He then
helped transition the development team to the Extreme Programming model. Out of
this exciting and successful experience grew the "Extreme Testing" approach.

In the early 80's Lindsay managed a software team who were one of the first to
incorporate the newly discovered simulated annealing algorithm into a commercial
application, solving a previously intractable real-world problem which was the
optimum assignment of radio frequencies to collocated mobile radios.

Apart from software development and artificial intelligence systems, Lindsay has an
interest in mathematical convexity and has helped to progress the "Happy Ending"
problem. He is also involved in politics and in the last Australian Federal election
stood as the Greens candidate for the seat of Bennelong.
We gratefully acknowledge the support of Pacific Knowledge
Systems in providing a software development environment that
fostered the development of the Java Extreme Testing approach. We
are also grateful to Pacific Knowledge Systems for allowing us to use
code examples and screen shots from the LabWizard product.

We would like to thank the technical reviewers for their many

excellent suggestions. Any remaining shortcomings are, of course,
our own.

Thanks also to the team at Packt: David, Ved, Lata, and Himanshu.
Their patience and responsiveness have made our job a lot easier and
more enjoyable than it might otherwise have been.

Tim would like to thank his wife, Lorien, for her continual support
and encouragement with this project. As well as a morale-building
role, she has helped with the wording of several passages in the book.

Finally, Lindsay would like to thank his wife Kath for cheerfully
picking up all the slack, and his father Harry for his continued
inspiration.
 To our children

Isobel, Hugh and Julia

and

Francis, Mariel, Vicente, Amparo, Bridie and Harry

 About the Reviewers

Prabhakar Chaganti is the CTO of HelixBrain—a unique startup that provides

technology services consulting and is an incubator nurturing some very cool
software as service applications that are being built on the Ruby on Rails platform.
His interests include Linux, Ruby, Python, Java, and Virtualization. He won the
community choice award for the most innovative virtual appliance in the 2006
VMWare Ultimate Global Virtual Appliance Challenge. He is also the author of
"GWT Java AJAX Programming" published in 2007.

Valentin Crettaz holds a master degree in Information and Computer Science

from the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology in Lausanne, Switzerland (EPFL).
After he finished studying in 2000, Valentin worked as a software engineer with
SRI International (Menlo Park, USA) and as a principal engineer in the Software
Engineering Laboratory at EPFL. In 2002, as a good patriot, he came back to
Switzerland to co-found a start-up called Condris Technologies, a company that
provides IT development and consulting services and specializes in the creation of
innovative next-generation software architecture solutions as well as secure wireless
telecommunication infrastructures.

Since 2004, Valentin serves as a senior IT consultant in one of the largest private
banks in Switzerland, where he works on next-generation e-banking platforms.
Starting in 2008, Valentin created Consulthys, a new venture that strongly focuses on
leveraging Web 2.0 technologies in order to reduce the cultural gap between IT and
business people.

Valentin's main research interests include service-oriented architecture and web

services, Web 2.0, and Ajax. During his spare time, he hangs out as a moderator
at JavaRanch.com and JavaBlackBelt.com, two of the largest Java development
communities on the web. Valentin also serves as a technical editor at Manning
Publications (CT, US) and as a technical reviewer at O'Reilly & Associates (CA, US)
and Packt Publishing (UK).
 Table of Contents
Preface 1
Chapter 1: What Needs Testing? 13
An Example 14
What Classes Do We Test? 16
Test First—Always! 19
What Classes Don't We Test? 21
What Methods Need Testing? 22
What Methods Don't We Test? 24
Invoking Hidden Methods and Constructors 25
Unit Test Coverage 27
Who Should Implement the Unit Tests? 28
What About Legacy Code? 29
Where Does Integration Testing Fit In? 29
Documentation of Unit Tests 29
Testing at the Application Level 30
Who Should Implement the Function Tests? 31
Automated Test Execution 31
A Hierarchy of Tests 33
What Language Should Our Tests Be In? 34
Is it Really Possible? 34
Summary 36
Chapter 2: Basics of Unit Testing 37
A Simple Example 37
The Default Implementation 38
Test Cases 39
Design by Contract and Non-Defensive Programming 40
Test Code Example 45
Bootstrapping Our Implementation 48
Table of Contents

Load Testing 49
Summary 49
Chapter 3: Infrastructure for Testing 51
Where Should the Unit Tests Go? 51
Where Should the Function and Load Tests Go? 53
Management of Test Data 54
What Do We Require of a Test Data Management System? 55
Temporary Files 57
Summary 58
Chapter 4: Cyborg—a Better Robot 59
The Design of Cyborg 59
Using the Keyboard 60
Mousing Around 63
Checking the Screen 65
Summary 66
Chapter 5: Managing and Testing User Messages 67
Some Problems with Resource Bundles 67
A Solution 69
The UserStrings Class 70
ResourcesTester 73
How ResourcesTester Works 74
Getting More from UserStrings 78
Summary 79
Chapter 6: Making Classes Testable with Interfaces 81
The LabWizard Comment Editor 81
The Wizard 83
A Test for Wizard 85
A Test for Step 86
Handlers in LabWizard 90
Summary 90
Chapter 7: Exercising UI Components in Tests 91
The LabWizard Login Screen 91
The Design of LoginScreen 94
UI Wrappers 96
The Correct Implementation of UILoginScreen 98
A Handler Implementation for Unit Testing 99
Setting Up our Tests 100
Our First Test 102
Further Tests 104

[ ii ]
 Table of Contents

Some Implicit Tests 105

Other User Interfaces 105
Summary 105
Chapter 8: Showing, Finding, and Reading Swing Components 107
Setting Up User Interface Components in a Thread-Safe Manner 108
Finding a Component 110
Testing Whether a Message is Showing 112
Searching for Components by Name 113
Reading the State of a Component 114
Case Study: Testing Whether an Action Can Be Cancelled 115
The Official Word on Swing Threading 117
Summary 118
Chapter 9: Case Study: Testing a 'Save as' Dialog 119
The Ikon Do It 'Save as' Dialog 119
Outline of the Unit Test 121
UI Helper Methods 122
Dialogs 123
Getting the Text of a Text Field 124
Frame Disposal 125
Unit Test Infrastructure 125
The UISaveAsDialog Class 125
The ShowerThread Class 127
The init() Method 128
The cleanup() Method 129
The Unit Tests 129
The Constructor Test 130
The wasCancelled() Test 131
The name() Test 133
The show() Test 134
The Data Validation Test 135
The Usability Test 136
Summary 137
Chapter 10: More Techniques for Testing Swing Components 139
Testing with JColorChooser 139
Using JFileChooser 142
Checking that a JFileChooser has been Set Up Correctly 142
Testing the Appearance of a JComponent 144
Testing with Frames 147
Frame Location 147
Frame Size 149

[ iii ]
Table of Contents

Testing with Lists 150

List Selection Methods 150
List Rendering 151
List Properties 153
Testing a JTable 153
Testing with JMenus 156
Checking the Items 156
Using Menus with Cyborg 159
Testing JPopupMenus 160
Combo Boxes 160
Progress Bars 161
JSlider and JSpinner 163
JTree 164
Summary 166
Chapter 11: Help! 167
Overview 168
What Tests Do We Need? 169
An HTML File That is Not Indexed 170
An index item for which there is no HTML file 171
Broken links 171
Incorrectly titled help pages 171
Creating and Testing Context-Sensitive Help 172
Executing HelpGenerator 175
Summary 176
Chapter 12: Threads 177
The Waiting Class 177
Concurrent Modifiers 179
Concurrent Readers and Writers 181
Proof of Thread Completion 183
The Unit Test for waitForNamedThreadToFinish() 187
Counting Threads 189
Summary 190
Further Reading 190
Chapter 13: Logging 191
Logging to a File 191
Remember to Roll! 193
Testing What is Printed to the Console 193
Switching Streams 194
Reading the Output From a Second JVM 196
Summary 199

[ iv ]
 Table of Contents

Chapter 14: Communication with External Systems 201

Email 201
Using an External Email Account 202
Using a Local Email Server 205
Which Method is Best? 206
Testing Spreadsheets 206
PDF 208
Serialization 209
Files 211
Summary 212
Chapter 15: Embedding User Interface Components in
Server-side Classes 213
A Typical MVC System 214
The Problem 217
The Solution 218
Which Approach Should We Use? 221
Summary 221
Chapter 16: Tests Involving Databases 223
A Uniform Approach to Accessing the Database 224
Persistence Testing 228
Database Management 229
Summary 231
Chapter 17: Function Tests 233
Specification of the Tests 233
Implementation of the 'DeleteCase' Test 237
Tests Involving Multiple JVMs 240
Multiple JVMs with GUI Components 242
Use of a Function Test as a Tutorial 247
Testing a Web Service 251
Summary 256
Chapter 18: Load Testing 257
What to Test 258
Overnight 'Housekeeping' Takes Too Long 259
Deleting Cases Takes Too Long 259
The BMD Server is Too Slow to Start 260
Measuring Time 260
Measuring RAM Usage 264
The Load Tests for LabWizard 265
Profilers and Other Tools 266
Summary 267
[]
Table of Contents

Chapter 19: GrandTestAuto 269

What is GrandTestAuto? 269
Unit Test Coverage 272
Advantages of Using GTA 273
Getting Started 274
Testing Overloaded Methods 277
Testing Protected Methods 279
Extra Tests 280
Classes That Do Not Need Tests 280
Day-To-Day Use of GrandTestAuto 281
Running Just One Level of Test 281
Running the Unit Tests for a Single Package 281
Running the Unit Tests for a Single Class 282
Running the Tests for a Selection of Packages 282
Package Name Abbreviation 283
Running Tests for a Selection of Classes Within a Single Package 283
Running Individual Test Methods 283
Running GTA From Ant or CruiseControl 284
GTA Parameters 284
Distributed Testing Using GTA 285
How it Works—In Brief 285
A Distributed Testing Example 286
Summary 287
Chapter 20: Flaky Tests 289
A Flaky 'Ikon Do It' Unit Test 289
Writing Reliable Tests 294
Dealing with Flaky Tests 296
Diagnostic Tools 297
Tests That Do Not Terminate 297
Non-Daemon Threads 298
Remote Objects 298
Server Socket Still Waiting 299
Frame Not Properly Disposed 299
Summary 300
Index 301

[ vi ]
 Preface
This book summarizes twenty years of experience testing software.

For the past decade, we have been the principal developers of LabWizard, which
is the gold standard in Knowledge Acquisition tools and is used around the world
to provide patient-specific interpretations of pathology cases. LabWizard is a very
complex suite of software involving a server program, multiple remote client
programs, interfaces with lab systems, and lots of internal processes.

In spite of this complexity, the software has been developed and maintained by a
very small team with limited time and resources. We believe that our approach to
testing, which we call Extreme Testing, has been central to our success. Extreme
Testing has these key points:

• Complete Unit Test Coverage: All public classes must be thoroughly

unit-tested.
• Complete Requirements Test Coverage: Each software requirement must be
tested with an application-level test.
• Test First: When a bug is reported, a test that demonstrates the bug must be
written before an attempt to fix the problem is undertaken.
• Automation: All of the tests must be run automatically.

This book is about why we have converged on this testing strategy, and how we
actually implement it. In particular, we look at how to automatically test user
interfaces, the help system, internationalization, log files, spreadsheets, email, web
services, tests involving multiple JVMs, and a host of other things.
Preface

What This Book Offers

Above all, this book is a practical guide to testing Java software.

A number of books on Java testing have appeared in the last few years. In general,
these books introduce the reader to JUnit, a commonly used test platform, and then
run through some examples in which simple classes are tested. Additionally, they
may introduce a few other tools for testing databases, dynamic web pages and so
on. However, when it comes to testing user interfaces and other complex modules,
these books draw a blank, and it is easy for the reader to get the impression that such
testing is either not possible or is just too difficult to be worth the cost. We show how
easy and worthwhile it is to automate these tests.

Another area covered in the present work, but absent from others, is that
of application-level testing, which is the proving of our software against its
requirements, item-by-item. These 'function tests' as we call them, are enormously
useful and reassuring when we are in customer support mode.

For example, recently a customer rang us to report that blank lines in LabWizard
reports are not appearing when the report is viewed in his lab's Laboratory
Information System (LIS). Is this a LIS fault, or a LabWizard fault?

We actually have a function test class that does the following:

• Starts a LabWizard server in its own JVM.

• Starts a client program with which a Knowledge Base is built.
• Adds rules such that cases receive interpretations that have blank lines.
• Runs a LIS simulator that sends a case for interpretation.
• Checks that the interpretation received by the LIS simulator contains the
appropriate formatting codes for the blank lines.

This test answers the question in LabWizard's favor. If we did not have this
function test, we'd have to search through and understand a lot of code to respond to
our customer.

By providing an approach to application-level tests, unit tests for difficult areas,

and so on, we hope to prove that adopting an approach like ours will save time and
money and make life as a developer less frustrating and more rewarding.

Every programmer interested in thoroughly testing their software should read

this book.

[]
 Preface

Any programmer who is not convinced about the need to have automated tests as a
part of their build process should also read this book. We hope that our experience
with LabWizard, and the tools we provide, will change their opinion.

One way of getting more of an idea of what this book is about, is to consider the
reasons why some developers don't write tests as one of their main day-to-day
activities. Let's have a look at the things that come between programmers and the
tests they should be working on.

Roadblocks to Testing
It's been over 25 years since G. Myers' classic "The Art of Software Testing", so we
know the principles. Every month we hear of some major software failure, so we
know it's important. So how is it that any software is not tested effectively? Well,
here are the roadblocks.

Roadblock 1: Last on the Waterfall

Whether we believe in longer or shorter development cycles, the "Waterfall" model
still pervades our thinking and planning.

Where does testing appear in this process? Last, and at the bottom of the heap! And
what things are done last? The least important things!

[]
Other documents randomly have
different content
750 Fall of the Omayyad dynasty. Two rival Saracen powers
are formed. Ravenna taken by the Lombards.
751 Capture of Melitene and Theodosipolis by Constantine.
753 Invasion of Italy by Pepin. Council of Constantinople
favours iconoclasm.
755 Invasion of Thrace by the Bulgarians. Pepin continues
invasion of Italy.
757 The Bulgarians driven back to their own territory with
great slaughter.
760-765 Constantine invades Bulgaria. Victory of Anchialus,
762.
766 Wreck of the Roman fleet at the mouth of the Danube.
Edicts against image-worship extended and vigorously
enforced.
773-774 Campaigns against the Bulgarians. Victory of
Lithosoria. Peace made with the Bulgarian monarch,
which Constantine breaks.
775 Leo IV, son of Constantine, succeeds him. He is a
zealous iconoclast. He marries the empress Irene.
778 Successful campaign against the Bulgarians.
780 Capture of Semaluos by Harun-ar-Rashid. Death of Leo.
Irene becomes regent for the ten-year-old
Constantine VI.
781 Revolt of Elpidius in Sicily.
782 The Mohammedans under Harun-ar-Rashid invade Asia
Minor.
787 Council of Nicæa sanctions image-worship.
788 The Bulgarians gain a victory at the Strymon.
789 The Arabs invade Rumania.
790 Constantine assumes control of the government. Irene
is unwilling to relinquish power and a struggle between
the two begins.
791 The emperor conducts a campaign against the
Bulgarians.
792 A conspiracy formed against Constantine by his uncles is
suppressed and severely punished. Irene’s dignity
restored. Second campaign against the Bulgarians.
795 Constantine divorces his wife Maria and marries
Theodota.
796 Third Bulgarian campaign of Constantine.
797 Irene, taking advantage of Constantine’s unpopularity
on account of his treatment of Maria, imprisons him and
has his eyes put out. She now reigns alone. Conspiracy
to place one of Constantine V’s sons on the throne.
798 Peace made with the Mohammedans.
800 Revival of the western division of the empire by the
coronation of Charlemagne. There are now two distinct
empires.
802 Conspiracy against and deposition of Irene.
Nicephorus I, the treasurer, chosen emperor. He
maintains political order but is a hard fiscal oppressor.
803 Death of Irene in exile. Bardanes, the general, proclaims
himself emperor, but receiving no support, negotiates
for his own pardon. Treaty with Charlemagne, regulating
confines of the two empires.
806 Humiliating peace with Harun-ar-Rashid.
808 Unsuccessful attempt of Arsaber to obtain throne.
809 Death of Harun-ar-Rashid reopens the struggle with the
Mohammedans.
810 Treaty of peace with Charlemagne, who unsuccessfully
tries to make the Venetians and their allies tributary to
him.
811 The emperor at war with the Mohammedans and
Bulgarians. Death of Nicephorus in an attack by the
Bulgarians. His son Stauracius succeeds. He is unable
to hold out against the unpopularity of his father’s fiscal
severity. After two months’ reign, a revolution places
Michael (I) Rhangabe on the throne. The
Mohammedans, owing to civil strife, do not trouble the
empire, but the Bulgarians continue their attacks, with
such success that
813 Michael is deposed, and the general Leo (V) the
Armenian is saluted as emperor. Michael retires to a
monastery. The Bulgarians approach the walls of
Constantinople.
814 Annihilation of the Bulgarian army by Leo, at
Mesembria. Thirty years’ truce concluded. Leo pursues a
variable policy in regard to image-worship.
820 Leo assassinated in a conspiracy in favour of Michael
(II) the Stammerer, who takes the throne.

THE AMORIAN DYNASTY (820-867 a.d.)

821 Rebellion of Thomas, a claimant of the throne. He is

crowned at Antioch, and lays siege to Constantinople.
822 The Bulgarians, taking advantage of civil discord, invade
the empire. Thomas delivered up to Michael, and
hanged.
823 The Mohammedans capture Crete.
827 Mohammedan conquest of Sicily begun. It is not
completed until 878.
829 Theophilus succeeds his father. He is a zealous
iconoclast.
831 A Mohammedan invasion of long duration begins.
832 Brilliant victory of Theophilus in Charsiana. The
Mohammedans capture Heraclea.
836 Theophilus destroys Zapetra.
838 Mohammedan victory at Dasymon. Amorium is
captured.
842 Death of Theophilus, due to chagrin at Mohammedan
successes. His son Michael (III) Porphyrogenitus,
or the Drunkard, succeeds at the age of four, with his
mother Theodora as regent. Image-worship restored
at Council of Constantinople. End of the Iconoclastic
controversy. Slavonic insurrection in the Peloponnesus
suppressed. Failure of an attempt to conquer the
Abasges, and to recover Crete. War with the
Mohammedans continues.
845 Truce with the Mohammedans.
847 Conversion of the Khazars to Christianity. The Bulgarians
follow their example a few years later.
848 Revolt of the Paulicians, who join the Arabs.
854 Theodora retires to private life.
856 Bardas, her brother, becomes cæsar. Photius elected
patriarch in place of the deposed Ignatius.
858 A great war with the Arabs begins. Omar lays Pontus
waste. Successful campaign of Leo, the commander-in-
chief, who is finally captured by the Mohammedans.
860 Michael badly defeated near Melitene.
862 Omar invades Cappadocia, Pontus, and Cilicia.
863 Battle of Amasia. Great victory of Petronas, the
emperor’s uncle. Death of Omar. The end of trouble
with the Mohammedans for some years.
865 First appearance of the Russians in the empire. They
attack Constantinople, but are driven off.
866 Michael kills Bardas with the aid of Basil the
Macedonian, who becomes cæsar.
867 Assassination of Michael at the instigation of Basil, who
takes the throne. Basil removes Photius and restores
Ignatius.

THE BASILIAN DYNASTY (867-1057 a.d.)

871 The Paulicians attacked and reduced to obedience.

872 Basil takes the field against the Mohammedans.
875-876 Victories of Basil in Cilicia.
877 Death of Ignatius. Photius regains the patriarchate.
881 Basil plans to drive the Mohammedans out of Sicily and
Italy. Cyprus recovered and held for eleven years.
885 Nicephorus Phocas expels the Mohammedans from Italy.
They still hold Sicily. Accusation against Leo, the
emperor’s son, by Santabaren, in which the former
narrowly escapes death.
886 Death of Basil, who is wounded while hunting. His son,
Leo (VI) the Philosopher, succeeds. He has
Santabaren’s eyes put out, and banishes him. Photius
deposed.
887-888 Arabs invade Asia Minor, and attempt to regain
Italy. They give up the attempt on the latter country in
891.
Stylianus, Leo’s father-in-law and prime minister, by his
treatment of Bulgarian merchants, precipitates a war
with Bulgaria. This country wins several victories, and
893 Leo makes a treaty of peace.
895 Conspiracy of Samonas against the emperor. Further
Arab invasions of Sicily.
904 The Arabs capture Thessalonica with a fleet. The last
remains of the senate’s authority destroyed by a
constitution of Leo. Second Russian expedition to
Constantinople.
911 Mohammedan naval victory off Samos. Death of Leo. His
infant son, Constantine (VII) Porphyrogenitus, and
his brother Alexander rule together.
912 Death of Alexander. He nominates, before dying, a
regency of six members, exclusive of the patriarch, to
act during Constantine’s minority. Attempt of
Constantine Ducas to gain the throne suppressed by
John Eladas, one of the regents. Zoe Carbonopsina,
mother of Constantine, admitted to supreme power by
the regency.
913-914 Simeon, king of Bulgaria, invades the empire with
no positive results.
917 The Patzinaks defeat Leo Phocas at Achelous, which
causes Romanus Lecapenus to intrigue for the throne.
919 Constantine marries Romanus’ daughter Helena.
Romanus (I) Lecapenus crowned emperor as
colleague to Constantine.
920 Christopher, son of Romanus, is raised to the imperial
dignity.
921 The war with the Bulgarians assumes serious
proportions; further increased
923 by an alliance between King Simeon of Bulgaria and the
Mohammedans.
926 A temporary end is put to the troubles with the
Bulgarians and Arabs by an interview between Romanus
and Simeon.
927 Peter, Simeon’s successor, enters Byzantine territory,
demanding war or the hand of the emperor’s
granddaughter. Romanus agrees to the latter
alternative.
928 Romanus makes his sons, Stephanus and
Constantine VIII, associate emperors. There are now
five emperors.
931 Death of Christopher.
934-940 Period of complete peace in the empire, except for
petty warfare with Lombard princes. Constantine VII
plans to regain the sole power.
941 A Russian fleet of ten thousand galleys appears before
Constantinople. Romans drive them off with small force.
944 Stephanus and Constantine VIII at instigation of
Constantine VII banish their father to Prota. Constantine
VII then regains full power, and banishes Stephanus and
Constantine VIII likewise to Prota, 945.
During the remainder of Constantine’s reign the war with the
Mohammedans is prosecuted with great vigour,
especially when Nicephorus Phocas succeeds in
assembling a large army. Many conspiracies against
Constantine by the deposed emperors.
959 Death of Constantine, the result of poison administered
by his son Romanus II, who becomes emperor.
961 Brilliant conquest of Crete by Nicephorus. The
Mohammedans expelled after occupation of 150 years.
962 Nicephorus attacks Aleppo, but is unable to take the
citadel.
963 Death of Romanus, which has been attributed to poison
administered by the empress Theophano. Nicephorus
(II) Phocas marries Theophano and obtains the
throne. His chief aim is to break the Mohammedan
power.
964-965 Conquest of Tarsus by the Byzantines. Nicephorus
recalled to Constantinople by troubles with Bulgarians
and Hungarians. To repel them he makes alliance with
Sviatoslaff, prince of Kieff, which causes a bloody war
with the Russians.
965 Embassy of Liutprand to Constantinople. The emperor
imprisons him.
968 Nicephorus returns to Asia Minor and recovers Antioch,
328 years in the Mohammedan power. He prepares to
attack Baghdad.
969 Joannes Zimisces, the general, and Theophano conspire
against Nicephorus, who is assassinated. Joannes (I)
Zimisces takes the throne. He associates with him the
young sons of Romanus II, Basil II, and Constantine
IX, who were nominal rulers during reign of
Nicephorus. The brother of Nicephorus, Leo, and his son
Bardas Phocas make unsuccessful attempts to invite
rebellion and regain the throne. They are banished.
970 Sviatoslaff conquers Bulgaria and invades Thrace.
Philippopolis taken and inhabitants massacred.
971 Joannes proceeds against the Russians. Capture of
Presthlava and King Boris of Bulgaria. Siege and capture
of Dorystolon. Peace with the Russians. Bulgaria again a
part of the empire and Boris a pensioner of the
Byzantine court. The Mohammedan wars carried on.
972 Marriage of Otto the Great and Theophano, daughter of
Romanus II.
973 Imperial victory at Nisibis. Defeat at Amida.
974 Joannes takes command of the Mohammedan War.
975 Many victories but futile siege of Tripolis. Antioch shuts
out the imperial force.
976 Death of Joannes Zimisces, probably by poison. Basil II
head of affairs with his brother for colleague. He is one
of the greatest of the Eastern emperors.

Beginning of Period of Greatest Splendour of the Empire

979 Defeat of Sclerus by Bardas Phocas, the general, after a

desperate revolt to capture the throne. The Bulgarians
begin a long struggle to regain their independence.
982 On death of Otto, Basil consolidates his authority in
southern Italy.
989 Death of Bardas Phocas, who for two years has been in
revolt against the emperor. Sclerus, conspiring for the
second time against the throne, dies.
991 Southern Iberia ceded to the empire by King David.
995 Campaign of Basil in Syria. Aleppo taken. Unsuccessful
attack on Tripolis.
996 Great defeat of King Samuel of Bulgaria at the
Sperchius.
1002 Samuel invades Thrace, takes Hadrianopolis, but is
driven off. The war now proceeds for some years in
desultory fashion.
1014 Basil resumes the Bulgarian War in earnest. Great
victory under Nicephorus Xiphias at Zetunium. Basil puts
out the eyes of 15,000 prisoners. Death of Samuel. The
emperor’s cruelty engenders a last effort in the
Bulgarians, but by 1018 the destruction of the kingdom
 is complete. Gibbon calls this the most important
triumph of Roman arms since the time of Belisarius.
1022 Victory of Basil over a coalition of Armenian princes.
They sue for peace.
1025 Basil prepares to expel Mohammedans from Sicily, but
dies. His brother Constantine IX becomes sole
emperor.
1027 Attack by the Patzinaks and Mohammedans repulsed.
1028 Constantine on his death-bed appoints Romanus
(III) Argyrus his successor, makes him divorce his
wife, and marry his daughter Zoe.
1030 Romanus defeated by the Mohammedans at Azaz and
takes refuge in Antioch. He becomes the prey of
melancholy, and Zoe takes the reins of government.
1031 Mohammedan pirates ravage Illyricum and Corfu. They
are driven off by the people of Ragusa.
1032 Conspiracy and death of Constantine Diogenes.
1033 Capture of Edessa by the imperial fleet.
1034 Death of Romanus, probably by slow poison
administered by Zoe, who now causes her paramour,
Michael (IV) the Paphlagonian, to be proclaimed
emperor, and marries him the day of her husband’s
death. Earthquake at Jerusalem lasting forty days. Great
famine throughout the empire.
1037 The Mohammedans attack the empire on all sides.
They capture Edessa. The Patzinaks invade Thrace.
1038 The Mohammedans regain Edessa, by a stratagem that
is the origin of the Tale of Ali Baba and the Forty
Thieves.
1039 The imperial force and the Normans attack the
Mohammedans in Sicily. Messina (Messana) and
Syracuse taken.
1040 A fresh Mohammedan army from Africa utterly
defeated in Sicily. The Norman power begins to get the
control in the island. The Bulgarians attempt to recover
independence. They invade Thrace and Macedonia.
1041 Michael drives them back and brings the country again
to Byzantine rule. Death of Michael. Zoe attempts to
rule alone, but finds herself unequal to the task. She
adopts her husband’s nephew, Michael (V)
Calaphates, and makes him emperor. He expels Zoe.
At his imprudent acts the people rise in rebellion.
1042 After a fierce battle between the people of
Constantinople and the adherents of Michael, the latter
and his uncle flee. Zoe and her sister Theodora are
proclaimed co-empresses. Zoe has the eyes of Michael
and his uncle put out. Jealous of her sister, Zoe marries
 Constantine (X) Monomachus. Rebellion of
Maniaces, brother of Constantine’s mistress Sclerena.
He is murdered in the midst of his camp.
1043 Invasion of the Russians; driven back after a defeat by
Catacalon.
1045 Successful war with Cacicus, vassal king of Armenia
and Iberia, ending in destruction of his kingdom.
1047 Rebellion of Tornicius.
1048 The Patzinaks invade the empire with a large army.
Attack of the Seljuk Turks under Toghril. Indecisive
battle of Capetron.
1050 Toghril retires to Persia. Death of Zoe.
1052 Second invasion of Toghril.
1053 The Patzinaks driven back to their own territory.
1054 The great schism between the Greek and Roman
churches begins. Death of Michael. Theodora reigns
alone.
1056 Death of Theodora, after appointing Michael (VI)
Stratioticus her successor. Attempt of Theodosius
Monomachus to seize throne.
1057 Battle of Hades. Defeat of Michael by Isaac Comnenus
and Catacalon.

DECLINE AND FALL OF THE BYZANTINE GOVERNMENT (1057-1204

a.d.)

1057 Isaac (I) Comnenus proclaimed emperor. Michael

retires to a monastery. The emperor introduces a
system of great economy into all branches of the
government.
1059 Invasion of the northern frontier by Hungarians and
Patzinaks. Treaty of peace concluded. Isaac, after a
severe illness, resigns crown into the hands of
Constantine (XI) Ducas. Through motives of
economy the latter materially reduces the size of the
army.
1060-1064 Toghril Beg and Alp Arslan invade the empire
from Mesopotamia. Ani captured, 1064.
1064 The Uzes, a nomad Turkish tribe, invade from the
north. They are driven back by outbreak of the plague.
1067 Death of Constantine. The imperial title conferred on
his young sons, Michael (VII) Ducas Parapinaces
Andronicus, and Constantine (XII) Ducas. The
empress Eudocia is regent. She marries Romanus
(IV) Diogenes, who is proclaimed as emperor. Great
ravage of the Turks. Massacre of Cæsarea.
1068-1069 Successful campaign of Romanus against the
Turks.
1070 Manuel Comnenus takes command against the Turks.
Alp Arslan captures Manzicert. Romanus returns to the
command.
1071 Byzantine expedition to Sicily defeated by Normans.
Surrender of Bari. End of the imperial authority in Italy.
Romanus taken prisoner by Alp Arslan at Manzicert.
Restored to liberty and makes a treaty of peace.
Refused admittance to Constantinople. Michael VII
regains power reigning conjointly with Constantine XII.
Romanus blinded, dies of his wounds.
1072 Alp Arslan, unable to obtain payment of Romanus’
ransom, invades empire. He finally conquers the
Byzantine part of Asia Minor, giving it to Suleiman to
rule.
1074 Rebellion of Ursel. Treaty with the Turks.
1076 The Turks take possession of Jerusalem.
1078 Bryennius attempts to gain the throne. After a severe
struggle Michael abdicates in favour of Nicephorus
(III) Botaniates.
1081 Nicephorus, after a constant struggle with many
aspirants, is dethroned by Alexius (I) Comnenus
after the capture and sack of Constantinople. Many
pretenders are put down. Treaty of peace with
Suleiman. Defeat of Alexius by Robert Guiscard.
1084 Defeat of Bohemond, the Norman leader. Relief of
Larissa.
1085 Alexius recovers Dyrrhachium from the Normans.
1087-1099 Patzinak war ending in imperial victory at
Levounion.
1092 Tzachas, emir of Smyrna, assumes title of emperor.
1093 Murder of Tzachas at instigation of Alexius.
1096 The first crusaders appear at Constantinople.
1097-1098 With the help of the crusaders, Alexius regains
Nicæa, Antioch, and the whole of Asia Minor.
1103-1108 War of Alexius with Bohemond, prince of Antioch.
1110-1116 War against the Turks in Asia Minor, ending in
many Turkish losses, enabling Alexius to make treaty of
peace.
1111 Hostilities of Alexius with Tancred and the crusaders.
1118 Death of Alexius. Joannes Comnenus, his son,
succeeds. Failure of conspiracy of Anna Comnena and
Nicephorus Bryennius to place latter on throne.
1119 Joannes takes Laodicea and
1120 Sozopolis in campaigns against the Turks.
1122 Great victory of Joannes over the Patzinaks in
Macedonia.
1124 Joannes drives back the Servians who have seized
Belgrade and Branitzova. He now proceeds again
against the Turks of Iconium and holds Castamonia and
Gangra for a short time.
1131 Campaign against Livo of Cilicia, whose dominions
1137 are united to the empire.
1138 Joannes proceeds against Raymond of Antioch, who
refuses to recognise him for his liege-lord. Raymond
apologises and helps Joannes in a successful campaign
against the Turks in Syria.
1141 Joannes defeats the sultan of Iconium.
1142 He sets out for Cilicia to conquer all the Latin
principalities taken from the empire, but 1143 dies as
the result of a wound received while hunting. His son
Manuel (I) Comnenus succeeds.
1144 Raymond, prince of Antioch, compelled to renew bonds
of vassalage.
1145 Manuel invades Isauria and concludes treaty of peace
with Turks.
1147 Manuel promises to aid the Second Crusade, but gives
secret information of it to the Turks.
1148 War with Roger of Sicily, who attempts to invade
Greece. Manuel quickly repels an invasion of Patzinaks,
and with the help of Venice proceeds against the
Normans at Corfu.
1149 Fortress at Corfu taken. Roger invites the Hungarians
and Servians to attack from the north.
1152 Imperial repulse in Cilicia, but great successes in Italy.
1153 Peace made with King Geisa of Hungary.
1153-1155 The Norman war turns against the empire. Many
defeats. Maius, the Sicilian admiral, lands at
Constantinople.
1155 Peace made with William of Sicily, Roger’s successor.
Punishment of Reynolf of Antioch, successor of
Raymond, and his reduction to vassalage.
1157 Renewal of war with sultan of Iconium. Peace made.
1161 War breaks out with Stephen III of Hungary.
1163 Short interval of peace in Hungarian War.
1168 Battle of Zeugmin. Great imperial victory. End of
Hungarian War. Manuel joins with Almeric of Jerusalem
in an attack on Egypt.
1171 Failure of attack through jealousy of Almeric. War with
Venice over, Manuel attacks the Lombards. After an
unprofitable contest 1174 peace made with Venice.
1176 Renewal of war with Kilidj-Arslan, sultan of Iconium.
Crushing defeat of Manuel near Myriocephalus.
Dishonourable peace made by Manuel.
1177 Manuel breaks peace. Imperial victory on the
Mæander. Honourable peace.
1180 Death of Manuel. His son, Alexius (II) Comnenus,
succeeds, under guardianship of mother, Maria of
Antioch.
1183 Andronicus (I) Comnenus usurps the throne after
inducing Alexius to have his mother put to death, and
then killing him. Marries Alexius’ widow, Agnes,
daughter of Louis VII of France.
1184 Isaac, sent to Cyprus to govern by the emperor, causes
rebellion by his misgovernment, which entirely
separates the island from the empire.
1185 Silician invasion at instigation of Greek fugitives.
William II destroys Thessalonica, but is induced to
desist from attack on Constantinople. The lieutenant,
Hagiochristophorites, incites rebellion at Constantinople
against Isaac. The people take Isaac’s part and proclaim
him emperor. Death of Andronicus at hands of mob.
Isaac (II) Angelus emperor. Victory at Demerize over
Silician invaders.
1186 Rebellion of the Bulgarians and Wallachians owing to
unjust taxation.
1187 Defeat of rebels by Joannes Cantacuzenus. Alexius
Branas given command of army. He takes advantage of
victories to proclaim himself emperor and appears
before Constantinople, but is defeated and killed by
Isaac’s brother-in-law, Conrad of Montferrat. William II
of Sicily gives up his conquests in Greece.
1188 Wallachian successes lead to formation of independent
kingdom.
1189 Emperor Frederick I of Germany appears with 150,000
crusaders. The terrified Isaac offers to make alliance
with Saladin, but the latter declines.
Theodore Mancaphas proclaims himself emperor. He is
pardoned, and gives up claim. Careers of the “False
Alexius” and other pretenders.
1191 Capture of Cyprus by Richard I of England. It is lost
forever to the empire.
1194 Isaac recognises the Wallachian kingdom.
1195 Isaac deposed by the nobles, and his brother Alexius
(III) Angelus-Comnenus “the tyrant” made emperor.
Alexius has Isaac’s eyes put out, and imprisons him in a
Constantinople dungeon. Alexius’ extravagant conduct
completes the destruction of the financial mechanism of
 the Roman Empire. Great disorder and anarchy
throughout the empire.
1197 Peace purchased from Mueddin, sultan of Angora.
1198 War with the sultan of Iconium.
1199 Rebellion of Chryses, the Wallachian officer. Alexius
makes peace, leaving him in possession of several
towns.
1200 Ivan the Bulgarian attempts to found independent
monarchy in Thrace and Macedonia.
1202 Alexius, son of Isaac II, escaping to Italy, brings about
treaty between Venetians and crusaders to replace
Isaac and himself on the throne.
1203 Siege of Constantinople. Flight of Alexius III to Italy.
Crusaders occupy the city. Isaac III and Alexius (IV)
Angelus on the throne. Great fire in Constantinople.
Constant trouble between Alexius and the crusaders, in
consequence of which 1204 Alexius (V) Ducas
“Murzuphlus,” a party leader, seizes the throne.
Murder of Alexius IV. Isaac dies of grief. Alexius finds it
impossible to hold out against the crusaders. Capture
and sack of Constantinople by crusaders and Venetians.
Treaty of partition. End of true Byzantine Empire. The
Latin Empire of Romania founded with Baldwin, count of
Flanders. The Greek Empire continues at Nicæa.

THE LATIN EMPIRE OF ROMANIA (1204-1261 a.d.)

1204 Baldwin I elected emperor. His dominions consist only

of Constantinople and Thrace, for the rest of the empire
is divided among the Flemish, French, and Venetian
leaders.
1205 Joannice of Bulgaria revolts, and obtains possession of
Hadrianopolis. Capture of Baldwin in siege of town. He
dies in captivity. His brother Henry I succeeds.
1206 Treaty with David Comnenus, brother of the emperor
of Trebizond, in the interest of the latter.
1207 Death of Joannice. Henry marries his daughter, and
thus effects peace with Bulgaria. Treaty with Theodore
Lascaris, emperor of Nicæa.
1209 Parliament of Ravenika (ancient Chalcidice) summoned
by Henry to determine definitely the feudal relations of
all subjects of the empire.
1214 War between Henry and Theodore. Defeat of Henry in
Bithynia. Siege of Pemanene. Peace, ceding to Theodore
all territory east of Sardis and Nicæa.
1215 A mock union between the Greek and Roman churches
in Henry’s dominions.
1216 Death of Henry during expedition against Theodore,
the despot of Epirus. Pierre de Courtenai, then in
France, chosen emperor. He falls into the hands of
Theodore of Epirus on his way to Constantinople, and
dies in captivity, 1219.
1221 His second son, Robert de Courtenai, after a delay
of two years, is made emperor.
1222 Theodore of Epirus takes possession of the Lombard
kingdom of Thessalonica. Defeat of Robert at Serres.
1223-1224 Robert invades Nicæa with many losses. Revolt
of the Greeks in Hadrianopolis. Theodore of Epirus takes
the city.
1228 Death of Robert. His young brother, Baldwin II,
succeeds. Jean de Brienne, titular king of Jerusalem,
elected guardian and colleague. The empire is attacked
by Joannes Vatatzes of Nicæa and John Asan, king of
Bulgaria.
1233 Jean de Brienne routed in Bithynia.
1234 Alliance between Vatatzes and Asan to attack
Constantinople. They ravage the whole Latin Empire.
1236 Danger to Constantinople averted by help from the
Venetians and Geoffrey of Achaia.
1237 Death of Jean de Brienne. The Bulgarian king
abandons Nicæa and makes alliance with Latins.
Baldwin visits western Europe to obtain help. Louis IX of
France gives pecuniary assistance.
1240 Baldwin with his new army attacks Nicæa and obtains
some advantage.
1243 Baldwin makes alliance with Seljuk Turks, but in spite
of this is compelled to 1245 revisit western Europe for
assistance.
1259 On the accession of Michael Palæologus, the Nicæan
Empire attacks the Latin Empire.
1261 Recovery of Constantinople by the Greeks of Nicæa.
End of the Latin Empire of Romania. Although driven
from their dominions, the descendants of Baldwin II are
known in eastern Europe as titular emperors until 1383
when, with the death of James de Baux, the family of
Baldwin became extinct.

THE GREEK EMPERORS AT NICÆA (1204-1261 a.d.)

1204 After the capture of Constantinople Theodore Lascaris,

leader of the anti-Latin party, flees to Bithynia, and
makes himself master of the city of Nicæa.
1206 Theodore (I) Lascaris crowned emperor by the
Greek patriarch. His title is contested by several princes,
among them Alexius Comnenus, reigning as emperor of
 Trebizond. David Comnenus, the latter’s brother,
proceeds against him, but is badly defeated on the
Sangarius.
1210 Alexius, father-in-law of Theodore, claims throne,
supported by the sultan of Iconium. The latter slain in
battle, Alexius falls into Theodore’s hand, and is put into
a monastery.
1214 War with Henry of Romania. Peace defining limits of
empire.
1214-1222 Years of peace.
1222 Death of Theodore. His son-in-law, Joannes (III)
Ducas Vatatzes, succeeds. Theodore Angelus, despot
of Epirus and Ætolia, assumes title of emperor of
Thessalonica.
1224 Victory of Pemanene over Robert, the Latin emperor.
1225 Peace with the Latins. Conspiracy of Nestongos.
1233 Defeat of the Latins by Joannes in Bithynia. Naval
campaign to obtain sovereignty of the sea. The Greek
fleets driven back to Asia by the Venetian, Marino
Sanuti.
1234 Alliance of Joannes Vatatzes and Asan of Bulgaria
against Baldwin II. Vatatzes reduces the empire of
Thessalonica to a despotat (despotat of Epirus).
1236 Attack of the allies on Constantinople unsuccessful.
1237 Asan breaks the alliance as Constantinople is about to
be attacked the second time.
1241 On the death of John Asan of Bulgaria, Vatatzes begins
to assert his supremacy over the emperor of
Thessalonica.
1242 Joannes Comnenus, the Thessalonian emperor,
reduced to rank of despot by Vatatzes. Alliance with the
sultan of Iconium to resist threatened invasion of
Mongols who have already destroyed the Seljuk empire.
1245 Joannes Vatatzes reconquers Byzantine dominions in
Thrace from the infant king Michael of Bulgaria.
1246 Vatatzes unites despotat of Epirus to the empire.
1251-1253 War with Michael II, despot of Epirus, ending in a
peace ceding some Thracian territory to Vatatzes.
1254 Death of Joannes Vatatzes. His son Theodore (II)
Lascaris succeeds.
1255-1256 War with Bulgaria resulting in slight concessions
to Theodore.
1257 War with Michael of Epirus conducted by Michael
Palæologus, with unfavourable results.
1258 Death of Theodore. Succeeded by his young son
Joannes (IV) Lascaris. The prime minister Muzalon
 and the patriarch Arsenius are regents.
1259 Michael (VIII) Palæologus proclaimed emperor as
the result of a successful conspiracy. Muzalon murdered.
The emperor goes to war with Michael of Epirus and
puts him to flight. Battle of Pelagonia. Capture of
William Villehardouin, prince of Achaia.
1261 The general Strategopulus captures Constantinople.
Fall of the Latin Empire. Michael removes the seat of
empire thither.

THE PALÆOLOGUS DYNASTY AT CONSTANTINOPLE (1261-1453

a.d.)

1261 Michael imprisons Joannes IV and has his eyes put out.
For this Arsenius excommunicates Michael. Important
commercial treaty with the Genoese renewed after
hostilities in 1275. Pope Urban IV frees Villehardouin
from his promises to Michael on his release. Warfare
results.
1263 Urban IV mediates between Michael and Villehardouin.
1264 Peace between the emperor and Michael of Epirus.
1265 Deposition of Arsenius causing the Arsenite schism.
1269 Charles of Anjou, aided by Joannes of Thessaly and
Michael of Epirus, takes up arms against the emperor to
restore Baldwin II.
1271 Great defeat of the imperial forces at Demetriades
(Volo). Constantinople in danger. Michael proposes
union of Greek and Latin churches as a means of saving
his throne.
1274 Union of churches effected at council of Lyons. It is
opposed by a large faction in the Greek church. It was
never really completed, and falls to pieces at Michael’s
death.
1280 The Seljuk Turks take Nyssa.
1281 Treaty of Orvietto between the pope, Naples, and
Venice to conquer the Greek Empire for Philip, son of
Baldwin II. The plan is frustrated by the Sicilian Vespers.
1282 Death of Michael in an expedition against Joannes
Ducas of Thessaly. He is a conspicuous example of the
misuse of despotic power. His son Andronicus (II)
Palæologus succeeds. Ecclesiastical troubles compel
the emperor to neglect military matters for a time.
1290 Unsuccessful attack upon Nicephorus of Epirus.
1295 Michael IX, son of Andronicus, receives the imperial
title from his father.
1301 Foundation of Ottoman Empire by Osman, who attacks
the Greek Empire. Disgraceful defeat of Greeks
commanded by Michael, near Nicomedia. The command
 given to a Tatar chief. The Ottomans gradually conquer
all the Byzantine possessions in Asia.
1303 The Catalan Grand Company, engaged by Michael to
help fight the Turks, and headed by Roger de Flor, lands
in Constantinople.
1304 Relief of Philadelphia by Roger. He conceives the idea
of forming a principality in the East.
1305 Roger de Flor visits Constantinople to demand pay for
his men.
1306 Turks retake Philadelphia. Plan of Ferdinand of Majorca
to conquer a kingdom in the Greek Empire.
1307 Roger de Flor created cæsar. He sets out for Asia but is
assassinated. The company breaks its ties with Michael,
and sets out to conquer territory for itself. Battle of
Apros. The company takes possession of several
districts. Excommunication of Andronicus by Clement V.
1310 The company and their Turkish auxiliaries enter service
of the duke of Athens. Conquest of Rhodes by knights
of St. John.
1311 Battle of the Cephisus and victory of the Catalan Grand
Company over the duke of Athens pave way for the
conquest of Attica. The Turkish auxiliaries return home.
1315 Victory of Philes Palæologus over Turks at Bizya.
1320 The emperor Michael dies.
1321 Beginning of civil war by partisans of the emperor’s
grandson Andronicus led by Cantacuzenus and
Synadenus.
1322 Peace of Epibates concludes civil war.
1325 Andronicus compelled to bestow imperial crown on his
grandson Andronicus (III) Palæologus; the two
reign together.
1327 Andronicus II brings charges against Andronicus III.
Civil war breaks out again.
1328 Synadenus overcomes garrison of Constantinople.
Abdication of Andronicus II puts an end to civil war, but
the court remains full of intrigue.
1329 Imperial defeat at Pelekanon by the Ottoman Orkhan.
1330 Surrender of Nicæa to Orkhan.
1330-1337 Ottoman invasions of the European provinces.
1334-1337 Expedition of Andronicus into Epirus.
1337 The Mongols cross the Danube and ravage northern
district. Anne regent for Nicephorus II, despot of
Epirus, turns the despotat over to Andronicus.
1338 Surrender of Nicomedia to Orkhan.
1339 Revolt in the despotat of Epirus put down.
1341 Death of Andronicus. His young son Joannes (V)
Palæologus succeeds with Empress Anne of Savoy as
regent. Rebellion of the prime minister Joannes (VI)
Cantacuzenus, who is proclaimed emperor and
guardian of Joannes. He often calls himself Joannes V.
Apocauchus and Joannes Apri intrigue against
Cantacuzenus. A long civil struggle commences.
1342 Stephen Dushan of Servia allies himself with rebels and
invades empire.
1343 Cantacuzenus makes alliance with Turks. The war
continues with violence.
1344 Cantacuzenus takes Gratianopolis and makes treaties
with Servia and Bulgaria.
1345 Murder of Apocauchus. Vicinity of Constantinople
devastated.
1346 Defection of Orkhan from Anne’s cause leads to
triumph of Cantacuzenus. Earthquake at Constantinople
destroys portion of St. Sophia.
1347 Treaty of Cantacuzenus with Anne recognises right of
former to rule for ten years. The Black Death rages.
1350 Cantacuzenus uses money sent by Russians to rebuild
St. Sophia to pay Ottoman mercenaries.
1351 Joannes V takes up arms against Cantacuzenus.
1352 Peace with Genoa after three years’ war. Cantacuzenus
hires Turkish mercenaries to fight Bulgarians and
Servians.
1353 Cantacuzenus proclaims his son Matthæus emperor,
and a deadly strife between him and the Palæologus
family ensues.
1354 Cantacuzenus dethroned. Joannes V sole emperor.
Matthæus Cantacuzenus continues civil war.
1357 Matthæus Cantacuzenus delivered to Joannes by his
captors the Servians and made to renounce all rights to
the throne.
1361 The Ottoman Turks under Murad I take Hadrianopolis.
This seals the fate of the Greek Empire.
1363 The Ottomans take Philippopolis and Serres. Defeat of
Louis of Hungary.
1369-1370 Joannes visits Rome to obtain help for his falling
empire, but is unsuccessful. On way home is arrested
for debt in Venice and released with money raised by his
son, Manuel.
1375 Andronicus, Joannes’ eldest son, conspires against him
while the emperor is absent on a visit to Murad. He is
aided by Saugdi, eldest son of Murad. Murad hastens to
Europe and quells rebellion. Both Andronicus and
Saugdi have their eyes put out.
1377 Andronicus escapes from prison, imprisons his father,
and confers title on his own son.
1381 Joannes rescued by Venetians under Carlo Zeno.
Concludes treaty with Andronicus, recognising his and
his son’s rights to the title. Treaty with Murad in which
Joannes acknowledges himself the vassal of the
Ottoman Empire.
1384 Manuel, second son of Joannes, proclaimed emperor
and crowned.
1389 Battle of Kossova. Great Ottoman victory over the
Servians. Assassination of Murad. Bajazet succeeds,
renews treaty with Joannes, and puts Manuel at head of
Greek troops in Ottoman army.
1390 Ottomans capture Philadelphia the last independent
Greek community in Asia Minor.
1391 Death of Joannes. Manuel (II) Palæologus sole
emperor. He hastens to Constantinople, fearing his
brother will seize the crown.
1396 Great victory of Bajazet at Nicopolis. He now
determines to proceed against Constantinople. Manuel
visits France for help.
1398 Marshal Boucicault arrives at Constantinople with his
fleet. The Tatar conqueror, Timur, distracts Bajazet’s
attention from the empire.
1399 Joannes of Selymbria, son of Andronicus, enters
Constantinople and is proclaimed emperor. Manuel visits
European courts for help.
1402 Manuel returns home, his mission unsuccessful. Battle
of Angora. Crushing defeat of Bajazet by Timur.
1403 Treaty of Suleiman and Manuel, the former yielding up
territory in Macedonia and Thessaly.
1410 Musa, Suleiman’s brother, after the latter’s death,
reconquers territory ceded by Suleiman to Manuel.
1412 Musa begins a feeble siege of Constantinople, but is
soon distracted by civil troubles.
1413-1421 During reign of Muhammed I, the Greek Empire
enjoys uninterrupted peace. Manuel employs time in
reorganising administration and consolidating his power.
1419 Manuel makes his son, Joannes (VII) Palæologus,
co-emperor.
1422 Murad II besieges Constantinople to punish Manuel for
his intrigues. He is obliged to raise siege in order to
proceed against his brother, Mustapha.
1423 Manuel assumes monastic habit, taking name of
Matthew. Joannes sole emperor. The empire is now
reduced to the city of Constantinople and vicinity,
Thessalonica, and a part of the Peloponnesus. The
 finances are exhausted through payment of tribute to
the Turks. The empire enters its final stage of lethargy.
1430 Murad II conquers Thessalonica. The Genoese of
Galata attack Constantinople on account of trade
dispute in Black Sea.
1431 Terrible epidemic in Constantinople.
1439 Joannes and the Greek patriarch attend council of
Florence and ratify union of the Greek and Roman
church. The pope promises to aid the empire, but
forgets agreement to send fleet to Constantinople.
1440 On return of the emperor, the bishop of Ephesus
succeeds in confining the union only to the palace. The
emperor’s brother Demetrius attempts to gain throne,
but fails.
1447 Murad marches against the emperor’s brother
Constantine, who is ruling over the Peloponnesus.
Corinth and Patras taken. Treaty with Constantine, who
pays tribute.
1448 Death of Joannes. His brother Constantine (XIII)
Palæologus or Dragazes, despot of Sparta, succeeds.
1449 Muhammed II succeeds Murad II. His chief ambition is
the conquest of Constantinople, and he at once
prepares for it. Builds a fort on the Bosporus.
1452 Joannes appeals to Pope Nicholas V for aid. Cardinal
Isidore and a small body of auxiliaries are sent.
1453 Siege and capture of Constantinople by Muhammed II.
Death of Constantine in battle. Muhammed enters his
new capital. End of the Eastern Empire.

THE EMPIRE OF TREBIZOND (1204-1461 a.d.)

Isaac Angelus, as soon as he is placed on the throne

by the exasperated mob that slew the tyrannical
Andronicus I (1185), has the eyes of Manuel Comnenus,
the murdered emperor’s eldest son, put out. Manuel
dies under the operation, leaving two sons, Alexius and
David. They live in obscurity in Constantinople until the
crusaders besiege the capital (1203), when they escape
to the coast of Colchis. Alexius gathers around him a
small force and 1204 about the time of the fall of
Constantinople enters Trebizond, the ancient Trapezus,
on the Black Sea, having been proclaimed “emperor of
the Romans.” He calls himself Alexius (I) Grand-
Comnenus, to distinguish himself from the family of
Alexius Angelus-Comnenus. The weakness of the
expelled house of Angelus permits Alexius to found his
empire and begin a career of conquest. In the course of
a few months the whole country from the Phasis to the
Thermodon is his. David Comnenus adds the coast from
Sinope to Heraclea to the new empire.
1206 Defeat of David on the Sangarius, by Theodore (I)
Lascaris. Alexius badly beaten at Amisus by the sultan
of Iconium or Rum in league with Theodore. David
makes treaty with the emperor Henry of Romania, in the
interest of his possessions.
1214 Theodore I attempts to reunite David’s territory to the
empire of Nicæa. Death of David in defence of Sinope,
besieged and captured by the Turks. Pontus assailed by
the Turks. Colchis by the Georgians.
1216 Alexius compelled to declare himself a vassal of the
sultan of Iconium.
1222 Death of Alexius. His son-in-law, Andronicus (I)
Ghidus, succeeds, Joannes the eldest son being passed
over.
1224 Treaty with Ala ad-Din, sultan of Iconium. Hayton,
Turkish governor of Sinope, seizes a Trebizontine ship.
Andronicus attacks Sinope; Ala ad-Din breaks treaty and
attacks Trebizond. Andronicus drives him off and by a
treaty frees himself from vassalage.
1226 Andronicus acknowledges himself vassal of Gela ad-
Din, shah of Khwarizm.
1230 On defeat of Gela ad-Din by the Mongols, Andronicus
renews vassalage to Iconium. The Iberian provinces of
Trebizond unite with the new Iberian kingdom where
King David still retains his independence against the
Turks.
1235 Death of Andronicus. His brother-in-law, Joannes (I)
Auxuchus, succeeds.
1238 Death of Joannes. His brother, Manuel (I) the Great
Captain, succeeds. There is little information about the
events of his reign, but he was a vassal of the Seljuks;
and, after their defeat, in 1244, at Kusadac of the
Mongol khan, Octar.
1263 Andronicus II succeeds his father.
1266 George succeeds his brother. The power of the
Mongols and Seljuks in Asia Minor declines, and George
frees himself from them. He attempts to conquer more
territory but in 1280 is deserted by his nobles on an
expedition and captured by the Turkomans. Joannes
III succeeds. He is invited by a party in Constantinople,
disgusted at Michael VIII’s union with the Latin church,
to place himself at the head of the orthodox Christians
and of the Greek Empire; but Joannes fears to do this.
1281 Michael sends George Acropolita, the historian, on a
mission to Joannes to induce him to lay aside title of
emperor of the Romans or accept matrimonial alliance
with his family. It is unsuccessful. An insurrection at
Trebizond deprives Joannes of his power, but he soon
recovers it.
1282 Joannes agrees to marry Michael’s daughter Eudocia.
The ceremony is performed at Constantinople, and
Joannes gives up title “emperor of the Romans,” taking
that of “emperor of all the East, Iberia, and Peratea.”
David of Iberia makes an unsuccessful attack on
Trebizond. George released by Turkomans, but fails in
an attempt to regain throne.
1285 Joannes’ sister, Theodora, assembles an army and
mounts throne, but Joannes soon recovers it and drives
her from it. Pope Nicholas IV invites Joannes to assist in
crusade to recover Ptolemais, but affairs at home
prevent his doing so.
1297 Death of Joannes. His son Alexius II succeeds at age
of fifteen. He soon frees himself from his guardian,
Andronicus II of Constantinople.
1302 Alexius repels a Turkoman invasion in a great battle
near Kerasunt.
1310 After many trade disputes with the Genoese
establishments on the Black Sea, Genoa demands a
favourable treaty with Alexius, which he refuses. The
enraged Genoese burn a portion of Trebizond, but fear
of the Venetians compels them to agree to trading on
the old terms.
1314 Sinopian pirates set fire to Trebizond and much
damage is done.
1330 Death of Alexius. His eldest son, Andronicus III,
succeeds. A period of anarchy and civil war begins.
Andronicus supposed to have put two brothers to death.
Another brother and an uncle flee to Constantinople.
1332 Death of Andronicus. Accession of his young son,
Manuel II, with everyone in power attempting to gain
the direction of affairs. Taking advantage of the
condition of affairs the Turkomans invade the empire,
which is in great danger, and Basil, the fugitive son of
Alexius II, is invited to become emperor. Manuel
deposed. Basil proves a profligate monarch, and marries
his mistress in spite of the fact that he has a wife. The
power becomes decentralised.
1340 Death of Basil. His lawful wife, Irene Palæologina,
daughter of the Byzantine emperor, is placed on the
throne by her adherents. Civil war breaks out.
1341 Anna Anachoulu, daughter of Alexius II, is placed by
the Comnenian party on the throne. Irene deposed.
Michael, second son of Joannes II, claims throne. He is
imprisoned, but a party forms around his son, Joannes.
1342 Joannes III gains throne from Anna. She is strangled.
1344 Disgusted with Joannes’ conduct the young nobles
release his father, Michael, from prison and make him
emperor. Michael confines Joannes in a monastery, and
 afterwards sends him to Hadrianopolis. He tries to
improve the condition of affairs and decrease the power
of the nobles, but is not strong enough for the task.
1347 The Great Plague (Black Death) rages in Trebizond.
The Turkomans ravage the empire up to the walls of the
capital.
1348 Turks capture Kerasunt. Genoese men of war attack
Trebizond. The Greeks massacre the Franks for revenge.
1349 Michael makes peace with Genoese, ceding them
fortress of Leontokastron. Civil riots break out. Michael
dethroned and Alexius III, son of Basil, and his
mistress, Irene of Trebizond, are brought from
Constantinople to occupy the throne. The rebellions of
the aristocracy continue.
1355 The rebels headed by the grand duke Nicetas appear
with a fleet before Trebizond. Alexius drives them off.
He begins to consolidate his power, but the Turkomans
gradually seize territory from the empire until there is
only a narrow strip of sea-coast left.
1380 Alexius quarrels with Megollo Lescari, a Genoese
merchant, who fits out galleys to ravage the Black Sea.
Alexius submits and confirms trade privileges of the
Genoese.
1390 Death of Alexius. His son Manuel III succeeds.
1400 Manuel sends troops to the army of Timur, but does
not himself take part in the battle of Angora (1402).
1405 After Timur’s death Manuel delivers empire from
tribute to the Mongols.
1417 Death of Manuel. His son Alexius IV succeeds. After
the retreat of the Mongols the empire is overrun by the
two great Turkoman hordes of the Black and White
Sheep. Kara Yusuf, chief of the Black Horde, compels
Alexis to send a daughter to marry his son, and exacts
tribute.
1420 Death of Kara Yusuf—the emperor ceases to pay
tribute to the Black Horde.
1426 Rebellion of Alexius’ son Calo-Joannes, who has been
raised to imperial dignity. The nobles rescue the
emperor. Alexius confers rights of heir apparent and
imperial dignity on his second son Alexander, who dies
soon afterwards.
1442 First attack of Ottoman Turks on Trebizond is repulsed.
1446 Second rebellion of Calo-Joannes. He murders Alexius
and succeeds as Joannes IV. He is hated for his
crimes.
1449 The sheikh of Ertebil fails in an attempt to capture
Trebizond. Joannes forms plan to expel Ottomans from
Asia Minor and Muhammed II forced to invade the
 empire. Joannes compelled to become vassal of
Muhammed and pay tribute.
1458 Death of Joannes as he is forming a great league
against the Ottomans. A four-year-old son is set aside in
favour of his brother David who continues Joannes’
work on the league.
1461 Siege and capture of Trebizond by Muhammed II. End
of the empire of Trebizond. David retires to Mavronaros
which he receives in exchange for his empire, and a few
years later is put to death at Constantinople for refusing
to join the Moslem faith.

THE KINGDOM OF SALONICA (1204-1222 a.d.)

1204 In the division of the Byzantine Empire among the

crusaders, Boniface, marquis of Montferrat,
commander-in-chief, receives a feudatory kingdom in
Asia, but not liking to be so far from his Italian domains,
he exchanges it for the province of Macedonia with
Thessalonica for his capital. He calls it the kingdom of
Salonica. He also believes himself entitled to Crete, and
exchanges it with the Venetians for portions of Thessaly.
Boniface would like to maintain an independent realm,
but Baldwin I of Romania promptly compels him to do
homage.
1204-1207 Boniface defeats attempts of the Greeks to
recover his kingdom. He marches into the Peloponnesus
and lays siege to Corinth and Argos, but is recalled by a
rebellion in Thessalonica.
1207 Death of Boniface in a skirmish with the Bulgarians.
Demetrius his son two years old succeeds with the
queen, Margaret, as regent.
The kingdom is protected against the prince of Epirus and
the king of Bulgaria by the Romanian emperor, until
after the death of Pierre de Courtenai.
1222 While Demetrius is still completing his education in
Italy, Theodore, prince of Epirus, conquers the kingdom
and is crowned emperor of Thessalonica. Demetrius
makes unsuccessful attempts to recover his kingdom.
The title is held by the descendants of Demetrius until
William marquis of Montferrat cedes it to the Byzantine
emperor in 1284.
1266 Baldwin II, then titular emperor of Romania, granted
the kingdom of Salonica to the house of Burgundy,
where it remained until Eudes IV sold it to Philip of
Tarentum, titular emperor of Romania in 1320.

THE DESPOTAT OF EPIRUS AND EMPIRE OF THESSALONICA

(1204-1469 a.d.)
1204 After the conquest of Constantinople, Michael I, a
natural son of Constantine Angelus and uncle of Isaac II
and Alexius III, escapes into Epirus, marries a native
lady, and establishes a government in the territory west
of the Pindus Mountains. His capital is at Joannina. It is
a typical Byzantine state, totally different from the
Frankish feudatory governments. Michael and his
descendants all take name of Angelus Comnenus Ducas.
He is an able military leader, and extends his principality
over all Epirus, Acarnania, Ætolia, and a part of
Macedonia and Thessaly. He is virtually independent,
but acknowledges Theodore Lascaris I as the lawful
emperor of the East.
1214 Assassination of Michael by one of his slaves. His
brother Theodore succeeds, having sworn fidelity to
the throne of Nicæa. He at once begins to extend his
dominions.
1217 Theodore captures the Latin emperor, Pierre de
Courtenai, who is on his way to Constantinople.
1222 Theodore drives the Lombards out of Salonica, and is
crowned emperor of Thessalonica.

The Empire of Thessalonica

1224 Theodore takes Hadrianopolis. His empire now extends

from the Adriatic to the Black Sea. He plans attack on
Constantinople, but becomes involved in war with John
Asan of Bulgaria.
1230 John Asan takes Theodore prisoner and puts out his
eyes. Theodore’s brother Manuel assumes imperial
title.
1232 John Asan marries Theodore’s daughter and releases
him. Theodore returns to Thessalonica and forms party
strong enough to drive Manuel out. Theodore’s
blindness prevents him from reigning, so his son
Joannes takes the title. Manuel escapes to Nicæa and
returns with aid from Joannes Vatatzes, but Theodore
persuades him and his brother Constantine to aid in
defending the empire against Nicæa.
1234 Vatatzes takes Thessalonica. Joannes compelled to
give up imperial dignity and assume rank of despot.

The Despotat of Epirus

1244 Demetrius succeeds his brother Joannes.

1246 Joannes Vatatzes, owing to disputes, drives Demetrius
from office and unites Thessalonica to the Greek
Empire. A natural son of Michael I, Michael is, however,
in possession of a portion of the despotat and the blind
Theodore of another. Joannes Vatatzes makes Michael
 II despot under promise of absolute fidelity, but
Theodore, 1251-1255 by his intrigues, involves Michael
in war with Vatatzes.
1255 Michael delivers up Theodore and makes peace with
Vatatzes. Michael is expelled from his dominions, but
recovers the southern portion and rules there.
1267 Death of Michael. Nicephorus, his son, receives title
and marries daughter of Theodore Lascaris II. He
extends his territory in Acarnania and Ætolia.
1290 Nicephorus attacked by Andronicus II and the
Genoese, but he repels them with help of the prince of
Achaia and the count of Cephalonia.
1293 Death of Nicephorus. His son Thomas succeeds.
1318 Murder of Thomas by his nephew, Thomas II, the
count of Cephalonia, who is murdered by his wife
Anne, who is guardian of her son, Nicephorus II, twelve
years old, when in 1337 Andronicus III invades the
country. Anne turns the despotat over to him.
Nicephorus killed, 1358, in a battle with the Albanians
while attempting to recover the despotat.

The Wallachian Princes of Thessaly

1259 Joannes Ducas I, natural son of the despot Michael

II, marries daughter of the Wallachian chief in Thessaly.
He founds an independent government, fighting with or
against Epirus or Constantinople, as suits his interests.
1290 Succeeded by his son, name not known.
1300 Joannes Ducas (II) succeeds under guardianship of
Guy II, duke of Athens, his cousin.
1308 On death of Joannes, his possessions are divided
among the frontier states.

The Servian Despots of Epirus

1367 Thomas Prelubos recognised by Stephen Dushan as

prince of Joannina or Arta.
1385 Assassination of Prelubos on account of his cruelties.
His widow marries Esau Buondelmonte, who wars
with the Albanians until captured in 1399.

The Tocco Family in Epirus (Despotat of Romania)

1400 Charles Tocco, grandson of Leonardo Tocco, who was

invested with Cephalonia by Robert of Tarentum, titular
emperor of Romania, invades Epirus about 1390, and
finally conquers enough territory to declare himself
despot of Romania.
1429 Charles II succeeds his uncle.
1431 The Turks capture Joannina and Ætolia.
1433 Charles becomes a citizen of Venice in order to obtain
the protection of that republic.
1452 Leonard succeeds his father.
1469 The Turks drive Leonard from the throne.

THE DUCHY OF ATHENS (1205-1456 a.d.)

The House of de la Roche

Between the kingdom of Salonica and the

Peloponnesus lie several feudal states apportioned
among the crusaders. Of these the duchy of Athens is
the most important.
1205 Otto de la Roche, a Burgundian noble, takes
possession of Athens. He is master of all Attica and
Bœotia, but does homage to Boniface of Salonica.
1207 On death of Boniface Thebes is taken from Otto and
added to Salonica, but is returned later by Henry of
Romania.
1225 Otto prefers to return to his fief in France and resigns
in favour of his nephew, Guy I.
1264 John succeeds his father. He assists Joannes Ducas
against the Byzantine army and forms a close alliance
with him later on. John captured in the battle of Oreus
by the forces of Michael VIII and is released without
payment of ransom.
1275 John succeeded by his brother, William I.
1280 William assumes the government of Achaia during
minority of Isabella Villehardouin.
1290 Death of William. His son, Guy II, succeeds.
1293 Guy is invited to administer the dominions of the
despot of Wallachia, his ward. Anna, widow of
Nicephorus of Epirus, prepares to attack him, but
withdraws through fear.
1304 Guy on his marriage to Maud of Hainault receives a fief
in the Morea, but claims the whole principality of
Achaia.
1308 Death of Guy before he can force his claim. His cousin,
Walter de Brienne, succeeds.

The House of Brienne

The despots of Epirus and Wallachia threaten

invasion. Walter makes alliance with Catalan Grand
Company for defence and 1310 Walter defeats his
enemies, but the Catalans refuse to quit the land.
1311 The Catalans defeat Walter at the battle of Cephisus.
The Frankish power falls in northern Greece; the house
of Brienne still holds fiefs in Nauplia and Argos.

The Catalan Grand Company

Roger Deslau appointed duke of Athens. His dominions are

extended north and west.

The House of Aragon, Duke of Athens and Neopatras

1326 On death of Roger, Manfred, son of Frederick II of

Sicily, is invested with the duchy, which becomes an
appanage of the house of Aragon.
1330 William, Manfred’s brother, succeeds.
1331 The son of Walter de Brienne makes unsuccessful
attempt to regain duchy.
1338 John, brother of William and Manfred, succeeds.
1348 Frederick, marquis of Randazzo, son of John,
succeeds. He never visits Athens.
1355 Frederick III, king of Sicily, succeeds the marquis of
Randazzo.
1377 Maria, daughter of Frederick III, succeeds to the
duchy.
1386 Conquest of Athens by Nerio Acciajuoli, governor of
Corinth, in a war concerning the countess of Salona and
her heritage.

The House of Acciajuoli

1394 Nerio I confirmed in the duchy by King Ladislaus of

Naples. Nerio taken prisoner by Navarrese troops and
purchases his liberty. Death of Nerio; his natural son,
Antonio, succeeds. Bajazet recognises his authority.
Athens enjoys a tranquil rule of forty years.
1435 Nerio II, grand-nephew of Nerio I, succeeds on death
of Antonio. The administration comes into hands of his
brother, Antonio, while Nerio is in western Europe.
1443 Nerio pays tribute to the despot of Morea.
1450 Nerio joins forces with Muhammed II and becomes
Ottoman vassal.
1453 Infant son of Nerio succeeds on his father’s death with
his mother as regent.
1455 Muhammed orders duchy conferred on Franco,
nephew of Nerio II.
1456 Muhammed finding the Athenians disgusted with
Franco annexes duchy to the Ottoman Empire.
There are other feudal states north of the isthmus of
Corinth, ruled by the lords of Budonitza, Salona, and
Negropont, but details of their history are lacking. Like
Athens they are finally merged in the Ottoman Empire.

THE PRINCIPALITY OF ACHAIA (1205-1460 a.d.)

1205-1208 Guillaume de Champlitte, receiving territory in

the Peloponnesus as his share of the Byzantine Empire,
is joined by Geoffrey Villehardouin, nephew of the
chronicler, and conquering about half the peninsula
within three years organises a strong feudal
government. Geoffrey is his most important feudal
vassal, and receives the fief of Kalamata.
1210 Guillaume returns to France leaving his relative Hugh in
charge, but the latter dying, Geoffrey is elected in his
place. Geoffrey possesses himself of the principality.
He strengthens it in every possible way.
1218 Geoffrey II succeeds his father.
1219-1222 Serious quarrel of Geoffrey with the pope. The
ban of excommunication is finally removed.
1246 Death of Geoffrey. His brother Guillaume
Villehardouin succeeds. He proposes to complete
conquest of Peloponnesus.
1247 Conquest of Nauplia with help of Venetians of Modon.
1248 Conquest of Monemvasia. Before the end of the year
the entire Peloponnesus is under Frankish domination.
1259 Guillaume assists his father-in-law Michael II of Epirus
in his war against Michael VIII of Constantinople. Battle
of Pelagonia, and capture of Guillaume, by Michael VIII.
1261 Guillaume released by ceding Monemvasia, Misithra,
and Maina, three strong cities, to Michael VIII.
Pope Urban IV releases Guillaume from promise not to wage
war on Michael. Warfare results in the Morea.
1263 Urban IV mediates between Michael and Guillaume.
1267 The principality becomes a dependency of the kingdom
of Naples, having been that of the Romanian emperors.
1277 Death of Guillaume. His daughter Isabella succeeds.
1278 Death of Isabella’s husband Philip of Anjou.
Guillaume de la Roche, duke of Athens, governs for
ten years.
1291 Isabella marries Florenz of Hainault.
1297 Death of Florenz and end of last prosperous period of
the principality. The suzerainty of Achaia has been
transferred to Philip of Tarentum.
1301 Isabella marries Philip of Savoy.
1304 Isabella and Philip leave Greece in consequence of
disputes with their vassals and with Philip of Tarentum.
1311 Death of Isabella in Italy. Her daughter Maud of
Hainault, widow of Guy II of Athens, succeeds.
1313 Maud marries Louis of Burgundy.
1315 Maud and Louis leave for Greece. Ferdinand of Majorca
claims principality and sets out to take it.
1316 Death of Ferdinand in battle with Louis.
1317 Death of Louis. The house of Anjou try to marry Maud
to Count John of Gravina, but finds she has already
married Hugh de la Pallisse. King of Naples declares this
marriage null, and Maud is compelled to go through
ceremony with John. She is then imprisoned and dies
about 1324. Philip of Tarentum takes title of prince.
1332 Robert, titular emperor of Romania, succeeds his
father Philip as prince, while his mother Catherine of
Valois becomes suzerain. John of Gravina still disputes
the principality. The Achæan barons fail in attempt to
transfer their fealty to Constantinople and to Don Jayme
II of Majorca.
1346 At death of Catherine de Valois, Robert becomes
suzerain of Achaia as well as prince.
1364 Death of Robert, leaving principality to his widow Mary
of Bourbon, the suzerainty devolving on Philip III titular
emperor of Romania. Mary establishes herself in Greece,
but is unable to hold the position.
1373 James de Baux becomes suzerain.
1387 Mary retires to Italy. She is last sovereign to rule over
the whole of the principality. Achaia falls into a state of
anarchy. The country is ravaged by the Seljuk and
Ottoman Turks; the strategi and despots of the
Palæologus family established by the emperor of
Constantinople in the Morean territory that was the
price of William Villehardouin’s ransom, gradually
reconquer the Peloponnesus from the French feudal
lords. About 1425, Murad II sets about ruining the
Byzantine possessions in the Peloponnesus. After this
the Ottoman power in the land steadily increases. In
1458 Muhammed II visits the Peloponnesus, and it is
finally conquered by him in 1460, except some cities still
in the hands of the Venetians. For world-historic
interest, perhaps the most important feature of the
feudal states in Greece is thus stated by Finlay: “The
Franks ruled the greater part of the Peloponnesus for
two centuries, and the feudal system which they
introduced was maintained in full vigour for sufficient
time to admit of its effects on civilised communities
living under the simpler system of personal rights,
traced out in the Roman law, being fully developed. The
result was that the Franks were demoralised, the Greeks
impoverished, and Greece ruined.”

THE VENETIAN ACQUISITIONS (1207-1566 a.d.)

In the partition of the Byzantine Empire, the republic

of Venice receives about three-eighths of the whole
empire of Romania; but her resources not being
adequate to conquer this amount of territory, she makes
no effort to take a considerable portion of her share. We
have seen how a portion of Thessaly was exchanged
with Boniface of Montferrat, and a considerable amount
of land falls into the hands of the other adventurers.
Venice pursues the policy, allowing her barons
personally to conquer certain territories, on condition
that they be held as fiefs of the republic. Thus the
Dandolo and Viaro families take Gallipoli and the island
of Andros; the Ghisi seize Tinos, Scyros, Mycone, and
other islands. Ceos falls to the Justiniani and Michicle,
Lemnos to the Navigajosa, Astypalia to the Quirini. The
twelve islands of the Archipelago forming the Byzantine
theme of the Ægean Sea are taken by Mark Sanduno.
He invades Naxos about 1207. The Sanduno and Della
Carceri rule the islands, vassals of Romania and Venice
—uneventful rules in which a fierce Seljuk invasion of
Naxos in 1330 is perhaps the most important event—
until 1381 when through conspiracy the Crispo family
seizes the duchy. In the treaty between Muhammed II
and Venice after the capture of Constantinople, the
dukes of the Archipelago act as subjects of Venice.
When the republic and the Ottoman Empire engage in
hostilities, the duke of the Archipelago is compelled to
become a vassal of the Sublime Porte, 1537. In 1566,
on complaint of the Greek residents, the sultan Selim II
seizes the duchy and adds it to his empire, and the last
fief of the Romanian Empire is extinguished.
 CHAPTER I
THE REIGN OF ARCADIUS
[395-408 a.d.]

The Emperor Theodosius I died in Mediolanum on the 17th of

January, 395, after a long illness. A few months before this he had
defeated at Frigidus, in the pass of the Julian Alps, Eugenius, the
second pretender to lay claim to the throne during his reign. The
pious monarch met his death in a different manner from his young
co-rulers, Gratian and Valentinian II, but as had many of his
predecessors. No murderous steel of mercenary aspirants put an end
to his life, but surrounded by faithful friends and followers, and
attended by the venerable Bishop Ambrose, his great soul departed
from a body long worn out with trouble and anxiety and the many
struggles of an almost incessant war. He was not old when he died,
for having been born in 346 he had not yet reached the age of fifty,
and so, according to the prospect of longevity, it had been thought
that he would have a much longer reign.
There had never been a more prosperous time for the Roman
world than just then; for, after the defeat of Eugenius, the whole of
the Roman Empire had once more passed under the undivided
control of one man. Theodosius with his two-sided policy—openly to
welcome the Germans pressing into his country, if they agreed to
keep peace and friendship, or strongly to oppose their hostile
advances—would have been well able to withstand the overcrowding
of the west by the tribes persecuted by the Huns for many years
longer; but the death of so powerful an enemy, who was greatly
feared even by the barbarians, was the signal for an internal rising
as well as for an external revolt.
In the midst of all this trouble and distress the ruler now died,
leaving the kingdom to his two sons Arcadius and Honorius, the
former but a youth, the latter a child of eleven years. With regard to
the dividing of the empire, that was all settled, at least as far as
Arcadius was concerned, for it was certainly not on his death-bed
that the careful Theodosius had first considered the matter. The
eastern half, formerly ruled by the father, was left to Arcadius as the
elder son; whilst before the murder of Valentinian II a part of the
Occident was probably intended to be divided between him
(Valentinian) and Honorius.

A COMPARISON OF THE TWO EMPIRES

The Western Empire consisted of Britain as

[395 a.d.] far as the frontier wall of Hadrian, of Gaul, of
Germany up to the limes transrhenanus, of
Spain, of Italy, of the western part of the province of Illyricum which
embraced Noricum, Pannonia, and Dalmatia, and of which the
boundary stretched southeastwards from the mouth of the Scodra
(Scutari) over the Bosnian Mountains, along the Drinus (Drina) to
the Savus (Save), and of the entire north coast of Africa from the
Atlantic Ocean to the Barca plain. The eastern half bequeathed to
Arcadius included the Balkan peninsula, bound on the north by the
Danube, Asia Minor, the Tauric peninsula (Crimea), Syria, Palestine,
Egypt, Lower Libya, and the Pentapolis.
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